Introduction to SQL

Creating and Modifying

Database Objects

Database Objects

An Oracle database consists of multiple

user accounts
Each user account owns database

objects

Tables
Views
Stored programs
Etc.
2

Database Queries
Query: command to perform
operation on database object
Create

Read
Update
Delete

Structured Query Language (SQL)

Standard query language for

relational databases

SQL example
select id_type,substr(idno,1,4),count(*) from(
select a.polno,b.idno,substr(b.idno,1,4),b.id_type
from pol_info a,client_info b
where a.applicant=b.CLIENTNO
and a.undwrt_date>=to_date('20021202','yyyymmdd)
and substr(b.idno,1,4)<>'6501
union
select a.polno,b.idno,substr(b.idno,1,4),b.id_type
from h_pol_info a,client_info b
where a.applicant=b.CLIENTNO
and a.undwrt_date>=to_date('20021202','yyyymmdd)
and substr(b.idno,1,4)<>'6501)
)
group by id_type,substr(idno,1,4)
order by id_type,substr(idno,1,4)

SQL Command Types

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Used to create and modify the structure of

database objects
Used to insert, update, delete, and view
database data

Data Control Language (DCL)

Transaction Control Language (TCL)
5

Data Definition Language (DDL)

statements are used to define the database structure or

schema. Some examples:
CREATE - to create objects in the database
ALTER - alters the structure of the database
DROP - delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all
spaces allocated for the records are removed
COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
RENAME - rename an object

Data Manipulation Language(DML)

statements are used for managing data within schema objects.
Some examples:
SELECT - retrieve data from the a database
INSERT - insert data into a table
UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the
records remain
MERGE - insert or update
CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data
LOCK TABLE - control concurrency
7

Data Control Language (DCL)

statements. Some examples:

GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with
the GRANT command

Transaction Control (TCL)

statements are used to manage the changes made by DML

statements. It allows statements to be grouped together
into logical transactions.
COMMIT - save work done
SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which
you can later roll back
ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last
COMMIT
SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like
isolation level and what rollback segment to use

User Accounts

Each Oracle database user has a user

schema

Area in the database where the users

database objects are stored
Identified by a unique username and
protected by a password

Each user schema is granted specific

privileges
10

Types of Database Privileges

System Privileges

Control the operations that the user can perform

within the database

Connecting to the database, creating new tables,

shutting down the database, etc.

Object Privileges

Granted on individual database objects

Controls operations that a user can perform on a
specific object (insert data, delete data, etc.)
When you create an object in your user schema,
you can then grant object privileges on that object
to other database users

11

Oracle Naming Standard

Oracle database objects must adhere to

the Oracle Naming Standard

1 to 30 characters long
Must begin with a character
Can contain characters, numbers, and the
symbols $, _, and #

12

Creating New User Accounts

Done by DBA
Syntax:

CREATE username IDENTIFIED BY

password;
Example:

Create User alice IDENTIFIED BY

Password1;

13

Example Oracle System

Privileges
Privilege

Level Purpose

CREATE SESSION

User

Connecting to database

CREATE TABLE

User

Creating tables in current user schema

DROP TABLE

User

Dropping tables in current user

schema

UNLIMITED TABLESPACE

User

Allows user to create schema objects

using as much space as needed

CREATE USER

DBA

Creating new users

GRANT ANY PRIVILEGE

DBA

Granting system privileges to users

CREATE ANY TABLE

DBA

Creating tables in any user schema

DROP ANY TABLE

DBA

Dropping tables in any user schema

14

Granting System Privileges

Done by DBA
Syntax:
GRANT privilege1, privilege2, TO username;

Example:

GRANT CREATE SESSION,CREATE TABLE

TO alice

15

Database Roles

Role is a database object that can be

assigned system privileges
Role is then assigned to a user, and the
user inherits the roles privileges
Used to easily assign groups of related
privileges to users

16

Creating Roles
Syntax:
CREATE ROLE role_name;
Example:

CREATE ROLE STUDENT;

17

Assigning Privileges to a Role

Syntax:

GRANT privilege1, privilege2,

TO role_name;
Example:

GRANT CREATE TABLE To student;

18

Assigning a Role to a User

Syntax:
GRANT role_name TO user_name;

Example:
GRANT student to alice;

19

Revoking System Privileges

Syntax:

REVOKE privilege1, privilege2,

FROM username;
Example:
REVOKE CREATE TABLE FROM alice;

20

Administering System Privileges

To be able to grant system privileges to

other users, a user account must have
been granted the privilege WITH
ADMIN OPTION
GRANT CREATE TABLE TO alice
WITH ADMIN OPTION

21

Defining Database Tables

To create a table, you must
specify:
Table name
Field names
Field data types

Field sizes
Constraints
22

Table and Field Names

Must follow the Oracle Naming
Standard
Each table in a user schema must
have a unique name within that
user schema
Each field in a table must have a
unique name within that table
23

Oracle Data Types

Data type: specifies type of data
stored in a field
Date, character, number, etc.

Uses
Error checking

Efficient use of storage space

24

Oracle Character Data Types

VARCHAR2
Variable-length character strings
Maximum of 4,000 characters
Must specify maximum width
allowed
No trailing blank spaces are added
Example declaration:
student_name VARCHAR2(30)
25

Character Data Types

CHAR

Fixed-length character data

Maximum size 2000 characters
Must specify maximum width allowed
Adds trailing blank spaces to pad width

Example declaration:
student_gender CHAR(1)
26

Character Data Types

NCHAR
Supports 16-digit binary character
codes
Used for alternate alphabets

27

Number Data Type

NUMBER
stores values between 10-130 and 10126

General declaration format:

variable_name NUMBER(precision, scale)

28

NUMBER Data Types

Number type (integer, fixed point,
floating point) specified by
precision and scale
Precision: total number of digits on
either side of the decimal point
Scale: number of digits to right of
decimal point
29

Integer Numbers
Whole number with no digits to
right of decimal point
Precision is maximum width
Scale is omitted
Sample declaration:
s_age NUMBER (2)
30

Fixed Point Numbers

Contain a specific number of
decimal places
Precision is maximum width
Scale is number of decimal places
Sample declaration:
item_price NUMBER(5, 2)
31

Floating Point Numbers

Contain a variable number of
decimal places
Precision and scale are omitted
Sample declaration:
s_GPA NUMBER

32

Date Date Type

DATE
Stores dates from 1/1/4712 BC to
12/31/4712 AD
Stores both a date and time component

Default date format:

DD-MON-YY HH:MI:SS AM
example: 05-JUN-03 12:00:00 AM

Sample declaration:
s_dob DATE
33

Specifying Date and Time

Values
If no time value is given when a
new date is inserted, default value
is 12:00:00 AM
If no date value is given when a
new time is inserted, default date
is first day of current month

34

Large Object (LOB) Data

Types

Binary Large Object (BLOB)

Character Large Object (CLOB)

Stores up to 4 GB of character data

BFILE

Stores up to 4 GB of binary data

Stores a reference to a binary file maintained in

the operating system

NCLOB

Character LOB that supports 16-bit character code

35

Declaring LOB Data Fields

Item size is not specified

Examples:
item_image BLOB
item_image BFILE

36

Creating a Database Table

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
( fieldname1 datatype,
fieldname2 datatype, );

Example:
CREATE TABLE my_students
( s_id NUMBER(6),
s_name VARCHAR2(30),
s_dob DATE,
s_class CHAR(2));
37

Constraints

Rules that restrict the values that can

be inserted into a field
Types of constraints

Integrity: define primary and foreign keys

Value: specify values or ranges of values
that can be inserted

38

Constraint Levels

Table constraint

Restricts the value of a field with respect to

all other table records
Example: primary key value must be
unique for each record

Column constraint

Restricts values in a specific column

Example: values in an S_GENDER field
must be M or F
39

Constraint Names
Internal name used by DBMS to identify the
constraint
Each constraint name in a user schema
must be unique
If you do not name a constraint, the system
will automatically generate an unintuitive
name
40

Constraint Names
Constraint naming convention:
tablename_fieldname_constraintID

Constraint ID values:

Primary key: pk
Foreign key: fk
Check condition: cc
Not NULL: nn
Unique: uk

Example constraint name:

my_students_s_id_pk
41

Primary Key Constraints

Table-level
Defining a primary key:
CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY

Example:
s_id NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT student_s_id_pk PRIMARY KEY

42

Primary Key Constraints

Can be defined when field is declared
CREATE TABLE my_students
(s_id NUMBER(6) CONSTRAINT my_students_s_id
PRIMARY KEY,
s_name VARCHAR2(20),
s_dob DATE,
s_class CHAR(2)
);
43

Primary Key Constraints

Can also be defined after all table field
definitions are completed
CREATE TABLE my_students
(s_id NUMBER(6),
s_name VARCHAR2(20),
s_dob DATE,
s_class CHAR(2),
CONSTRAINT my_students_s_id PRIMARY KEY(s_id)
);
44

Composite Primary Keys

Syntax:
CONSTRAINT constraint_name
PRIMARY KEY (field1, field2)

Must be defined after fields that compose

key are defined
CREATE TABLE enrollment
(s_id number(6),
course_id number(6),
grade number,
CONSTRAINT enrollment_s_id_course_id_pk
PRIMARY KEY(s_id,course_id)

45

Foreign Key Constraints

Table-level
Can only be defined after field is defined as a
primary key in another table
Syntax:
CONSTRAINT constraint_name
REFERENCES primary_key_table_name
(field_name)

46

Foreign Key Constraints

Can be defined when field is declared

47

Foreign Key Constraints

Can also be defined after all table field
definitions are completed

48

Foreign Key

49

Value Constraints
Column-level
Restricts data values that can be inserted
in a field
In general, avoid value constraints
because they make the database very
inflexible

50

Types of Value Constraints

Check condition: restricts to specific values
Example: s_gender (M or F)
CONSTRAINT my_students_s_gender_cc
CHECK (s_gender = M) OR (s_gender = F)

Not NULL: specifies that a field cannot be

NULL
Example:
CONSTRAINT my_students_s_dob_nn
NOT NULL
51

Types of Value Constraints

Default: specifies a default value that is inserted
automatically
Example:
s_state CHAR(2) DEFAULT WI

Unique
Table constraint
Specifies that a non-primary key field must have a
unique value
CONSTRAINT consultant_c_email_uk UNIQUE (c_email)
52

Viewing Table Information

Viewing a tables structure
DESCRIBE table_name;

53

Oracle Data Dictionary

Contains tables that describe the database

structure

Is automatically updated as users create and

modify tables

Is in the SYSTEM user schema

Cannot be updated directly

Contains views that allow users to retrieve

information about the database structure
54

Data Dictionary Views

Views present data in different formats

depending on the privileges of the user

USER: shows all objects belonging to the

current user
ALL: shows all objects belonging to the
current user, as well as objects current
user has privileges to manipulate
DBA: allows users with DBA privileges to
view objects of all database users
55

Querying the Data Dictionary

Views

Syntax:

SELECT field1, field2,

FROM privilege_viewname;

56

Summary of Oracle
Data Dictionary Views
OBJECTS

All database objects

TABLES

Database tables

INDEXES

Table indexes created to improve query

performance

VIEWS

Database views

SEQUENCES

Sequences created to automatically

generate surrogate key values

USERS

Database users

CONSTRAINTS

Table constraints

CONS_CONSTRAINTS

Table columns that have constraints

IND_COLUMNS

Indexed columns

TAB_COLUMNS

All table columns

57

Modifying Tables
Unrestricted actions

Renaming tables
Adding new columns
Increasing column sizes
Dropping columns
Dropping constraints

58

Modifying Tables
Restricted actions
Dropping tables
Only allowed if table does not contain any fields that
are referenced as foreign keys, or if foreign key
constraints are dropped

Changing a columns data specification

Only allowed if existing data is compatible with new
data specification

Decreasing column sizes

Only allowed if column does not contain any data

Adding constraints
Only allowed if existing data meets requirements of
new constraint

59

Renaming Tables

ALTER TABLE table1 RENAME TO

table2;

60

Altering Tables

Adding a new field:

ALTER TABLE tablename

ADD (fieldname field_specification);

61

Altering Tables

Modifying an existing field:

ALTER TABLE tablename

MODIFY (fieldname new_field_specification);

62

Altering Tables

Deleting an existing field:

ALTER TABLE tablename

DROP COLUMN fieldname;

63

Altering Tables
Renaming a field
ALTER TABLE tablename RENAME
COLUMN field1 TO field2;

SQL> alter table student rename column dob to

birthdate;
Table altered.
64

Deleting Tables

Syntax to delete table if no table fields

are referenced as foreign keys:

DROP TABLE tablename;

Syntax to delete table and constraints if

table contains fields that are referenced
as foreign keys:
DROP TABLE tablename CASCADE CONSTRAINTS;
65