Introduction to Structured Query
Language (SQL)
Presented to NAM
18-Feb-2016
By Kuldeep Singh
Core Database Engine
ORACLE RDBMS (Oracle Universal server)
Integrated Data Dictionary: manage tables owned by all users
in a system
SQL: language to access and manipulate data
PL/SQL: a procedural extension to SQL language
SQL*PLUS
Command line tool that process users SQL statements
Requires Oracle account
DDL
Data Definition
DML
Data Manipulation
DCL
Data Control
SQL
Structured Query Language (SQL)
Data Definition Language (DDL) Used to create
(define) data structures such as tables, indexes,
clusters
Data Manipulation Language (DML) is used to store,
retrieve and update data from tables
Data Control Language used to control the access
to the database objects created using DDL and DML
Introduction to SQL
Introduction to SQL (continued)
Introduction to SQL (continued)
DCL: Data Control Language
Controlling Access to database
objects such as tables and views
Example : Granting Mary the access to Table
student (for inserting, updating and deleting)
GRANT INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON Student TO
Mary
GRANT <privileges> ON <object name>
TO <grantee> [ <comma> <grantee> ... ]
[ WITH GRANT OPTION ]
WITH GRANT OPTION: allows the grantee to
further grant privileges
Can be limited to a column of a table, Ex:
GRANT UPDATE(name) ON Student TO Mary
To revoke privileges : REVOKE
The Database Model
Creating the Database
Following two tasks must be completed:
Create database structure
Create tables that will hold end-user data
First task:
RDBMS creates physical files that will hold
database
Tends to differ substantially from one RDBMS to
another
The Database Schema
Authentication
Process through which DBMS verifies that only registered
users are able to access database
Log on to RDBMS using user ID and password created by
database administrator
Schema
Group of database objectssuch as tables and indexes
that are related to each other
Data Types
Data type selection is usually dictated by
nature of data and by intended use
Pay close attention to expected use of
attributes for sorting and data retrieval
purposes
Data Types (continued)
Primary key
CREATE TABLE order_header (
order_number NUMBER(10,0) NOT NULL,
order_date DATE,
sales_person VARCHAR(25),
bill_to VARCHAR(35),
bill_to_address VARCHAR(45),
bill_to_city VARCHAR(20),
bill_to_state VARCHAR(2),
bill_to_zip VARCHAR(10),
PRIMARY KEY (order_number) );
Foreign key
CREATE TABLE order_items (
order_number NUMBER(10,0) NOT NULL,
line_item NUMBER(4,0) NOT NULL,
part_number VARCHAR(12) NOT NULL,
quantity NUMBER(4,0),
PRIMARY KEY (order_number, line_item),
FORIEGN KEY (order_number)
REFERENCES order_header (order_number);
Specifying Constraints on
Columns and Tables
Constraints on attributes:
NOT NULL - Attribute may not take a
NULL value
DEFAULT - Store a given default
value i
PRIMARY KEY - Indicate which
attribute(s) form the primary key
FOREIGN KEY - Indicate which
attribute(s) form a foreign key.
UNIQUE - Indicates which
attribute(s) must have unique
values.
Creating Table Structures
Use one line per column (attribute) definition
Use spaces to line up attribute characteristics
and constraints
Table and attribute names are capitalized
NOT NULL specification
UNIQUE specification
Creating Table Structures
(continued)
Primary key attributes contain both a NOT
NULL and a UNIQUE specification
RDBMS will automatically enforce referential
integrity for foreign keys
Command sequence ends with semicolon
Removing Schema Components
with DROP
DROP TABLE table_name
DROP TABLE table_name CASCADE
DROP TABLE table_name RESTRICT
DROP INDEX index_name
DROP CONSTRAINT
table_name.constraint_name
Changing Table Components with
ALTER
Changing Attributes:
ALTER TABLE student MODIFY last_name
VARCHAR(35);
alter table student modify gpa
NUMBER(6,3) default 0.0;
Adding Attributes:
ALTER TABLE student ADD admission
DATE;
Removing Attributes (not widely implemented):
ALTER TABLE student DROP column
home_phone
SQL Indexes
When primary key is declared, DBMS
automatically creates unique index
Often need additional indexes
Using CREATE INDEX command, SQL
indexes can be created on basis of
any selected attribute
Composite index
Index based on two or more attributes
Often used to prevent data duplication
Data Manipulation Commands
Adding table rows
Saving table changes
Listing table rows
Updating table rows
Restoring table contents
Deleting table rows
Inserting table rows with a select subquery
Adding Table Rows
INSERT
Used to enter data into table
Syntax:
INSERT INTO columnname
VALUES (value1, value2, , valuen);
Adding Table Rows (continued)
When entering values, notice that:
Row contents are entered between
parentheses
Character and date values are entered
between apostrophes
Numerical entries are not enclosed in
apostrophes
Attribute entries are separated by commas
A value is required for each column
Use NULL for unknown values
Saving Table Changes
Changes made to table contents are not
physically saved on disk until, one of the
following occurs:
Database is closed
Program is closed
COMMIT command is used
Syntax:
COMMIT [WORK];
Will permanently save any changes made
to any table in the database
Listing Table Rows
SELECT
Used to list contents of table
Syntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablename;
Columnlist represents one or more attributes, separated
by commas
Asterisk can be used as wildcard character to list all
attributes
Updating Table Rows
UPDATE
Modify data in a table
Syntax:
UPDATE tablename
SET columnname = expression [, columname =
expression]
[WHERE conditionlist];
If more than one attribute is to be updated in
row, separate corrections with commas
Restoring Table Contents
ROLLBACK
Used to restore database to its previous
condition
Only applicable if COMMIT command has not
been used to permanently store changes in
database
Syntax:
ROLLBACK;
COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with
data manipulation commands that are
used to add, modify, or delete table rows
Deleting Table Rows
DELETE
Deletes a table row
Syntax:
DELETE FROM tablename
[WHERE conditionlist ];
WHERE condition is optional
If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows
from specified table will be deleted
Inserting Table Rows with a
Select Subquery
INSERT
Inserts multiple rows from another table (source)
Uses SELECT subquery
Query that is embedded (or nested) inside another query
Executed first
Syntax:
INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnlist FROM tablename;
Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions
Select partial table contents by placing
restrictions on rows to be included in output
Add conditional restrictions to SELECT
statement, using WHERE clause
Syntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[ WHERE conditionlist ] ;
Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions (continued)
Arithmetic Operators:
The Rule of Precedence
Perform operations within parentheses
Perform power operations
Perform multiplications and divisions
Perform additions and subtractions
Arithmetic Operators:
The Rule of Precedence (continued)
Special Operators
BETWEEN
IS NULL
Used to check whether attribute value is within
a range
Used to check whether attribute value is null
LIKE
Used to check whether attribute value matches
given string pattern
Special Operators (continued)
IN
Used to check whether attribute value matches
any value within a value list
EXISTS
Used to check if subquery returns any rows
Advanced Data Definition
Commands
All changes in table structure are made by
using ALTER command
Followed by keyword that produces specific
change
Following three options are available:
ADD
MODIFY
DROP
Changing a Columns Data Type
ALTER can be used to change data type
Some RDBMSs (such as Oracle) do not permit
changes to data types unless column to be
changed is empty
Changing a Columns Data
Characteristics
Use ALTER to change data characteristics
If column to be changed already contains data,
changes in columns characteristics are
permitted if those changes do not alter the
data type
Adding a Column
Use ALTER to add column
Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new
column
ADVANCED DATA UPDATES
Adding Primary and Foreign
Key Designations
When table is copied, integrity rules do not
copy, so primary and foreign keys need to be
manually defined on new table
User ALTER TABLE command
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD
PRIMARY KEY(fieldname);
For foreign key, use FOREIGN KEY in place of
PRIMARY KEY
Advanced Select Queries
SQL provides useful functions that can:
Count
Find minimum and maximum values
Calculate averages
SQL allows user to limit queries to only those
entries having no duplicates or entries whose
duplicates may be grouped
Aggregate Functions
Virtual Tables: Creating a View
View is virtual table based on SELECT query
Can contain columns, computed columns,
aliases, and aggregate functions from one or
more tables
Base tables are tables on which view is based
Create view by using CREATE VIEW command
Virtual Tables: Creating a View
(continued)
Joining Database Tables
Ability to combine (join) tables on common
attributes is most important distinction
between relational database and other
databases
Join is performed when data are retrieved from
more than one table at a time
Join is generally composed of an equality
comparison between foreign key and primary
key of related tables
Obtaining Data from Multiple Tables
EMPLOYEES
DEPARTMENTS
What is the Join
Use a join to query data from more than one table
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
table1.column, table2.column
table1, table2
table1.column1=table2.column2
Write the join condition in the WHERE clause
Prefix the column name with the table name when
the same column name appears in more than one
table
Types of Joins
Joins that are compliant with the SQL include the
following:
Cross joins
Equijoin
Natural joins
USING clause
Self join
Non-equijoin
Outer join
Joining Tables Using SQL
CROSS JOIN (operator )
SELECT
table1.column, table2.column
FROM
table1
[CROSS JOIN table2]
NATURAL JOIN(retrieve data from two tables by the
same column)
SELECT
table1.column, table2.column
FROM
table1
[NATURAL JOIN table2]
Join with USING clasue(if they have multiple
column
have the same name)
SELECT
table1.column, table2.column
FROM
table1
[JOIN table2 USING (column_name)]
JOIN WITH ON CLASUE(IF WE NEED A
CONDITION,LIKE WHERE CLAUSE)
SELECT
table1.column, table2.column
FROM
table1
[JOIN table2
ON (table1.column_name = table2.column_name)]
Outer join
SELECT
table1.column, table2.column
FROM
table1
[LEFT|RIGHT|FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON (table1.column_name = table2.column_name)]
Generating a Cartesian
Product
EMPLOYEES (20 rows)
Cartesian product:
20 x 8 = 160 rows
DEPARTMENTS (8 rows)
Creating Cross Joins
The CROSS JOIN clause produces the cross-product of
two tables.
This is also called a Cartesian product between the two
tables.
SELECT last_name, department_name
FROM
employees
CROSS JOIN departments ;
Retrieving Record with Equijoin
Employees Department
EMPLOYEES
Foreign key
DEPARTMENTS
Primary key
Using Equijoin
Write SQL statement to do this: Employees Department
Select *
From employees ,departments
Where employees.department_id=departments.department_id
Creating Natural Joins
The NATURAL JOIN clause is based on all columns in the
two tables that have the same name.
It selects rows from the two tables that have equal
values in all matched columns.
If the columns having the same names have different
data types, an error is returned.
Natural join is special case of Equijoin
Natural join removes duplicate attributes
Retrieving Records with Natural
Joins
SELECT department_id, department_name,
location_id, city
FROM
departments
NATURAL JOIN locations ;
Creating Joins with the USING Clause
If several columns have the same names but the data
types do not match, the NATURAL JOIN clause can be
modified with the USING clause to specify the columns
that should be used for an equijoin.
Use the USING clause to match only one column when
more than one column matches.
Retrieving Records with the USING
Clause
SELECT employees.employee_id, employees.last_name,
departments.location_id, department_id
FROM
employees JOIN departments
USING (department_id) ;
Using Table Aliases
Use table aliases to simplify queries.
Use table aliases to improve performance.
SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name,
d.location_id, department_id
FROM
employees e JOIN departments d
USING (department_id) ;
Creating Joins with the ON Clause
The join condition for the natural join is basically an
equijoin of all columns with the same name.
Use the ON clause to specify arbitrary conditions or
specify columns to join.
The join condition is separated from other search
conditions.
The ON clause makes code easy to understand.
Retrieving Records with the ON
Clause
SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name, e.department_id,
d.department_id, d.location_id
FROM
employees e JOIN departments d
ON
(e.department_id = d.department_id);
Self-Joins Using the ON Clause
EMPLOYEES (WORKER)
EMPLOYEES (MANAGER)
MANAGER_ID in the WORKER table is equal to
EMPLOYEE_ID in the MANAGER table.
Self-Joins Using the ON Clause
SELECT e.last_name emp, m.last_name mgr
FROM
employees e JOIN employees m
ON
(e.manager_id = m.employee_id);
Joining More than two table
Employees
Departments
Locations
Joining More than two table
select first_name,department_name,city
from employees JOIN departments using(department_id)
JOIN locations using(location_id)
OR:
select first_name,department_name,city
from employees
JOIN departments ON(employees.department_id=departments.department_id)
JOIN locations
ON(departments.location_id=locations.location_id)
OR:
select first_name,department_name,city
from employees E,departments D,locations L
where E.department_id=D.department_id
and D.location_id=L.location_id
Applying Additional Conditions
to a Join
SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name, e.department_id,
d.department_id, d.location_id
FROM
employees e JOIN departments d
ON
(e.department_id = d.department_id)
AND
e.manager_id = 149 ;
NON-EQUIJOINS
EMPLOYEES
JOB_GRADES
Salary in the EMPLOYEES
table must be between
lowest salary and highest
salary in the JOB_GRADES
table.
Retrieving Records with Non-Equijoins
SELECT e.last_name, e.salary, j.grade_level
FROM
employees e JOIN job_grades j
ON
e.salary
BETWEEN j.lowest_sal AND j.highest_sal;
Summary
SQL commands can be divided into two overall
categories:
Data definition language commands
Data manipulation language commands
The ANSI standard data types are supported by
all RDBMS vendors in different ways
Basic data definition commands allow you to
create tables, indexes, and views
71
Summary (continued)
DML commands allow you to add,
modify, and delete rows from tables
The basic DML commands are
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE,
COMMIT, and ROLLBACK
INSERT command is used to add new
rows to tables
SELECT statement is main data
retrieval command in SQL
72
Summary (continued)
Many SQL constraints can be used with columns
The column list represents one or more column
names separated by commas
WHERE clause can be used with SELECT, UPDATE,
and DELETE statements to restrict rows affected by
the DDL command
Natural join uses join condition to match only rows
with equal values in specified columns
Right outer join and left outer join used to select
rows that have no matching values in other related
table
73
Thank You
