3.

1 Density
Density is a derived property of matter that tells us how much "stuff" is packed into
a given space.

Definition:
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.
Formula:
Density (ρ) = Mass (m) / Volume (V) Or, ρ=m/V

● Mass (m)
: This is the amount of matter in an object. It's usually measured in kilograms
(kg) or grams (g).
● Volume (V): This is the amount of space an object occupies. It's usually
measured in cubic meters (m3) or cubic centimeters (cm3).
● Density (ρ): The unit for density will depend on the units used for mass and
volume. Common units are kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) or grams per
cubic centimeter (g/cm3).

Understanding Density:

Imagine you have a kilogram of feathers and a kilogram of rocks. They both have
the same mass (1 kg). However, the feathers take up a lot more space than the
rocks. This means the feathers are less dense than the rocks.

● High Density: A substance with high density has a lot of mass packed into a
small volume. (e.g., lead, iron)
● Low Density: A substance with low density has less mass spread out over a
larger volume. (e.g., wood, air)

How to Measure Density:

1. Measure the Mass: Use a balance (like a digital balance) to find the mass of the
object.
2. Measure the Volume:
○ For Regular Shapes (cubes, cuboids, cylinders): Measure the dimensions
(length, width, height, radius) and use the appropriate mathematical
 formula to calculate the volume.
○ For Irregular Shapes (like a stone): Use the water displacement method
(also known as the Eureka can method or displacement can).
■ Fill an overflow can with water until it's just about to overflow from the
spout.
■ Place a measuring cylinder under the spout.
■ Carefully lower the irregular object into the water. The water that
overflows into the measuring cylinder will be equal to the volume of the
object.
3. Calculate Density: Divide the measured mass by the measured volume using
the formulaρ=m/V
.

Examples and Applications:

● Floating and Sinking: An object will float in a fluid if it is less dense than the
fluid, and it will sink if it is more dense. This is why a wooden block floats in
water, but a stone sinks. (The density of water is approximately1g/cm3
or1000kg/m3).
● Hot Air Balloons: Hot air is less dense than cold air, causing the balloon to rise.
● Ships: Although ships are made of steel (which is denser than water), their
overall density (including the air inside the hull) is less than water, allowing
them to float.
● Separation: Density is used in many separation techniques, such as separating
cream from milk (cream is less dense), or separating different components in
recycling.

3.2 Heat & Temperature

These two terms are often used interchangeably in everyday language, but in
physics, they have distinct meanings.

Temperature:
Definition:
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles (atoms or
molecules) within a substance.
Understanding Temperature:

● Think of the particles in any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) as constantly

moving and vibrating.
● Higher Temperature: Means the particles are moving or vibrating faster, on
average, and thus have higher average kinetic energy.
● Lower Temperature: Means the particles are moving or vibrating slower, on
average, and thus have lower average kinetic energy.

Measurement:
Temperature is measured using a thermometer. Common scales include:
● Celsius (∘C): Water freezes at0∘C and boils at100∘C
.
● Fahrenheit (∘F): Water freezes at32∘F
and boils at212∘F
.
● Kelvin (K): This is the absolute temperature scale. Absolute zero (0 K) is the
theoretical point where all particle motion stops.0∘C
is equivalent to273.15K. (You'll delve more into Kelvin in higher grades).

Heat:

Definition:
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a
region of lower temperature.
Understanding Heat:

● Heat is not something an object "contains." It's energy in transit.

● When you heat a pan on a stove, you are transferring thermal energy from the
stove to the pan.
● When you touch a hot object, heat flows from the object to your hand because
the object has a higher temperature.
● When you touch a cold object, heat flows from your hand to the object because
 your hand has a higher temperature.

Units of Heat:
Heat, being a form of energy, is measured in:
● Joules (J): The SI unit of energy.
● Calories (cal): Often used in nutrition, 1 calorie is the amount of energy needed
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by1∘C. (1 cal≈4.184 J).

How Heat is Transferred:Heat can be transferred in three main ways:

1. Conduction:
○ Definition: Transfer of heat through direct contact, primarily in solids.
○ How it works: Particles at the hotter end vibrate more vigorously and collide
with neighboring particles, transferring kinetic energy along the material.
○ Examples: A metal spoon in hot soup gets hot; walking barefoot on hot
asphalt. Metals are good conductors due to free electrons. Non-metals,
liquids, and gases are generally poor conductors (insulators).
2. Convection:
○ Definition: Transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or
gases).
○ How it works: When a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises.
Cooler, denser fluid sinks to take its place, creating a convection current.
○ Examples: Boiling water in a pot (hot water rises, cool water sinks); a room
§heating up from a radiator; wind and weather patterns.
3. Radiation:
○ Definition: Transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves (like infrared
radiation).
○ How it works: Does not require a medium (can travel through a vacuum). All
objects emit and absorb thermal radiation. Hotter objects emit more
radiation.
○ Examples: Heat from the Sun reaching Earth; heat from a campfire; the
warmth you feel from a hot stove without touching it. Dark, dull surfaces are
 good absorbers and emitters of radiation, while shiny, light surfaces are
poor absorbers and emitters (good reflectors).

3.3 Conversation of Energy

This is one of the most fundamental principles in physics!

The Law of Conservation of Energy (or Principle of Conservation of Energy):

Statement:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transferred from one form to
another, or from one place to another. The total amount of energy in a closed
system remains constant.
Understanding the Law:

● "Energy cannot be created or destroyed": This means you can't just magically
make energy appear or disappear. If you do work, it's because energy has been
supplied from somewhere else. If something slows down, its kinetic energy isn't
gone; it's been converted into other forms (like heat due to friction).
● "Transferred from one form to another": Energy exists in many different forms:
○ Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy of motion. (e.g., a moving car, a thrown ball)
○ Potential Energy (PE): Stored energy due to position or state.
■ Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE): Stored energy due to height. (e.g.,
a book on a shelf, water behind a dam)
■ Elastic Potential Energy (EPE): Stored energy in stretched or compressed
objects. (e.g., a stretched rubber band, a compressed spring)
■ Chemical Potential Energy: Stored energy in the bonds of molecules.
(e.g., food, fuel, batteries)
○ Thermal Energy (Heat): Energy associated with the random motion of
particles.
○ Light Energy: Energy carried by electromagnetic waves.
○ Sound Energy: Energy carried by vibrations.
○ Electrical Energy: Energy associated with the flow of electric charge.
 ○ Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of atoms.
● "Or from one place to another": Energy can move from one object to another or
from one location to another. (e.g., electrical energy flowing through wires, heat
conducted along a metal rod).
● "Total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant": A "closed
system" is an isolated system where no energy or matter can enter or leave. In
reality, perfectly closed systems are rare, but the principle helps us analyze
energy transformations.

Examples of Energy Transformations (and Conservation):

1. A Ball Falling:
○ When you hold a ball high up, it has maximum gravitational potential
energy (GPE) and zero kinetic energy.
○ As you drop it, GPE is converted into kinetic energy (KE).
○ Just before it hits the ground, it has maximum KE and minimum GPE.
○ When it hits the ground, the KE is converted into sound energy (the thud)
and thermal energy (a tiny bit of heat generated on impact and by air
resistance). The total energy before, during, and after the fall remains the
same, just in different forms.
2. A Switched-On Lamp:
○ Electrical energy from the mains is converted into light energy and thermal
energy.
○ Notice that not all the electrical energy becomes light; a significant portion
becomes heat, which is why lamps get warm. This is an example of energy
being "wasted" (not serving its intended purpose) but not destroyed.
3. A Car Moving:
○ Chemical potential energy (in the fuel) is converted into thermal energy (by
combustion in the engine).
○ This thermal energy is then converted into kinetic energy (to move the car)
and sound energy (engine noise, exhaust) and thermal energy (heat
radiated from the engine, heat due to friction in moving parts and tires).
4. A Hydroelectric Power Plant:
○ Gravitational potential energy of water stored in a dam.
○ Water flows down, converting GPE into kinetic energy.
 ○ The moving water turns turbines, converting KE into mechanical energy.
○ The turbines drive generators, converting mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
○ This electrical energy is then transmitted to homes and industries.

Implications of Conservation of Energy:

● No Free Lunch: You can't get energy out of nothing. To do work or get energy,
you must put energy in.
● Efficiency: In real-world systems, energy transformations are rarely 100%
efficient at converting energy into the desired form. Some energy is always
converted into less useful forms, usually thermal energy (heat) due to friction or
resistance. This is why machines get warm when they operate.
● Perpetual Motion Machines are Impossible: Machines that could run forever
without any energy input are impossible because of the law of conservation of
energy and the inevitable loss of useful energy (usually as heat) to the
surroundings.