Chap2:

Measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity to be measured with a unit of measurement.

Precision: refers to the closeness of the set of values obtained from identical
measurements of a quantity.
Accuracy: refers to the closeness of a single measurement to its true value
Precision and Accuracy: precision and accuracy are both achieved when results are
close to each other and to the desired value.

Significant figures: To indicate the precision of a measured number (or result of calculations on
measured numbers) -> Significant figures:
Are those digits in a measured number (or result of a calculation with measured numbers) that
include
+ all certain digits plus
+ a final digit having some uncertainty.
The number of significant figures in a measurement depends on the measuring device • Normally to
one tenth of a smallest unit
An exact number is a number that arises when you count items or sometimes when you define a unit
(e.g., 1.0 cow?)

SI Units
CHAP 3:
What is matter?
Chemistry is the study of the properties, composition, and structure of matter, the changes it
undergoes, and the energy liberated or absorbed during those changes. Matter is anything that has
mass and occupies space

States of matter – Solids

The particles in a solid are:
- tightly packed close together (high density)
- fixed in position (can vibrate only)
 retains a fixed volume and shape
 not easily compressible
 does not flow easily
States of matter – Solids: Classification
Particles arranged in an orderly geometric pattern – we call these crystalline solids
(e.g., salt and diamonds)
Particles randomly distributed without any long-range pattern – we call these
amorphous solids (e.g., plastic, glass and charcoal)
States of matter – Liquids
The particles in a liquid
- are closely packed (medium density)
- have some ability to move around and slide over each other
 retains a fixed volume
 takes the shape of the container
 not easily compressible
 flows easily

States of matter States of matter – Gases

The particles in the gas phase
 - have complete freedom from each other
- are constantly flying around, bumping into each other and the container
- There is a lot of empty space between the particles (on average)
 assumes the shape and volume of its container
 Is compressible
 flows easily
States of matter States of matter – Plasma

Atoms and Molecules

Atoms
- The smallest particle that an element can be subdivided into and retain the chemical
properties of that element
Molecules
- A bonded collection of two or more atoms of the same or different elements.
- The smallest particle of a compound having the properties of a compound.
Compound
- A subtance with constant composition that can be broken down into elements by chemical
processes

Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand the behavior of matter by studying the behavior
of atoms and molecules
Composition of Matter

Physical properties/changes
Physical properties are the characteristics of matter that can be changed without changing its
composition
- characteristics that are directly observable
Changes that alter the state or appearance of the matter without altering the composition
- State changes
 boiling / condensing
 melting / freezing
 Subliming
- Dissolving
The boiling of water: the water molecules are separated from each other, but their structure and
composition do not change.
Chemical properties/changes
Chemical properties are the characteristics that determine how the composition of matter changes as
a result of contact with other matter or the influence of energy
- characteristics that describe the behavior of matter
- composition change of the matter: the atoms that are present rearrange into new molecules,
but all of the original atoms are still present
Chemistry = Matter and its changes
Two important characteristics about matter and change.
- Mass is conserved.
- Energy is required to affect change
Law of Conservation of Mass
- Antoine Lavoisier
- “Matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction”
- The total amount of matter present before a chemical reaction is always the same as the
total amount after.
+ There are things that do not have mass and volume
 A category of such things is called energy.
+ Energy is anything that has the capacity to do work or generate heat.
+ Although chemistry is the study of matter, matter is effected by energy.
 It can cause physical and/or chemical changes in matter.
Law of Conservation of Energy
- “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.”
- The total amount of energy in the universe is constant. There is no process that can increase
or decrease that amount.
- However, we can transfer energy from one place in the universe to another, and we can
change its form.
The combined amount of matter and energy in the universe is constant
E: energy
m: mass
c: speed of light (~3x108m/s)
Types of Energy – Potential
Potential energy is energy that is stored by virtue of position above ground (≡ reference point)
- Water flows because gravity pulls it downstream.
- However, the dam won’t allow it to move, so it has to store that energy.
- Potential energy (due to gravity) = m*g*h
g: gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2
Chemical potential energy: energy is due to chemical interaction (bonding: nuclei-nuclei, nuclei-
electrons, electronselectrons)
Types of Energy – Kinetic
Kinetic energy is energy of motion, or energy that is being transferred from one object to another.
- When the water flows over the dam, some of its potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy of motion.
- Kinetic energy = ½*m*v2
 + m: mass
+ v: velocity
Units of Energy
Calorie (cal) is the amount of energy needed to raise one gram of water by 1°C.
- kcal = energy needed to raise 1000 g of water 1°C.
Energy Conversion Factors
- 1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules (J)
- 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.60 x 106 joules (J)
Temperature & measurement
- Temperature = a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles that make up the
system.

See/feel: temperature vs. not see/feel: atom/molecule movement

- Thermometer = device for the measurement of temperature.
Temperature Scales
Energy and Change - Exothermic Processes
- When a change results in the release of energy it is called an exothermic process.
- An exothermic chemical reaction occurs when the reactants have more chemical potential
energy than the products.
- The excess energy is released into the surrounding materials, adding energy to them.
o Often the surrounding materials get hotter from the energy released by the reaction.

An exothermic reaction

Endothermic processes
- When a change requires the absorption of energy it is called an endothermic process.
- An endothermic chemical reaction occurs when the products have more chemical potential
energy than the reactants.
- The required energy is absorbed from the surrounding materials, taking energy from them.
o Often the surrounding materials get colder due to the energy being removed by the
reaction.
An endothermic reaction
Heat Gain or Loss by an Object
The amount of heat energy gained or lost by an object depends on 3 factors:
- how much material there is
- what the material is
- how much the temperature changed.
Amount of Heat = (Mass)x(Specific Heat Capacity)x(Temperature Change)

Heat capacity is the amount of heat a specific substance must absorb to raise its temperature by 1
°C.
- cal/°C or J/°C.
- Metals have low heat capacities; insulators have high heat capacities.
Specific heat (capacity) = heat capacity of 1 gram of the substance.
- cal/g°C or J/g°C.
- Water’s specific heat = 4.184 J/g°C for liquid. • Or 1.000 cal/g°C. • It is less for ice and
steam
Specific Heat Capacity
- Specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by 1 °C.
- The larger a material’s specific heat is, the more energy it takes to raise its temperature a
given amount.
- Like density, specific heat is a property of the type of matter.
 It doesn’t matter how much material you have.
 It can be used to identify the type of matter.
Specific Heat Capacities for Common Substances subtances
Water’s high specific heat is the reason it is such a good cooling agent.
- It absorbs a lot of heat for a relatively small mass
CHAP 4: ATOMS, MOLECULES & IONS
The scientific method - a systematic approach to research
A hypothesis - a tentative explanation for a set of observations.
A law - a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relationship between
phenomena that is always the same under the same conditions.
A theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and /or those laws
that are based on them.
General steps in the scientific method

Laws of Matter (1)

Law of Conservation of Mass (Antoine Lavoisier 1743–1794)

“The total mass of substances does not change during a chemical reaction”
Laws of Matter (2)

Law of Definite Composition (Joseph Proust 1754–1826)

“No matter what its source, a particular compound is composed of the same elements in the same
parts (fractions) by mass”
Oxides of Carbon: carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
Law of Multiple Proportions (John Dalton 1766-1844)
“When two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element in these
compounds for a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers”
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Dalton proposed an atomic theory to explain these three laws, including these concepts:
- Each element is composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms (an extremely small
particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions)
- All atoms of a given element have the same mass and other properties that distinguish them
from atoms of other elements.
- Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form molecules of compounds.
- Atoms of one element cannot change into atoms of another element.
o In a chemical reaction, they simply rearrange the way they are attached

Stoichiometry (hệ số tỷ lượng)

Stoichiometry reflects an atomistic view - molecules are composed of units called atoms.
Two quantitative relationships essential to chemistry
- Molecular stoichiometry: quantitative relationship among the atoms that constitute a
molecule Ex: H2O, H2SO4
- Reaction stoichiometry: quantitative relationship among the molecules involved in a
chemical reaction Ex: 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Reaction: transformation of one or more molecules into a different set of molecules. A physical
reaction involves a change in physical state with no change in molecular identity
The discovery of the electron (1)
Further experiments revealed that the atom itself was composed of even smaller, more fundamental
particles
Cathode Rays (J. J. Thomson (1856-1940))
- Cathod ray consists of negatively-charged particles, called electrons.
- Charge-to-mass ratio of the electron can be determined.
The discovery of the electron (2)
Millikan’s Oil Drop (Robert Millikan (1868-1953))
The charge of the electron was always of a whole
number multiple of - 1.60x10-19 C
The discovery of the electron (3)
Cathode Rays & Millikan’s Oil Drop
- Electrons are particles found in all atoms.
- The electron has a charge of −1.60×10-19 C.
- The electron has a mass of 9.1×10−28 g
The discovery of nucleus (1)

The discovery of nucleus (2)

The discovery of nucleus (3)
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment (1871-1937)
 Nuclear theory of atom
- The atom contains a tiny dense center called the nucleus
- The nucleus has essentially the entire mass of the atom
- The nucleus is positively charged (protons)
- The electrons are dispersed in the empty space of the atom surrounding the nucleus
James Chadwick (1891-1974) discovered the neutrons, uncharged dense particles that also reside in
the nucleus
Atoms

Model of an atom – Electron Cloud Model

The Electron Cloud Model (also known as the orbital model):

It is impossible to know both the position and momentum of an electron with certainty. Instead, the
electron cloud model utilizes orbitals of consecutively higher energy levels that offer a prediction of
where an electron may be.
Electron cloud of an atom
An electron cloud contains electrons which
- have a negative charge
- are contained within shells of the electron cloud
- orbit the nucleus of the atom
- have a very small mass compared to protons and neutrons
- determine bonding properties of substance
Popular atoms Popular atoms

Nucleus of an atom

Summary of Subatomic Particles

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

 - The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the atom's nucleus
o All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number, and each element
has a different atomic number from that of any other element.
- The mass number (A) is the number of protons and neutrons
- All the atoms of a given element have the same atomic number
- The atomic mass (atomic weight) of an element is the weighted average mass in atomic
mass units (amu) of an element’s naturally occurring isotopes
Chemical symbols

Isotopes (1)

Isotopes – alternative forms of an atom that differ in their number of neutrons

- Isotopes of an element have different masses
- Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers
- All isotopes of an element are chemically identical
Abundance = relative amount found in a sample
Isotopes (2)
Isotopes (3)

Principal Elements in the Human Body

Structure of Atoms
The outermost electron shell is referred to as the valence shell
Quantum numbers Quantum numbers of electrons in atoms

Electron Spin

Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers.
If one electron in an atom has the quantum numbers n =1, l =0, ml =0, and ms=+1/2, no other
electron can have these same quantum numbers.

Impossible to find:
Quantum numbers
Electron configuration of Na (Z=11)

(Ground-State) Electron configurations (1)

• is the distribution of electrons into its energy levels and sublevels
• determines the behavior of the element

Electron configurations (2)

Electron configurations (3)

Electron configurations (4)

Building-up Principle (Aufbau principle) ≡ Trick
Hund’s rule
- The lowest-energy arrangement of electrons in a subshell is
obtained by putting electrons into separate orbitals of the subshell
with the same spin before pairing electrons.
More exceptions occur among the heavier transition elements, where the
outer subshells are very close together
Rules about Electrons Electron configurations (5) – Main-group elements
Rules about Electrons
1. First energy shell can contain a maximum of 2 electrons
2. All other shells can contain a maximum of 8 electrons (there
are exceptions => where?)
An atom is most stable when the valence shell contains a full 8 electrons ≡ OCTET RULE
- Electrons determine chemical reactivity.
- Atoms are reactive unless they have a full valence shell of electrons!
Excited-state electron configurations
The configuration that corresponds to the lowest electronic energy is called the ground state.
Any other configuration is an excited state
Chemical Formulas
The subscript number to the right of the symbol of an element tells the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of the compound.
≡ Molecular stoichiometry:
quantitative relationship among the atoms that constitute a molecule
Types of Chemical Formulas (1)
- Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio that represents the composition of the
substance. Often for solid representation.
Ex: CH3 for ethane (C2H6), NaCl for table salt (NaCl)n
- Molecular formula: exact number of atoms of each element in a compound. Ex: C2H6 for
ethane (C2H6)
Types of Chemical Formulas (2)
Structural formula: how the atoms are linked together but does not contain the 3-D information
Ex: ethane (C2H6)
A condensed structural formula: CH3CH3
Line formula: represent bonds as lines; carbon atoms occupy positions at the junctions between
lines, and hydrogen atoms are not shown explicitly
Ex: propane (C3H8)
Standard Types of Formulas and Models

Communicating Molecular Structures

Compounds
It is the electrons of the atoms of interacting elements that are involved in compound formation.
- Atoms form bonds to fill the outer shell with electrons.
Compounds - when atoms of different elements bond, a compound is formed
- Molecular (covalent) compounds - Sharing electrons between atoms of different elements
 nonmetal atoms (e.g., HCl, H2O…)
- Ionic compounds -Transferring electrons from the atoms of one element to those of another
 Usually between metals and nonmetals (e.g., NaCl)
Periodic Table
In 1871, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published the most successful of these organizing
schemes in the form of a table that listed the elements by increasing atomic mass, arranged so that
elements with similar chemical properties fell in the same column.
The modern periodic table of the elements, based on Mendeleev's earlier version (but arranged by
atomic number, not mass), is one of the great classifying schemes in science and has become an
indispensable tool to chemists.
Earliest periodic table

Periodic Table

Molecular (Covalent) Compounds

 - Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only
nonmetals.
- Bonding type: covalent
- Physical state depends on intermolecular forces
Names and Formulas of Molecular Compounds
Order of Elements in the Formula
The nonmetal or metalloid occurring first in the following sequence is written first in the formula of
the compound.

1. The name of the compound usually has the elements in the order given in the formula
2. You name the first element using the exact element name.
3. You name the second element by writing the stem name of the element with the suffix -ide
4. You add a prefix, derived from the Greek, to each element name to denote the subscript of the
element in the formula. Generally, the prefix mono- is not used, unless it is needed to distinguish
two compounds of the same two elements.
1. The name of the compound usually has the elements in the order given in the formula 2. You
name the first element using the exact element name. 3. You name the second element by writing
the stem name of the element with the suffix -ide 4. You add a prefix, derived from the Greek, to
each element name to denote the subscript of the element in the formula. Generally, the prefix
mono- is not used, unless it is needed to distinguish two compounds of the same two elements.

Ionic compounds - Charged atoms

Ions
When atoms gain or lose electrons, they acquire a charge
- When atoms lose electrons (e.g., metal) , they become positively charged ions, called cations
(Na+,K+, … )
- When atoms gain electrons (e.g., nonmetal), they become negatively charged ions, called
anions
- Monoatomic ions: from single atom (Cl- , F- , … )
- Polyatomic ions: from two or more atoms ( OH- , PO4 3- , NO3 - , NH4 +…)
Ionic compounds are composed of ions
- Ionic compounds are neutral (possessing no net charge)
Ionic compounds

Monoatomic Ions
- Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of the periodic chart.
- Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right side of the periodic chart

Polyatomic Ions
Strength of the Ionic Bonding
The strength of the ionic bonding depends to a great extent on the net strength of these attractions
and repulsions and is described by Coulomb 's law:
- the energy of attraction (or repulsion) between two particles is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the distance between them.

Ions can have important biological functions

Organic compounds (versus inorganic)

An important class of molecular substances that contain carbon combined with other elements, such
as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
- Organic compounds make up the majority of all known compounds. (60%of the recorded
substances)
- Organic compounds were found in both living and nonliving materials
 proteins, amino acids, enzymes, and DNA that make up your body are all either
individual organic molecules or contain organic molecules
 table sugar, peanut oil, antibiotic medicines, and methanol, etc.
Organic compounds
The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are those compounds containing
only hydrogen and carbon.
• Ex: methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), acetylene (C2H2), and benzene (C6H6).
The chemistry of organic molecules is often determined by groups of atoms in the molecule that
have characteristic chemical properties.
A functional group is a reactive portion of a molecule that undergoes predictable reactions
CHAP 5: Periodicity

Periodic Table
VSEPR