Materials

AIM
To study the different parts of a simple (dissecting) microscope.

THEORY
The human eye cannot distinguish objects smaller than 0.1 mm. Hence,
we cannot observe cells, tissues, and minute organisms through naked
eyes. Before the invention of microscope, biologists used lenses that could
magnify minute objects only up to some extent. Subsequently scientists
started using combination of lenses that led to the invention of microscope.
Microscopes are instruments designed to produce magnified visuals of
smaller objects.
The simple microscope, also known as dissecting microscope, has a
single lens system through which the image of an object is seen. The simple
microscope is infact a magnifying lens mounted on a metallic frame in
such a way that lens can be mechanically moved up and down or sideways
to get a magnified view of the object under observation. Its principle is not
different from an ordinary lens used by a watch repairer.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A simple (dissecting) microscope, permanent slides of plant (or animal)
materials, parts of plants (or small insects), a slide, forceps, and a needle.
 Laboratory Manual – Science

DESCRIPTION
A simple (dissecting) microscope (Fig. 1.1) consists of the following parts.
1. Base – It is the basal part that is bifurcated and supports the weight
of the microscope. It is generally horse-shoe shaped and is made of
metal.
2. Stand – It is a short, hollow cylindrical rod fixed to the base. Another
small cylindrical rod called vertical limb fits into the stand, at the
other end. The vertical limb can be moved up and down, with the
help of an adjustment knob attached to the upper end of the stand.

Lens
Folding
arm

Vertical limb

Stage Clip

Adjustment
knob

Mirror
Stand

Base

Fig. 1.1 : A simple (dissecting) microscope

3. Folding arm – To the upper end of vertical limb, a flat horizontal

folding arm is attached. This can move sideways.
4. Stage – It is a rectangular glass plate fitted with a pair of clips on its
upper surface. The clips are used to hold the object or slide on
the stage.
5. Mirror – A movable plano-concave mirror is attached to the stand
below the stage for reflecting light onto the stage.
6. Lens – A simple convex lens (known as eye piece) is mounted on the
folded arm. The magnification of a dissecting microscope depends on
the magnification of the lens which is normally 5X, 10X or 20X.
(‘X’ denotes the number of times a lens magnifies an object).

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PROCEDURE
1. Clean the stage, lens and mirror with a soft and dry cloth or with a
tissue paper.
2. Place a permanent slide or a slide with an object mounted on it on
the stage.
3. Adjust the mirror to get maximum (reflected) light on to the object.
4. Align the microscope lens over the object under observation.
5. Rotate the adjustment knob to bring the object to clear focus.

PRECAUTIONS
• Keep the microscope in its box after use.
• Clean the lens and mirror with a lens cleaning solution. Always wipe
the lens and mirror with a piece of silk cloth.
• Always carry the microscope in an upright position. Use both your
hands to hold it.
• Clean the stage properly before placing the slide.
• Take care to prevent the microscope lens coming in contact with the
slide or an object.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• A dissecting microscope is used to observe whole mounts of small
organisms, parts of plants or animals and for dissecting small
organisms.
• It is important to acquaint the students with the precautions to
be adhered to while handling a microscope before they proceed
for using it.
• It is advised to mount a suitable material on a slide and
demonstrate to students.

QUESTIONS
• What is the magnification of the simple microscope you have used?
• Why is a simple microscope also called a dissecting microscope?
• Which type of mirror is fitted in the simple microscope? What is
its function?

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AIM
To study the different parts of a compound microscope.

THEORY
A compound microscope uses a combination of simple lenses in the objective
and the eye piece. It offers a much higher magnification of an object than
the simple microscope.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A compound microscope and permanent slides.

DESCRIPTION
The compound microscope (Fig. 2.1) consists of the following parts–
1. Base – It is the basal part that is bifurcated and supports the weight
of the microscope. It is made of a metal.
2. Arm – It is curved and supports the body tube, knobs for coarse and
fine adjustments, stage and mirror. It is used for holding the
microscope. The arm is attached to the base by an inclination joint.
3. Body tube – It is a hollow tube attached to the upper end of the arm.
It has the eye piece at the upper end and a circular, movable metallic
ring called nose piece at the lower end. Objective lenses are screwed

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into the grooves present beneath the nose piece. Usually two objective
lenses of 10X (low power) and 40X (high power) magnification
are provided.
4. Stage – It is a rectangular platform attached to the lower end of the
arm. There is a hole at the centre of the stage which allows light from

Eye piece

Revolving nose piece Coarse adjustment

Low power objective knob
lens
High power objective Fine adjustment
lens knob
Stage

Stage clip Arm

Iris diaphragm

Mirror

Stand

Fig. 2.1 : A compound microscope

the mirror to pass through it and to fall on mounted slide. A pair of

clips is provided to hold the slide firmly on the stage.
5. Diaphragm – It is present below the stage and is used for adjusting
the intensity of light.
6. Coarse adjustment knob – It is attached to the arm and it moves the
body tube up and down for focusing the object.
7. Fine adjustment knob – It is attached to the arm and moves the body
tube up and down very slowly. The fine adjustment is very essential
for fine focusing of object, particularly in high power.
8. Mirror – A plano-concave adjustable mirror is fitted below the stage
to reflect light onto the objective.

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PROCEDURE
1. The microscope should be placed safely on the working table with the
arm facing yourself.
2. Clean the eye piece, objectives, and the mirror with a soft and dry silk
cloth.
3. Rotate the nose-piece slowly till it clicks in position to bring the low
power objective in line with the body tube.
4. Adjust the diaphragm for allowing optimum light to pass on to the
stage.
5. Observe through the eye piece. Tilt and turn the mirror towards the
light source and adjust its position till the microscopic field appears
bright.
6. Place the slide on the stage and move it so as to view the object on the
slide.
7. Move the body tube with the help of coarse adjustment knob until
the image of the object is seen. Sharpen the focus with the help of
fine adjustment knob.
8. For viewing the object under high power turn the nose piece to high
power objective after the object is focused under low power. Using the
fine adjustment knob, focus the object.

PRECAUTIONS
• While carrying the microscope, hold its arm with one hand and support
the base with the other [see Fig. 2.2(a)].
• Place the microscope with its arm facing yourself [see Fig. 2.2(b)].
• Do not tilt the microscope, keep it in upright position [see Fig. 2.2(c)].
• Do not use coarse adjustment when viewing through high power
objective [see Fig. 2.2(d)]. The slide may break.
• Use a tissue paper (or clean silk or muslin cloth) for cleaning lenses
and mirror [Fig. 2.2(e)].
• Place the microscope gently on the working table about 15 cm away
from the edge of the table to prevent its accidental fall [Fig. 2.2(f)].
• Do not allow direct sun-rays to strike the mirror. Use plane mirror for
natural day light and concave mirror for artificial light.
• After use, lower the body tube and keep the microscope in its box.

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Do Don’t Do Don’t

(a) (b)

Do Don’t Do Don’t

(c) (d)

Do Don’t Do Don’t

(e) (f)

Fig. 2.2 : Handling of a compound microscope

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NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• It is important to acquaint the students with the precautions
to be followed for handling a microscope before they proceed to
use it.
• Magnification of lenses is often written on the surface of the
objectives and eye pieces. It denotes the number of times the
object is magnified. In a compound microscope, generally an eye
piece is 10X or 15X and an objective is 10X and 40X or 45X. The
magnification (M) of a compound microscope is the product of
magnification of eye piece lens and that of objective lens. For
example, the magnification of a compound microscope with 10X
eye piece and 40X objective is 10 × 40, that is 400.

QUESTIONS
• What will be the magnification of a microscope when 15X eye
piece and 40X objective are used?
• Why is it suggested not to reflect the sunlight directly into the
body tube of the microscope?
• What is the difference between a simple (dissecting) and compound
microscope?
• What is the function of an adjustment knob in a microscope?
• Which of the following part supports the weight of microscope?
(a) arm (b) stage (c) body tube (d) base.
• Name the part of a microscope with which objective lenses are
fitted?
(a) nose piece (b) diaphragm (c) stage (d) arm.
• What holds the slide firmly on the stage of a microscope?
(a) diaphragm (b) clips (c) nose piece (d) objective.
• Which of the following regulates the intensity of illumination in a
compound microscope.
(a) diaphragm (b) body tube (c) stage (d) mirror.

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AIM
To determine the density of a liquid (other than water) by using a spring
balance and a measuring cylinder.

THEORY
The density ( ρ ) of a given substance is the mass of its unit volume. For a
substance of mass M and volume V, the density is given by the ratio:
M
ρ =
V

In this experiment the density of a liquid will be determined by finding

the mass of its known volume.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A spring balance (0 – 500 g), measuring cylinder (100 mL), polythene bag
according to the size of the measuring cylinder, and the given liquid
(kerosene, turpentine oil or any other).

PROCEDURE
1. Find the range and least count of the spring balance and the measuring
cylinder. (Hint: To determine the least count of a spring balance or a

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measuring cylinder, note the value of the physical quantity measured

by it between any of its two adjacent numerically marked divisions.
Dividing this value by the number of smaller divisions between them
gives the least count of the device.)
2. Hold the spring balance vertically and ensure that its pointer is at
zero mark. Place the empty cylinder in a polythene bag and suspend
it from the spring balance as shown in Fig. 3.1. Note the reading, M1
of spring balance.
3. Place the measuring cylinder on a horizontal surface like a table.
Pour the given liquid (whose density is to be determined) in the
measuring cylinder. Note the volume, V, of the liquid (Fig. 3.2).
4. Put the liquid-filled cylinder in the polythene bag and again suspend
it from the spring balance. Note the reading, M2, of the spring balance.

Fig. 3.1 : Measurement of mass of a

measuring cylinder using a Fig. 3.2 : Measurement of volume of
spring balance given liquid

OBSERVATIONS
(i) Range of the spring balance = ______ g
(ii) Least count of the spring balance = ______ g
(iii) Range of the measuring cylinder = ______ mL
(iv) Least count of the measuring cylinder = ______ mL

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(v) Mass (M) of the given liquid:

(i) Mass of the empty cylinder in the polythene bag, M1 = ______ g
(ii) Mass of the liquid-filled cylinder (in the bag) M2 = ______ g
(iii) Mass of the liquid, M (= M2 – M1) = ______ g
(vi) Volume of the given liquid, V = ______ mL

CALCULATIONS
Volume of the given liquid V = ______ mL
Mass of the given liquid M = ______ g
M
Density of the liquid ρ = = ______ g/mL
V
= ______ kg/m3 ( 1kg/m3 = 0.001 g/mL)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The density of the given liquid is ________ kg/m3.
Find the standard value of density of the given liquid and compare it with
the observed result (see Appendix – C).

PRECAUTIONS
• The measuring cylinder must be clean and dry.
• The measuring cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface while
measuring volume of the given liquid.
• While observing the liquid meniscus the line-of-sight should be at the
same horizontal level as that of the lowest meniscus.
• There should be no air bubble in the liquid while measuring its volume.
• The spring balance should be held vertical while taking measurement.
• Before making use of spring balance it must be ensured that its pointer
is at the zero mark.
• The readings of the spring balance should be noted only when its pointer
comes to rest.

SOURCES OF ERROR
• The graduations marked on the measuring cylinder and on spring
balance may not be evenly spaced.
• A spring balance is primarily meant for measuring the weight (force) of
a body. However in laboratories, a spring balance is often used to
measure the mass of a body. It should be remembered that the

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calibration of spring balance scale is done at the place of its manufacture

and depends on the value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at that
place. Therefore, if a spring balance is used to measure mass at any
other place where the value of g is different, an error in the measurement
of mass will appear.

QUESTIONS
• A spring balance calibrated in newton, reads 19.6 N. What
will be its mass in grams at your place?
• You are given two measuring cylinders of least count 1.0
mL and 2.5 mL, respectively. Which one will you prefer to
determine the density more accurately?
• Write two precautions that you will observe while measuring
the volume of a liquid with the help of a measuring cylinder.
• Two bottles of equal volume are filled with glycerine and
water respectively. Which of the bottle will be heavier? Give
reason for your answer.
• Why is the density of water at 80 °C less than its density at
30 ºC?

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AIM
To determine the density of a non-porous solid (insoluble and denser than
water) by using a spring balance and a measuring cylinder.

THEORY
The density ( ρ ) of a given substance is the mass of its unit volume. For a
substance of mass M and volume V, the density is given by the ratio:

M
ρ=
V

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A spring balance (0 – 500 g), measuring cylinder (100 or 200 mL), a piece
of thread, water, and a small piece of experimental solid.

PROCEDURE
1. Find the range and least count of the spring balance and the measuring
cylinder (Explained in Experiment 3).
2. For finding the mass of the given solid, suspend it from the spring
balance with the help of thread (Fig. 4.1). Note the reading of the
spring balance.

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3. Place the measuring cylinder on a horizontal surface like a table-top

and fill it with water, say, up to the half of its range. Note the reading
of the water meniscus as the initial volume.
4. Tie the given solid with a thread and lower it slowly in water in the
measuring cylinder. What happens to the level of water in the cylinder?
Let the solid to immerse completely in the water. Next, note the reading
of water meniscus as the final volume (Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.1 : Measuring of mass of solid Fig. 4.2 : Determination of volume of

using spring balance a non-porous solid

5. Take out the solid from the measuring cylinder. Dry it and repeat the
activity by taking different initial volume of water in the cylinder. In
each case note the initial and final readings of water meniscus.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

(i) Range of spring balance = _____ g
(ii) Least count of the spring balance = _____ g
(iii) Range of the measuring cylinder = _____ mL
(iv) Least count of the measuring cylinder = _____ mL
(v) Mass (M) of the given solid = _____ g
(vi) Volume (V) of the given solid–
Sl. Initial Reading Final Reading Volume of Solid Mean value
No. of water meniscus, V1 water meniscus, V2 V= V2 – V1 of volume of solids

(mL) (mL) (mL) V (mL)

1.
2.
3.
4.

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 Materials

M
Density of the solid ( ρ = ) = _____ g/mL= _____ kg/m3
V
(1 kg/m3 = 0.001g/mL.)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The density (ρ) of the given solid is ______ kg/m3.
Find the standard value of density of the given solid and compare it with the
observed result (see Appendix – B).

PRECAUTIONS
• The measuring cylinder must be dry and clean.
• The measuring cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface while
reading the water meniscus.
• While observing the liquid meniscus the line-of-sight should be at the
same horizontal level as that of the lowest meniscus.
• There should be no air bubble in the liquid while measuring its volume.
• The spring balance should be held verical while taking measurement.
• Before making use of spring balance it must be ensured that its pointer
is at the zero mark.
• The readings of the spring balance should be noted only when its pointer
comes to rest.
• The solid piece should be wiped with a dry cloth before repeating the
activity.

SOURCES OF ERROR
• The graduations marked on the measuring cylinder and on spring
balance may not be uniform and evenly spaced.
• A spring balance is primarily meant for measuring the weight (force) of
an object. However in laboratories, a spring balance is often used to
measure the mass of an object. It should be remembered that the
calibration of spring balance scale is done at the place of its manufacture
and depends on the value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at that
place. Therefore, if a spring balance is used to measure mass at any
other place where the value of g is different, an error in the measurement
of mass will appear.

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NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• The method describe above is useful for small solid objects. In
case of larger objects, one should make use of an overflow can
rather than measuring cylinder.
• This method is only useful for non-porous and water insoluble
solid objects. Therefore it is advised to use a metallic solid.
• Some error in the measurement of volume of the solid piece may
occur even if it has meagre porosity.
• The density of solid should be more than the density of water so
that the solid can sink in water. If the density of solid is less than
the density of water then a sinker can be used to perform the
experiment.
• Earlier Experiment titled “To determine the density of a liquid
(other than water) by using a spring balance and a measuring
cylinder” also uses a spring balance. It is therefore advised that
students may perorm the earlier experiment first to be aware of
the instruments used in this experiment.

QUESTIONS
• Can you determine the density of a porous solid by using a spring
balance and a measuring cylinder? Give reasons in support of
your answer.
• How the presence of an air bubble in the liquid taken in the
measuring cylinder can affect the volume of the solid?
• Density of sealing wax is 1.8 g/cm3. Express it in kg/m3.
• A metal cylinder is melted and the whole mass is cast in the
shape of a cube. What happens to its density? Give reasons.
• At which temperature is the density of water maximum?

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AIM
To show that gases are readily compressible and liquids are not.

THEORY
The density of gases varies considerably with pressure but not for liquids.
That is, gases are readily compressible while liquids are not. In this
experiment we shall use a plastic syringe to demonstrate it.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A plastic syringe of maximum available size (such as 25 mL or 50 mL)
without needle, water, some other liquids such as mustard oil, kerosene,
and fruit juice etc.

PROCEDURE
1. Hold the cylinder of a plastic syringe of maximum available size in
one of your hand.
2. Insert the piston into the syringe cylinder and bring it to a certain
level inside the syringe cylinder. In this situation air (gas) is inside
the syringe. Note and record the reading of the piston in the syringe.
This is your initial reading.
3. Close (or plug) the outlet nozzle of the syringe strongly by one of the
finger of the same hand holding the syringe cylinder.
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4. Apply a little force on the piston to push it in the syringe cylinder

(that is to compress the air). Are you able to push it (Fig. 5.1)?
5. Keep on applying the force on the piston to push it further inside the
syringe cylinder. Do you find that after some attempts, the piston
stops pushing in further? Are you able to further compress the air
inside the syringe? Note and record the reading of the piston in the
syringe cylinder. This is the final piston reading.
6. Take out the piston from Rubber Air Piston
the syringe and unplug cork
the nozzle.
7. Fill the syringe cylinder
with water. Insert the
piston into the syringe
cylinder. Slowly push it
inside the cylinder to
allow the air pass
through the nozzle of the
syringe. Ensure that Fig. 5.1
there is no air bubble
inside the cylinder. Note the reading of the piston in the syringe. This
is your initial reading for water inside the syringe.
8. Again close (or plug) the nozzle of the syringe strongly.
9. Apply force on the piston to push it in (or to compress the water
inside). What do you observe? Does the water compress? Note and
record the final reading.
10. Repeat the experiment with other liquids. Record observations.

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. No. Material Initial reading of piston in Final reading of piston in
syringe syringe
1. Air
2. Water
3. Oil
4.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Infer from your observations that the gases are readily compressible while
liquids are not. This shows that gases have more vacant space between the
constituent particles.

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PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR

• Use a cloth to safely and tightly close or plug the nozzle of the
syringe cylinder.
• The motion of piston inside the syringe cylinder must be tight
otherwise air (or liquid) may leak from the gas-piston boundary
(or liquid-piston boundary).
• The needle of the syringe must not be used as it may hurt.

QUESTIONS
• What do you conclude about the inter-particle space in case of
liquids and gases?
• Was it easy to compress gas (air)? What happened when you
released pressure on the piston?
• What do you think which is present between the particles of air?
• Where do you come across the phenomenon of compressibility of
gases and liquids in daily life?

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AIM
To study the changes in state of sublimate solids on heating.

THEORY
A change in state directly from solid to gas on heating without changing
into liquid state, or vice-versa is called sublimation. That is,

⎯⎯⎯→ Vapour (gas)

heat
Solid ←⎯⎯⎯
cool

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Ammonium chloride (or camphor or naphthalene or iodine or any other
sublimable solid), china dish, funnel, cotton plug, burner, tripod stand,
and a wire gauge,

PROCEDURE
1. Take powdered sublimable solid in a china dish.
2. Put an inverted funnel over the china dish.
3. Insert a cotton plug on the stem of the funnel.
4. Put china dish over the wire gauge on the tripod stand.
5. Heat the china dish slowly with the help of a burner.

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Fig. 6.1 : Sublimation of ammonium chloride

6. Cover the outer surface of the funnel with wet cotton to sublime the
vapours quickly.

OBSERVATIONS
A sublimable solid on heating directly get converted into vapours,
that sublimes back on cooling directly into solid again on the walls of
the funnel.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A sublimable solid on heating directly converts into gaseous state. How? Is
it because of the high vapour pressure of the liquid state of the solid. The
liquid state is practically non-existant.

PRECAUTIONS
• Heat the sample carefully.
• Take care in plugging the stem of the funnel securely with cotton.
• The size of the mouth of the funnel and china dish should be
comparable.
• Do not remove the funnel when hot.

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NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• Moth repellent balls are easily available which can be crushed
and can also be used as a sample in this experiment.

QUESTIONS
• In your view, what could be the reason for direct conversion of
some solids to vapours and vice-versa?
• In the above experiment, you have observed conversion of solid
to vapours. Is this a physical or a chemical change?
• Could you think of some applications of this change in daily life?

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AIM
To study the process of evaporation.

THEORY
Particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest. At a given
temperature in any gas, liquid or solid, there are particles with different
amount of kinetic energies. In the case of liquids, a small fraction of particles
at the surface, having higher kinetic energy than the bulk is able to break
away from the forces of attraction of other particles and gets converted
into vapour. This phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours (gases) at
any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Water, china dish, tripod stand, burner, and spirit.

PROCEDURE
1. Take about 50 mL tap water in a china dish.
2. Heat the china dish slowly with the help of burner.
3. Observe how the contents in the china dish disappear with time.
4. Continue heating untill all the water evaporates.
5. Repeat the experiment taking spirit as a sample.

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6. Take about 10 to 15 mL spirit in a china dish and mark

its level.
7. Keep it for some time. Do not heat it.
8. Observe the contents in the china dish and continue
observing till all the spirit evaporates.

OBSERVATIONS
Water evaporates on heating whereas spirit evaporates at room
temperature.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 7.1 : Evaporation of
water
Some solvents evaporate even at room temperature. The
tendency of the liquid to vapourise depends on the nature of
the liquid through the molecule-molecule (intermolecular)
interaction in the bulk of the liquid.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• A container containing spirit must never be heated directly on a
flame. Instead a water bath may be used, if required.
• The solvents which evaporate fast at room temperature are called
‘highly volatile’ solvents. Examples of highly volatile solvents are
ether, acetone, petroleum ether, benzene etc.

QUESTIONS
• How is the crystallisation of sugar from its solution related to the
above phenomenon?
• How would the presence of sodium chloride in water effect its
evaporation tendency?
• Do you think that the process of evaporation increases if the
surface area of a container containing the solvent increases?
• Will an increase of temperature effect the rate of evaporation?
Justify your answer.
• On a rainyday, the rate of evaporation decreases. Why?
• Amongst evaporation and condensation which process is more
indisciplined? Justify your answer.

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AIM
To determine the boiling point of water and melting point of ice.

THEORY
The temperature at which a solid changes into its liquid state is known as
its melting point. Once a solid attains its melting temperature, the
temperature remains same until the entire solid converts into liquid.

The temperature at which a liquid changes into its vapour state is known
as its boiling point. Once a liquid attains its boiling point, the temperature
remains same until all the liquid changes into its vapour.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Round bottom flask (250 mL), a double bored cork, beaker (100 mL),
thermometer (–10 ºC − 110 ºC), stop-watch (or a stop-clock), spirit lamp
(or gas burner), tripod stand with wire gauze, spring balance, a glass tube,
a polythene bag, laboratory stand, water, crushed ice, and thread.

PROCEDURE
A. Determination of boiling point of water.
1. Note the range and the least count of the thermometer.

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2. Take about 150 mL water in the round bottom flask

and close its mouth with a two-holded stopper. Fix
the thermometer through one of the holes in the cork
and a glass tube through the other [Fig. 8.1]. Make
sure that the bulb of thermometer hangs in air and
is not in contact with water in the flask.
3. Place wire gauze on a tripod stand and keep the flask
over it. Start heating the water with a spirit lamp or a
gas burner.
4. Switch on the stop-watch (or stop-clock) and note
the reading of the thermometer after fixed intervals
of time, say after every two minutes. Once the
temperature rises above 80 ºC, the time interval to
read the thermometer should be reduced, say to one
Fig. 8.1 : Determination of minute.
Boiling point of
water 5. Continue recording the thermometer readings for
4-5 minutes even after the water in the flask begins
to boil.
B. Determination of melting point of ice.
1. Take a beaker and fill it up to half with crushed ice.
2. Insert the bulb of the thermometer into the ice and let it stand in a
vertical position (Fig. 8.2).
3. Switch on the stop-watch or the stop-clock and note the reading of
thermometer and the state of ice in the beaker after every one minute
till the whole of ice melts.
4. Continue recording the temperature till the temperature of the water
so formed rises up to 2 − 3 ºC.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Record your observations on heating of water in
Table 1 and those on melting of ice in Table 2.

Fig. 8.2 : Determination of melting point of ice

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A. Table 1: Observations for Heating of Water

Sl.No. Time (minute) Temperature of water (ºC)

1.

2.
3.

B. Table 2: Observations for Melting of Ice

Sl. State of the ice Time (minute) Temperature (ºC)

No. solid/partly solid/partly liquid/liquid

1.

2.

3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Study the observations recorded in Table 1 and find the temperature that
remains constant even when the water begins to boil. Infer the boiling
point of water. Study the observations recorded in Table 2 and find the
temperature that remains constant as long as the ice gets converted into
water. Infer the melting point of ice.

PRECAUTIONS
A. Determination of boiling point of water
• Thermometer in the flask should be fixed in a manner that its bulb
does not touch the water surface in the flask.
• Recording of temperature and time should be done simultaneously.

B. Determination of melting point of ice

• The bulb of the thermometer should be completely inside the crushed
ice.
• The thermometer should not touch the wall of the beaker.
• Recording of temperature and time should be done simultaneously.

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NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• The boiling point of water under standard conditions is taken as 100ºC.
However, it may differ due to impurities in water and atmospheric
pressure.
• The melting point of pure ice under standard conditions is taken as
0ºC. However, it may change due to impurities in ice and atmospheric
pressure.

QUESTIONS
• Why is the bulb of thermometer kept above the surface of water
while determining the boiling point of water?
• Why does the temperature remain unchanged until the entire
solid changes into liquid even if we are heating the solid?
• Why do we fix a two holed-cork in the round bottom flask while
determining the boiling point of water?

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AIM
To prepare a saturated solution of common salt in distilled water and to
determine its solubility at room temperature.

THEORY
A solution in which no more solute dissolves in the given solvent at a
particular temperature is a saturated solution. The solubility of a substance
in a saturated solution is defined as the mass of solute dissolved in 100 g
of solvent. In this experiment we shall prepare a saturated solution of
common salt in water at room temperature and then will determine its
solubility.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Common salt or sugar, distilled water, three beakers (250 mL), stirring
rod, filter paper, funnel, china dish, watch glass, tripod stand, burner,
spring balance ( 0 g – 250 g, preferably having least count of 1 g), a polythene
bag, a measuring cylinder (100 mL), and a thermometer (–10 ºC − 110 ºC).

PROCEDURE
1. Hang the thermometer freely in the room. Note and record its reading
to find the room temperature.

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A. Preparation of saturated solution

1. Using a measuring cylinder take 100 mL distilled water in a 250 mL
beaker. Dry the measuring cylinder after use.
2. Dissolve some common salt in distilled water with the help of a stirring
rod.
3. Warm the solution slightly and keep on adding common salt in the
solution with constant stirring till no more common salt dissolves in
it.
4. Stop warming the solution and allow the beaker to cool till it comes
to the room temperature.
5. Filter the solution into another beaker in order to separate undissolved
salt, if any. The filtered solution is the saturated solution of sodium
chloride (common salt) in distilled water at room temperature.

B. Determination of Solubility

(i) Density Method

1. Determine the mass of the third beaker of 250 mL. (See Experiment 3
for details), using a spring balance and a polythene bag.
2. Pour 100 mL of prepared saturated solution in the weighed beaker,
using the measuring cylinder.
3. Determine the mass of the beaker containing saturated solution (using
a spring balance and a polythene bag).
4. Find the mass of the 100 mL of saturated solution.

(ii) Evaporation Method

1. Determine the mass of the china dish, using a spring balance and a
polythene bag.
2. Using the measuring cylinder, take 25 mL of prepared saturated
solution in a china dish.
3. Heat the china dish until all the water (solvent) evaporates out. The
dish will now contain only the solute (common salt).
4. Stop heating the china dish and allow it to cool.
5. Determine the mass of the china dish containing the solute, using
the spring balance and polythene bag.
6. Find the mass of solute that was dissolved in 25 mL saturated solution.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Room temperature = _____ °C = _____ K.

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(i) Determination of solubility by Density Method

Mass of empty beaker, m1 = _____ g
Mass of the beaker containing 100 mL
of prepared saturated solution, m2 = _____ g
Mass of 100 mL of saturated solution, m3 = _____ g
(m3 = m2 − m1)
Density of distilled water, ρ (given) = _____ 1 g/mL
Mass of 100 mL distilled water (= ρ ×100 mL) = 100 g
Mass of the solute (common salt) in
100 mL of distilled water, m = m3 − 100 g = _____ g.

Solubility of common salt, m g per 100 g of distilled water

= _____ g per 100 g of distilled water.
(ii) Determination of solubility by Evaporation Method
Mass of empty china dish, m1 = _____ g
Mass of china dish and common salt, m2 = _____ g
Mass of salt in 25 mL of prepared saturated solution, m3 = (m2 – m1)
= _____ g
Density of distilled water, ρ (given) = 1 g/mL
Mass of 25 mL distilled water (= ρ ×25 mL) = 25 g.

25 mL (or 25 g) of distilled water dissolves m3 g of common salt to

prepare a saturated solution. Thus the 100 mL (or 100 g) of distilled
m 3 × 100
water would require g of common salt to get a saturated
25
solution at room temperature.

Solubility of common salt, m g per 100 g of distilled water

m 3 × 100
= g per 100 g of distilled water
25
= ___ g per 100 g of distilled water.

RESULTS
Compare the solubility of common salt in distilled water to form a saturated
solution at room temperature obtained by density and evaporation methods.
Using density method the solubility of common salt in a saturated solution
at room temperature ( ___ °C or ___ K) is ______ g per 100 g of distilled water.

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Using evaporation method the solubility of common salt in a saturated

solution at room temperature ( ___ °C or ___ K) is ______ g per 100 g of
distilled water.

PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR

• The spring balance should be held vertical while taking measurements.
• Before making use of the spring balance it must be ensured that its
pointer is at zero mark. If not then ask your teacher to help.
• The readings of the spring balance should be noted only when its pointer
comes to rest.
• The measuring cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface while
measuring the volume of the distilled water and solution.
• While preparing the saturated solution, the warming of the solution
should be slow and to a temperature slightly (2 °C to 5 °C) more than
the room temperature. Similarly the cooling of solution must also be
slow.
• While performing evaporation method, heating of saturated solution
must be stopped as soon as all the water evaporates from the solution.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• In place of common salt, some students may be suggested to
perform this experiment with sugar.
• Experiment 3 and 4 explains a simple method to find the mass of
a measuring cylinder using a spring balance and
a polythene bag. Since in this experiment too a beaker and a
china dish (empty as well as filled) are to be weighed, it is therefore
suggested that students may be asked to perform either of
experiment 3 and 4 first.
• If the spring balance is not sufficiently sensitive, students may
be suggested to use a physical balance. However a physical
balance might be new equipment for them, it is advised to kindly
guide them in making use of a physical balance to weigh the
objects more accurately.
• In case, if distilled water is not available, the experiment may be
performed with filtered water or drinking water. Its density may be
assumed as 1 g/mL.
• If students find it lengthy to determine the solubility using both
density and evaporation methods, suggest them to perform only
one method.

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QUESTIONS
• How does the solubility of a solute in solvent change with an
increase in temperature?
• What is a supersaturated solution in your opinion?
• How can a supersaturated solution of salt in water be prepared?
• What will happen if a saturated salt solution prepared at high
temperature is (i) cooled slowly? (ii) cooled suddenly?
• Would the solubility of sodium chloride (common salt) in water
increase or decrease in presence of water sample containing
magnesium/calcium chloride? Give explanation.

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10

AIM
To prepare a solution of common salt of 10% composition by mass.

THEORY
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given
amount (mass or volume) of the solution. Mass percent concentration is
defined as a mass (g) of the solute per 100 g mass of the solution. A 10%
solution by mass means, 10 g of solute dissolved in 90 g of solvent to
result into 100 g of solution.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Common salt, distilled water, watch glass, stirring rod, physical balance,
measuring cylinder (100 mL), and a beaker (250 mL).

PROCEDURE
1. Calculate the volume of solvent (distilled water) and mass of solute
(sodium chloride or common salt) required to prepare 100 g of 10%
by mass solution. This may be done as follows–
10 g solute is required for 100 g solution (distilled water + salt). Thus the
amount of water required would be 100 g – 10 g = 90 g. Since the density of
distilled water is 1 g/mL, therefore the volume of distilled water (required to
prepare 100 g of 10% by mass solution with 10 g of common salt) is 90 mL.

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2. Weigh an empty watch glass on a physical balance. Also weigh 10 g of

sodium chloride (common salt) on the watch glass now.
3. Take 90 mL (90 g) of distilled water in a 250 mL beaker with the help
of a measuring cylinder.
4. Transfer 10 g of salt from the watch glass to the beaker containing 90
mL distilled water.
5. Stir the solution untill all the salt dissolve in it.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

(i) Mass of empty watch glass (m1) = _____ g
(ii) Mass of watch glass + sodium chloride (m1 + 10 g) = _____ g
(iii) Mass of sodium chloride (common salt) = 10 g.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The concentration of prepared solution is 10% by mass of common salt in
water. This way of expressing concentration is one amongst many.

PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR

• Use of physical balance must be done with all precautions. Ask your
teacher acquaint you with the working of a physical balance.
• The readings of the physical balance should be taken only when its
pointer comes to rest.
• The measuring cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface while
measuring the volume of the distilled water and solution.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• In place of common salt, some students may be suggested to
perform this experiment with sugar.
• This experiments requires to use a physical balance to weigh
10 g of common salt or sugar using a watch glass. A physical
balance is a sophisticated equipment. It is suggested to acquaint
students with the working of a physical balance. They may be
asked to practice with this balance before performing this
experiment.
• In case, if distilled water is not available, the experiment may be
performed with filtered water or drinking water. Its density may be
assumed as 1 g/mL at the experimental temperature.

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QUESTIONS
• Why should the density of a 10% common salt be more than the
density of pure water at a specified temperature? Offer qualitative
explanation.
• A student is asked to prepare 250 mL sugar solution 15% by
mass concentration. How much amount of sugar and water should
be taken for preparation of the solution?
• If 50 mL of water is added to the above solution. What will be the
change in the mass percentage of the solute?
• 830 g of salt solution contains 50 g of common salt in it. Calculate
its concentration in terms of mass percentage?

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11

AIM
To separate the components of a mixture of sand, common salt and
ammonium chloride.

THEORY
Sand, common salt, and ammonium chloride form a heterogeneous mixture
and can be separated easily by physical methods of separation. By selecting
the right order of methods of separation, the three can be easily separated:
(i) ammonium chloride sublimes on heating;
(ii) sand is insoluble in water; and
(iii) common salt can be recovered by evaporation of its aqueous solution.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A china dish, a funnel, a beaker (250 mL), a cotton plug, burner, tripod
stand, wire gauge, sand, common salt, ammonium chloride, water, and
filter paper.

PROCEDURE
1. Take mixture of ammonium chloride, sand and common salt in a
china dish.

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 11.1 : Separation of components of a mixture of ammonium chloride, sand and

common salt. (a) Separation of ammonium chloride by sublimation;
(b) Residue containing sand and common salt dissolved in water;
(c) Separation of sand by filtration; and (d) Obtaining common salt by
evaporation

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2. Set up a sublimation apparatus as shown in Fig. 11.1(a).

3. Heat the mixture. Ammonium chloride will be separated on the
walls of the inverted funnel.
4. The residue left behind in the china dish contains sand and
common salt.
5. Dissolve this residue mixture in water. Common salt will dissolve
but sand will not [Fig. 11.1(b)].
6. Filter the sand from the mixture using a filter paper [Fig. 11.1(c)].
7. Sand is separated as residue and the filterate is salt solution in
water.
8. Heat the filterate (salt solution) to evaporate the water and to
get the dry sample of common salt [Fig. 11.1(d)].

RESULTS AND D ISCUSSION

Using methods of separation sequentially, ammonium chloride, sand
and common salt have been separated from their mixture.

PRECAUTIONS
• Sublimation process should be carried out carefully.
• Take care while filtering so that the filter paper does not tear off.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• If soil is taken instead of sand for formation of mixture, it
will form colloidal solution and clear filterate may not be
obtained.
• As in the laboratory the sublimation apparatus is not air
tight, recovery of ammonium chloride will not be 100%.
• The outer surface of funnel must be covered with wet cotton
to separate sublimation product (ammonium chloride in this
case) easily.
• To make the process of separation easily workable, it is
desired that one water soluble component be separated by a
process other than solubility and that is sublimation in this
experiement.

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QUESTIONS
• If in the first step the mixture had been dissolved in water
what would have been the difficulty in separation.
• Instead of common salt if one component in the given mixture
is sulphur, how would you carry out separation process then?
• Can the two components of a mixture that are soluble in water
be separated by any technique? Justify your answer.

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12

AIM
To prepare solutions of various substances and to identify them as true
solutions and suspensions.

THEORY
A true solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The
solute and solvent particles can not be observed by the naked eye as they
are very small (of the order of 1nm). A suspension is a hetrogeneous mixture
of two or more substances. The solute particles of a suspension are often
visible by the naked eyes as the size of particles is more than 0.1 mm.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Powder samples of sodium chloride (or common salt), sugar, baking soda,
chalk powder, sand, and sulphur etc., a beaker (250 mL), water, and a
glass stirrer rod.

PROCEDURE
1. Take a small amount of a solid sample as solute.
2. Dissolve it in 100 mL water taken in a beaker with the help of a glass
stirrer rod. Stir the mixture for some time.
3. Allow it to stand for some time.

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4. Observe and record whether the mixture formed is homogeneous or

heterogeneous.
5. Repeat the experiment for different solid solutes.

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. No. Solute Homogenous or Type of mixture formed
heterogeneous (true solution or suspension)

1.
2.
3.
4.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

(a) Samples ____________, ______________ , _____________ , form true
solution in water. Which are homogeneous.
(b) Samples ____________ , ____________ form suspension in water.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• Students may be provided fine powder samples.
• If a light beam from a torch is passed through suspensions,
scattering of light may also be observed.

QUESTIONS
• Why are the particles of a true solution not visible to naked eye?
• What is the order of the size of a particle that can be seen by
naked eyes?
• What different techniques of seperation can be employed for
separation of components of homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixture?
• What will be your observation, when a beam of light is passed
through a true solution and through a suspension respectively?

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13

AIM
To prepare a colloidal solution of sulphur and differentiate it from a true
solution or from a suspension on the basis of transparency and filtration.

THEORY
A collodial solution of sulphur in water can be obtained by the oxidation of
hydrogen sulphide by nitric acid.

H2S (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) ⎯→ 2H2O (l) + S (s) + 2NO2 (g)

A true solution is homogenous and transparent. It can be completely
filtered through a filter paper. It remains stable on standing.
A colloidol solution is heterogenous, it appears translucent. It can be
filtered completely through filter paper. Here solute particles do not easily
settle down on standing.
A suspension is heterogenous mixture. The particles of a suspension
are visible to the naked eye. They settle down on standing and can be
separated by filtration.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Kipp’s apparatus to get hydrogen sulphide gas, concentrated nitric acid,
common salt, chalk powder, funnel, four boiling tubes, glass rod, test
tube stand, and filter paper.

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PROCEDURE
(i) Preparation of Colloidal Solution of Sulphur
1. Take about 20 mL distilled water in a boiling tube and pass H2S gas
through it for about 5 minutes. The solution would smell like a rotten egg.
2. Add few drops of concentrated nitric acid
in it. Stir the solution. Continue adding
few more drops of nitric acid untill
solution becomes milky.
3. Transfer the contents into a another
clean boiling tube. Label this boiling
tube as tube A.
(ii) Preparation of True Solution
4. Take about 20 mL distilled water in a
clean boiling tube.
5. Add approximately 1- 2 g of sodium
chloride (or common salt) into it.
Fig. 13.1 6. Stir the solution till it becomes clear.
Label this boiling tube as tube B.
(iii) Preparation of suspension
7. Take about 20 mL of distilled water in another clean boiling tube.
8. Add approximately 1- 2 g of powdered chalk into it.
9. Stir the mixture with the help of glass rod. Label this boiling tube
as tube C.

OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No. Experiment Boiling tube Inference

1. Transparency A

Observe the contents of B

different boiling tubes C

2. Filtration

Filter the contents of A

different tubes through B

an ordinary filter paper C

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Colloidal and suspension are heterogenous mixtures where as true solutions
are homogenous mixtures. They differ form each other only on the basis of
their particle size.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• Arrangement for the preparation of H2S gas may be done in
advance in the laboratory using the Kipp’s apparatus. It requires
ferrous sulphide and conc. sulphuric acid.
• When sulphur is formed by an insitu reaction the particle size is
in the colloidal range as particles of sulphur remain aggregate in
water, forming a colloidal solution.
• Sulphur can form true solution in carbon tetrachloride or carbon
disulphide solvent.
• A suspension of sulphur can be formed in water by mixing sulphur
powder in distilled water.
• Colloidal solution of sulphur can also be obtained by adding dil.
HCl or conc. H2SO4 to sodium thiosulphate solution
Na2S2O3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + SO2 + S + H2O
(sodium thiosulphate (colloidal
or hypo solution) sulphur)

QUESTIONS
• What will be the effect of passing light through colloidal solution
of sulphur?
• What is the difference in the particle size of colloid, true solution
and suspension.
• Classify the following as a true solution, as a suspension, or as
a colloid: (i) milk; (ii) CuSO4 solution; (iii) jam; (iv) gum; (v) soil
in water; and (vi) sand in water

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14

AIM
To study the process of separation of a mixture of two immiscible liquids.

THEORY
The separation of two immiscible liquids by a separating funnel depends
on the difference in their densities. A less denser liquid floats over a liquid
whose density is more.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Separating funnel (250 mL)(with its stop-cock), two beakers (250 mL), and
two immiscible liquids such as water and kerosene.

PROCEDURE
1. Take a mixture of two immiscible liquids (say water and kerosene) in
a separating funnel (Fig. 14.1).
2. Allow it to stand for some time.
3. The mixture separates into two liquid layers according to their
densities.
4. Collect the lower layer carefully in a beaker by opening the stop-cock
of the separating funnel.
5. Similarly collect the upper layer in another beaker.

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Separating Funnel
Kerosene
Water

Fig. 14.1 : Separation of immiscible liquids

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Water and kerosene are immiscible and can be separated by using
separating funnel. Miscibility and immiscibility of liquid pairs depends
upon the effectiveness of intermolecular interaction.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• It is essential to remove the lid of the separating funnel while
opening the stop cock of the separating funnel.
• In order to get the two components in pure form, it is advisable to
discard a part of the mixture at the junction of the two layers.

QUESTIONS
• Arrange the two liquids used in the above experiment according
to the increasing order of their densities?
• Think of a technique that you can use to separate the above
immiscible liquids if separating funnel is not available?
• Is the mixture used in the above experiment heterogenous or
homogenous in nature?
• Which of the two sea water or pure water has got higher density?
• Can there be any way of varifying that lower layer in the separating
funnel is water layer. Explain either way.

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15

AIM
To separate a mixture of two miscible liquids by simple distillation.

THEORY
The separation of two miscible liquids (having at least a difference in their
boiling points of 25 K) can be separated by a simple distillation method.
Distillation depends on the difference in their boiling points. The liquid
which has lower boiling point evaporates first and faster than the liquid
which has a higher boiling point.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Mixture of two miscible liquids (water and acetone), measuring cylinder, a
round bottom flask (250 mL), thermometer (-10 °C - 110 °C), condenser,
two beakers (250 mL), burner, tripod stand, and a wire gauge.

PROCEDURE
1. Take a mixture of 50 mL water and 50 mL acetone in a round bottom
flask.
2. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the Fig. 15.1.
3. Heat the mixture of acetone and water slowly and carefully monitor
the rise in temperature.

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4. Observe and note the temperature at which the first component of

the mixture distils out, that is, vapours get cooled and collected in a
beaker kept at the other end of the condenser.
5. Continue heating and similarly observe and note the temperature at
which the second component distills out.

Cork
Hot
Clamp
Cork water out

Distillation
flask

Clamp
Water condenser

Solution of acetone
and water

Cold water in

Fig. 15.1 : Laboratory apparatus for distillation

OBSERVATIONS

Component Component

I II

Temperature
Name of the component

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The two components of the miscible liquids are separated by distillation.
The difference in the boiling points of the liquids depend upon the attraction
between the particles of the liquid.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• The intermediate fraction may be rejected as it may contain both
the components.
• For distillation, in place of round bottom flask and condenser, a
distillation apparatus is easy to use.
• The process of distillation can be stopped after the separation of
first component, as the second component of the mixture is left
in the round bottomed flask.
• A discussion on the difference between bottled mineral water and
distilled water may be initiated in the class room.

QUESTIONS
• In the above experiment you have found the boiling points of
water and acetone. Use this information to arrange acetone and
water in the order of (i) increasing force of attraction between the
particles of water (water-water); particles of acetone (acetone-
acetone); and (ii) increasing densities.
• You are provided with a mixture of methanol and ethanol having
boiling points 61 ºC and 78 ºC respectively. Can you separate the
two components by simple distillation method? Explain.
• You are given a sample of tap water, suggest a technique for
obtaining pure and salt free water (distilled water) from it?
• What is the natural technique of obtaining distilled water from
the nature?
• What is the utility of acetone in daily life?

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16

AIM
To differentiate between a mixture (containing two components) and a pure
compound.

THEORY
The components of a mixture retain their individual properties. In a mixture
these components can have any ratio while components of a mixture lose
their individual properties once the compound is formed. Ratio of
components in a compound is fixed. Merely mixing two components is a
physical change and converting these into a compound is a chemical change.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Sulphur powder, iron filings, dil. hydrochloric acid (or dil. sulphuric acid),
lead acetate solution, carbon disulphide solvent, a bar magnet, two beaker
(100 mL), three test tubes, china dish, watch glass, glass rod, filter paper,
tripod stand, burner, wire gauge, splinter (or candle), and a mortor and
pestle.

PROCEDURE
1. Take iron fillings (5.6 g) and sulphur powder (3.2 g) in a beaker. Mix
them properly. Label this mixture as A.

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2. Take half of this mixture A in a china dish and heat it slowly with
constant stirring untill black mass is formed.
3. Cool the contents of china dish.
4. Grind the black mass with the help of mortar and pestle and put it in
another beaker and mark it as B.
5. Perform various tests (as suggested in the table below) with samples
A and B and record your observations.

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. Experiment Observation Inference
No. with sample

A B

1. Magnet test
Move a magnet over the sample A
and powdered black mass in sample
B several times.

2. Gas test
Take a small amount of mixture
from sample A in a test tube and
add 5 mL dil. hydrochloric acid or
dil. H2SO4 carefully. Test the evolved
gas by
(a) bring a bur ning splinter or
lighted candle near the mouth
of the test tube;
(b) bring a filter paper dipped in
lead acetate solution near the
mouth of the test tube.
Repeat the same test with
sample B.

3. Solubility test
Take a pinch of A and B in test
tubes. Add 5 mL carbon disulpide
(CS2) and shake the mixture. Filter
the solution.

PRECAUTIONS
• Do not inhale hydrogen sulphide gas as it a poisonous gas.
• Carbon disulphide is inflammable, so keep it away form the flame.

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NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

• In order to simplify the performance part of this experiment, it
is suggested that 5.6 g of iron filings and 3.2 g of sulphur
powder may be provided to the students.
• It is important to maintain the proper stoichiometry in the
reaction of iron with sulphur. In case of excess iron the product
will be attracted towards magnet.
• A mixture containing iron and sulphur shows the properties of
both its contituents. Iron filings are attracted towards a bar
magnet and react with dil. hydrochloric acid or dil. sulphuric
acid to liberate hydrogen. Hydrogen burns with the pop sound at
the mouth of the test tube. This reaction is highly exothermic
and therefore, must be performed carefully.
2Fe (s) + 6HCl (aq) ⎯→ 2FeCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g);
2Fe (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) ⎯→ Fe2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g);

Sulphur is soluble in non polar solvent like carbon disulphide

(CS2). The compound iron sulphide (FeS) is formed on heating
iron (Fe) and sulphur (S).

Fe (s) + S (s) ⎯⎯⎯

heat
→ FeS (s)
Iron sulphide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid forms hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) gas which turns lead acetate paper into shiny black.
Iron sulphide is insoluble in carbon disulphide solvent.
2FeS (s) + 2HCl (aq) ⎯→ 2FeCl2 (aq) + H2S (g);2FeS (s) +
2H2FeS (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ⎯→ 2FeSO4 (aq) + H2S (g);
(CH3COO)2 Pb (aq) + H2S (g) ⎯→ PbS (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq).
(Black)

QUESTIONS
• How would you proceed to test that a mixture of NH4Cl and
CuSO4 give test for NH+4 ,Cl − , Cu2+ and SO42- ions?
• Which one is the more appropriate statement amongst the
following and Why? (i) Air is an oxidising agent; (ii) Oxygen of the
air is an oxidising agent.
• Why does brass react with dilute hydrochloric acid and is corroded
in rainy season to form CuCO3. Cu(OH)2?

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17

AIM
To verify the law of conservation of mass in a chemical reaction.

THEORY
Law of conservation of mass states that the mass remains conserved during
a chemical reaction. In this experiment we shall verify the law of
conservation of mass using a precipitation reaction. This reaction is
considered as the simplest method to verify this law.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Barium chloride (BaCl2.2H2O), sodium sulphate (Na2SO4.10H2O), distilled
water, two beakers (150 mL), one beaker (250 mL), physical balance, spring
balance (0 – 500 g) and a polythene bag, two watch glasses of known masses,
and a glass stirrer.

PROCEDURE
1. Pour 100 mL distilled water in two beakers (150 mL).
2. Using the physical balance and a watch glass of known mass, weigh
7.2 g of BaCl2.2H2O and dissolve it in a beaker (150 mL) containing
100 mL distilled water.
3. Similarly, weigh 16.1 g of Na2SO4.10H2O in another watch glass of
known mass and dissolve it in another beaker (150 mL) containing
100 mL distilled water.
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4. Take the third beaker (250 mL) and weigh it using a spring balance
and polythene bag (see Experiment no. 3 for details).
5. Mix both solutions of 150 mL beakers in the third beaker (250 mL).
Mix the contents using a glass stirrer.
6. On mixing white precipitate of BaSO4 appears due to precipitation
reaction.
7. Weigh the beaker containing the reaction mixture again to determine
the mass of the precipitation reaction products.
8. Compare the masses of before and after the chemical reaction.

OBSERVATIONS
(i) Mass of 100 mL distilled water = 100.0 g
(The density of distilled water is 1 g/mL.)
(ii) Mass of BaCl2.2H2O = 7.2 g
(iii) Mass of BaCl2 solution = 107.2 g
(iv) Mass of Na2SO4.10H2O = 16.1 g
(v) Mass of Na2SO4 solution = 116.1 g
(vi) Total Mass of reactants = 223.3 g
(solutions of BaCl2 and Na2SO4)
(vii) Mass of empty 250 mL beaker, m1 = _____ g
(viii) Initial mass of reaction mixture and empty
beaker (before the precipitation), m2 = (m1+ 223.3 g) = _____ g
(ix) Final mass of reaction mixture in the beaker
after the precipitation, m3 = _____ g.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Compare the initial mass (m 2) of the reaction mixture (before the
precipitation) with the final mass (m3) of the reaction mixture (after the
precipitation). Are they same? If the two masses are same within the
reasonable limits, then the law of conservation of mass stands verified.
The verification of the law rests on accurate mass measurements in the
laboratory.
The chemical reaction involved is
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) ⎯→ BaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)
White precipitate
and more precisely
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) ⎯→ BaSO4 (s)

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PRECAUTIONS
• The spring balance should be held vertical while taking measurements.
• Before making use of the spring balance it must be ensured that its
pointer is at zero mark. If not then ask your teacher to help.
• The readings of the spring balance should be noted only when its pointer
comes to rest.
• Mixing of barium chloride and sodium sulphate solutions be done slowly
with constant stirring.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

A physical balance is a sophisticated equipment. It is advised
that students may be trained to use a physical balance and they
must be properly supervised while they use the physical balance.
This experiment involves several weighings that may take lot of
time. In case if the weighing measurements takes lot of time, the
required quantities of barium chloride and sodium sulphate may
be provided to the students on two separate watch glasses. This
will facilitate students to concentrate on the reaction dynamics
rather than on the weighing skills.

QUESTIONS
• What are the other precipitation reactions that can be conveniently
studied in the laboratory to verify this law?
• How can the law be verified by studying combination reaction?
Suggest a procedure for the same.

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