LAB.

MANUAL

PREDICTIVE

ANALYSIS
 Vision and Mission of the Department

Vision of the Department

To create excellence in business management for nurturing value driven business leaders with
analytical and entrepreneurial mindset to foster innovative ideas in order to transform the world
and serve the society.

Mission Statements of the Department

M1 : Design a unique competency directed and industry relevant curriculum with outcome
oriented teaching learning process facilitated by world class infrastructure.
M2 : Enhance students’ cognitive, research, analytical, ethical and behavioral competencies
through programs that equip them to meet global business challenges in the professional
world.
M3 : Facilitate student centric sound academic environment with co-curricular and extra-
curricular activities to groom and develop future ready business professionals.
M4 : Design a transparent evaluation system for objective assessment of the program learning.
M5 : Align meaningful interactions with the academia, industry and community to facilitate
value driven holistic development of the students.
M6 : Develop ethical and socially responsible entrepreneurial attitude for harnessing the
environmental opportunities through creativity and innovation for a vibrant and sustainable
society.
 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs) are the broad statements that describe career and
professional accomplishments that graduates will attain within a few years of graduation. After
successful completion of MBA program from Chandigarh University, the graduates will:

PEO1: Make significant impact as successful management professionals with a sound business
and entrepreneurial acumen leading to a promising career in the various management domains.

PEO 2: Develop the professional competence for astute decision making, organization skills,
planning and its efficient implementation, research, data analysis and interpretation with a
solution finding approach.

PEO 3: Be known for their team player qualities to handle diversity and the leadership skills to
make sound decisions while working with peers in an inter-disciplinary environment with people
of cross-cultural attributes

PEO 4: Be adaptable to new technology, innovations and changes in world economy that
positively impacts and contributes towards industry, academia and the community at large.

PEO 5: Be responsible citizens with high ethical conduct that will empower the business
organizations with high integrity, moral values, social effectiveness and legal business
intelligence.

Program Outcomes (POs)

Program After completing the program, the students will be able to:
Outcome
PO1 Apply knowledge of management theories and practices to solve business
problems.

PO2 Foster Analytical and critical thinking abilities for data-based decision making

PO3
Ability to develop Value based Leadership ability

PO4 Ability to understand, analyze and communicate global, economic, legal, and
ethical aspects of business.

PO5 Ability to lead themselves and others in the achievement of organizational

goals, contributing effectively to a team environment.

PO6 Ability to develop innovative and entrepreneurial mindset.

 (Batch 2018-2020)

Version-2018

University School Business,

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY, GHARUAN

Scheme of MBA BATCH (2018-2020) Total Credits=106

Ist Semester
Subject
Subjects L T P Cr
Code
BAT- 601 Accounting for Managers 4 0 0 4
Fundamentals of Management and Organizational
BAT- 602 4 0 0 4
Behaviour
BAT- 603 Managerial Economics 4 0 0 4
BAT- 604 Quantitative Techniques for Managers 4 0 0 4
BAT- 605 Marketing Management 3 0 0 3
PCT-610 Professional Business Communication 3 0 0 3
PCP-611 Professional Business Communication (LAB) 0 0 2 1
BAT- 608 Computer Applications for Business 2 0 2 3
BAT- 609 Supply Chain Management 3 0 0 3
TOTAL CREDITS IN SEMESTER 29
Mentoring Lectures 2 0 0 0
TOTAL NO. OF SESSIONS 33
IInd Semester
BAT- 660 Legal and Business Environment 3 0 0 3
BAT- 661 Corporate Finance 4 0 0 4
BAT- 662 Operations Management and Research 4 0 0 4
BAT- 654 Research Methodology 4 0 0 4
BAT- 655 Social Media and Digital Marketing 3 0 0 3
BAT- 656 Human Resource Management 3 0 0 3
BAP- 657 Introduction to SPSS 0 0 4 2
TOTAL CREDITS IN SEMESTER 23
TOTAL NO. OF SESSIONS 25
TOTAL NO. OF SESSIONS (8 SESSIONS/WEEK TO
35
TPP + 2 sessions of Mentoring)
IN ADDITION TO COMPOULSORY SUBJECTS, A STUDENT HAS TO CHOOSE TWO
SUBJECTS FROM EACH OPTED SPECIALISATION
IIIrd Semester
BAT- 731 Retail Management 3 0 0 3
BAT- 732 Corporate Strategy 3 0 0 3
BAP- 703 Predictive Analysis 0 0 4 2
 SPECIALISATION (MARKETING, HR, FINANCE & INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS)
Specialisation Group A/B/C/D/E: Elective I 4 0 0 4
Specialisation Group A/B/C/D/E: Elective II 4 0 0 4
Specialisation Group A/B/C/D/E: Elective III 4 0 0 4
Specialisation Group A/B/C/D/E: Elective IV 4 0 0 4
BAI- 705 Summer Training Report 0 0 0 4
TOTAL CREDITS IN SEMESTER 28
TOTAL NO. OF SESSIONS 26
TOTAL NO. OF SESSIONS (8 SESSIONS/WEEK TO
35
TPP + 1 sessions of Mentoring)
AFTER THIRD SEMESTER, A STUDENT HAS TO CHOOSE TWO SUBJECTS FROM
ONE SPECIALISATION
IVth Semester
BAT- 780 Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability 3 0 0 3
BAT- 781 Indian Ethos and Business Ethics 3 0 0 3
SPECIALISATION (ENTREPRENEURSHIP & INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS)
Specialisation Group A/B/C/D/E: Elective I 4 0 0 4
Specialisation Group A/B/C/D/E: Elective II 4 0 0 4
Specialisation Group A/B/C/D/E: Elective III 4 0 0 4
Specialisation Group A/B/C/D/E: Elective IV 4 0 0 4
BAR- 752 Final Research Project and Publications 0 0 0 4
TOTAL CREDITS IN SEMESTER 26
TOTAL NO. OF SESSIONS 22
Final Resreach Project & Publications- Students are required to conduct Research Project
Survey under the supervision of Assigned Supervisor (Faculty). In this regard, each faculty
member will be assigned 4 groups (each group contains 5 students) and each Group has to
publish two Research Paper from their research project work in UGC listed Journal. Each
published Research Paper will carry 2 credits.

FINANCE (A)
SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-3)
BAA-735 Investment Analysis and Portfolio Management 4 0 0 4
BAA-736 Managing Banks and Financial Institutions 4 0 0 4
SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-4)
BAA-785 Financial Markets and Services 4 0 0 4
BAA-786 Taxation 4 0 0 4
MARKETING (B)
SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-3)
BAB-711 Consumer Behaviour 4 0 0 4
BAB-749 Rural Marketing 4 0 0 4

SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-4)
BAB-787 Sales and Distribution Management 4 0 0 4
BAB-788 Services Marketing 4 0 0 4

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (C)

SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-3)
BAC-741 Compensation and Benefits Management 4 0 0 4
BAC-742 Strategic HRM 4 0 0 4
SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-4)
BAC-789 Cross Cultural Management 4 0 0 4
BAC-790 Employee Relations 4 0 0 4

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS (D)

SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-3)
BAD-743 Export Import Documentation 4 0 0 4
BAD-745 International Trade and Laws 4 0 0 4
SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-4)
BAD-791 Globalisation and Indian Multinational Companies 4 0 0 4
BAD-792 International Marketing 4 0 0 4

ENTREPRENEURSHIP (E)
SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-3)
BAE-746 Entrepreneurial Strategies-I 4 0 0 4
BAE-747 Social Entrepreneurship 4 0 0 4
SPECIALIZATIONS (Semester-4)
BAE-793 Entrepreneurial Strategies-II 4 0 0 4
BAE-794 Entrepreneurial Marketing 4 0 0 4
C
Subject Name: Predictive Analytics – LAB MANUALS
Subject Code: BAP – 703
BAP-703 Predictive Analysis L T P C
Total Contact Hours 60 0 0 4 2
MBA
Prerequisite: Logical reasoning and aptitude

Marks 100
Internal : 100 External : 0
Course Objective
To develop the fundamental understanding and application of Mathematics and Statistics in
business organizations
Unit Course Outcome
1 Students will be able to initiate effective use of SPSS in business problem
2 Student will learn to evaluate and solve the business problems logically
3 Students will be able to avoid risks and spot opportunities.
Content of the

Syllabus Unit-

Introduction to IBM SPSS Statistics: Course Introduction, Introducing IBM SPSS Statistics,
Reading Data, Variable Properties, Working with the Data editor, Summarizing Individual
Variables, Modifying Data Values: Recode, Modifying Data Values: Compute, Describing
Relationship between Variables, Selecting Cases, Creating and Editing Charts, Output in the
Viewer, Syntax Basics, Course Summary, Menus and the Help System.

Unit-II

Data Management and Manipulation with IBM SPSS Statistics, Helpful Data Management
Features, Transformations: Computing with Numeric Data, Transformations: Computing with
Date and Time Variables, Transformations: Computing with Alphanumeric Data. Additional
Data Transformations, Identifying Duplicates and Restructuring Data, Aggregating Data,
Merging Files – Adding Cases Adding Variables, Analyzing Multiple Response Questions,
Working with Pivot Tables , Working with Charts , Exporting Tables and Charts, An
Introduction to Output Management System, Automating IBM SPSS Statistics, Controlling the
IBM SPSS Statistics Environment
 Unit-III

Introduction to Statistical Analysis Using IBM SPSS Statistics, Introduction to Statistical

Analysis, Understanding Data Distribution Theory, Data Distribution for Categorical Variables,
Regression Analysis and Multiple regression analysis

Multidimensional scaling, Factor analysis and Cluster analysis, Concepts of Logistic Regression,
Comparison of Several Populations (One way analysis of Variance and Analysis of Variance of
Ranks)

Recommended Books:

1. Business Research Methods, Cooper, Schindler, TMH

2. Management Research Methodology, Krishnaswamy, Sir Kumar, Pearson
3. Research Methodology, C. R. Kothari, Newage Publication
4. Research Methodology, Zeikmund, Cengage
5. Research Methodology, Paneer Selvam, PHI
6. Research Methodology, Prasanta Sarangi, Taxmann
7. A Text Book of Research Methodology, AKPC Swain, Kalyani
8. SPSS for Windows, Step; George and Mallery,

CODE: BAP 703

Name: Predictive Analysis
University School of
Business
Program Outcome PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10
Mapping of Course CO1 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 1

outcome with Program CO2 2 2 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 2

outcome CO3 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1

NOTE FOR THE PAPER SETTER

The syllabus has been divided into three units. Paper setter will set 3 questions from each unit
and 1 compulsory question spread over the whole syllabus consisting of 5 short answer
questions. Compulsory question will be placed at number one. Candidate shall be required to
attempt 6 questions in all including compulsory question and selecting not more than 2 questions
from each unit. All questions carry equal marks.
 Course
Course Name Description of CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO45 PO5 PO6
Code

To understand the nature of

various data sets and types 3
Enabling students with
application of advance
excel, SPSS and E-views. 3
To analyze the different sets
Predictive Analysis BAP of data with the help of
(2018-2020 Batch) 703 different Statistical
software’s 2 2
To select the appropriate
software for analyzing the
different set of data
To create the hypothesis for
various business problems 3
 List of Experiments – Predictive Analytics

Experiment Name of Experiment

Number
1 Introduction to SPSS, Sorting File, Split File, Compute
File, Recode File and Select Cases
2 Chi- Square Test (Parametric and Non-Parametric Test)
3 Exploratory Factor Analysis
4 Cluster Analysis
5 Logistic Regression
6 Discriminant Analysis
7 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
8 Conjoint Analysis
9 Time Series
10 MANOVA
Additional Decision Tree Analysis
11
 Experiment No. 1
Q. 1. Introduction to SPSS.

SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) is a versatile and responsive program designed to
undertake a range of statistical procedures. SPSS software is widely used in a range of disciplines and is
available from all computer pools within the University of South Australia.

It’s important to note that SPSS is not only statistical software – there are many others that you may
come across if you pursue a career that requires you to work with data. Some of the common statistical
packages include Stata and SAS (and there are many others).

Q.2. Four Windows of SPSS.

1. Input window : It is the first page that gets displayed when we open SPSS software. Here we enter
the data primarily.

 Data view : The data view is used to store and show your data. It is much like an ordinary
spreadsheet although in general the data is structured so that rows are cases and the columns
are for the different variables that relate to each case.

 Variable view : The variable view contains the variables on your data set , so it defines
the properties of your dataset. Each row will define all of the various variables . The
variables includes – name, type, width, decimals, label, values, missing, column, align
and measure.
2. Output window : This window is used to show the results that have been output from your data
analysis. Depending on the analysis that you are carrying out this may include the Chart Editor
Window or Pivot Table Window.

3. Syntax window : This window shows the underlying commands that have executed your data
analysis. If you are a confident coder this is where you can amend the code or write your own from
scratch and then run your own custom analysis on your data set.

4. Script window :Scripts can be used to customize operations within a particular stream and they are
saved with that stream. Scripts can be used to specify a particular execution order for the terminal
nodes within a stream. It is mainly used for coding and programming.
Q.3. Uses of SPSS in business?

 SPSS is used as a data collection tool by researchers. The data entry screen in SPSS looks much
like any other spreadsheet software. We can enter variables and quantitative data and save the
file as a data file. Furthermore, we can organize our data in SPSS by assigning properties to
different variables.
 Once data is collected and entered the data sheet in SPSS, we can create an output file from the
data. For example, we can create frequency distribution of our data to determine whether our
data is normally distributed. The frequency distribution is displayed in an output file.
 The most obvious use for SPSS is to use the software to run statistical tests. SPSS has all of
the most widely used statistical tests built-in to the software. Therefore, we won’t have to do
any mathematical equations by hand.
 SPSS helps to create reports of questionnaire data in the form of graphical presentations
which are ready for publications and reporting.
 SPSS research tool can compare and explore the differences between responses to two or
more questions. It’s very easy to find the difference between to batches of data.
 Using this tool we can make analysis according to the expected research goals and obtain
the gained results.
 SPSS is the powerful tool for data analyzing and it’s also used for SPSS data entry. It’s the first
step in statistical process and it should be very important to input data correctly.

The students are expected to perform the following functions in SPSS:

 1. Sorting file
2. Split file
3. Compute
4. Recode
5. Select cases

SORTING FILE

Sorting data allows us to re-organize the data in ascending or descending order with respect to a
specific variable. Same procedures in SPSS require that your data be sorted in a certain way
before the procedure will execute. Using SPSS and Pasw/sorting variables.

One of the function you will often want to perform in the data view of the data editor is sorting
by a variables values to bring those of similar value together. This can be a very useful when
exploring the raw data in your datasheet. There are two ways to do this. One is quite simple, the
other allows sorting on more than one variable.

STEPS

The simple way to sort variable values is to make sure you are looking at the data view tab.
Then scroll to the variable by which you want to sort. Right click on its column heading and a
context menu will appear. At the bottom of the context menu are two sorting options: “ sort
ascending” and “sort descending”. Choosing the first will move the smallest values to the top of
the data set while a descending sort will bring up the largest value. Keep in mind that SPSS
automatically (unlike excel) moves all rows in unison. So you don’t need to worry about cases
becoming misaligned when sorting.

Sometimes its useful to sort on multiple variables, which means that SPSS while sort the data set
by the values of the first variable than breaks ties in that sort by sorting on the values of the
second variable and so on. The sort on multiple variable at once choose “ data” >”sort cases” :

You will get dialog window:

The “sort order” box allows the choice between ascending or descending order once again. On
the left is a list of all the variables in the data set. Choose them the most important sort first by
clicking the variable involved and then the blue arrow and repeat.

Save your data set after sorting to retain it as a default sorting.

SPLIT FILE
Split file is a SPSS facility to perform any analysis sequence for each group defined by a
categorical split variables. When you turn split file on. It will be active until you turn it off
explicity or you replace the current data set with a different one.

STEPS

The data>split file dialog lets you control this mechanism. To active

 Choose either
 Compare groups: produces single tables including all groups
 Organize output by groups: produces separate tables for each group
 Select a variable region in our example for the group based on field
 Make sure to check sort the file by grouping variables is selected, if you are not
certain that the file is sorted on the grouping variable.

After clicking OK, split is activated ( you can see “split file on” in the status line of the SPSS
window) and any procedure you invoke now will be performed. Separately on each group
defined by the grouping variables as long as you do not turn off split file.

If you need to know what is current split variable you will have to open the data> split
file dialog.

COMPUTE
Sometimes you may need to compute a new variable based on existing information (from other
variables) in your data.

For example: you may want to:

 Convert the units of a variable from feet to meters.

 Use a subjects height and weight to compute their BMI.
 Compute a sub scale score from items on a survey
 Apply a competition conditionally so that a new variable is only computed for
cases where certain conditions are meet

In this tutorial we will discus how to compute variables in SPSS using numeric expressions,
built –in functions and conditional logic.

To compute a new variable. Click transform > compute variable

The compute variable window will open where you specify how to calculate your new variable
RECODE

Sometimes you will want to transform a variable by grouping its categories or values together.
For example: you may want to change a continuous variable into a categorical variable or you
may want to merge the categories of a normal variable. In SPSS this type of transform is
called recoding.

In SPSS there are three basic options for recoding variables.

 Recode in different variables

 Recode into same variables
 Do if syntax

Recoding into a different variable transforms an original variable into a new variable. That is the
changes do not overwrite the original variable, they are instead applied to a copy of the original
variable under a new name.
 STEPS

To recode into different variables click transform >recode into different variables

The recode into different variables window will appear. The left column lists all of the variables
in your data set. Select the variables you wish to recode by clicking it. Click the arrow in the
center to move the selected variable to the center text box.

SELECT CASES

Data files are not always organized to meet specific users need. For example: users may
wish to select specific subjects or split the data file into separate groups for analysis. If you have
two or more subjects groups in your data and you want to analyze each subject independently
you want to analyze each subject you can use the select case option.

STEPS

 Open the part1.sav data file provided in your computer. Make sure you are on data view
 Click the data menu, and then click select cases. The select cases dialog box opens.
Select the if condition is satisfied option
 Click the if button. The select cases: if dialog box opens. Select the gender variables in
the left box, and then click the transfer arrow button to move it to the right box. Click the
= button and then click the 1 button. Because the symbol 1 represents formals according to
our value levels we are telling SPSS to select only female participants.
 Click the continue button to return to the select cases dialog box. Click the OK button to
return to the data view. All males will be excluded from the statistical analysis.
 Run an analysis. Note the crossed out participants in the data file. Those represents all
the male participants.
 To undo the select cases open the select cases box and click the reset button.
 Experiment 2: A Chi-square goodness-of-fit test in SPSS
The four steps below show you how to analyse your data using a chi-square goodness-of-fit test
in SPSS Statistics when you have hypothesised that you have equal expected proportions (N.B.,
if you are unclear about the differences between equal and unequal expected proportions, see
the Introduction). Also, it is important to note that this procedure will only give you the correct
results if you have set up your data correctly in SPSS Statistics (N.B., if you have entered the
summated frequencies for each group of your categorical variable, this procedure will only work
if you have already "weighted" your cases, as we explained in the Data Setup section earlier, but
if you have entered all of your data into SPSS Statistics in raw form, this procedure will not give
the correct results). In our enhanced chi-square goodness-of-fit test guide, we show all the SPSS
Statistics procedures for when you have equal and unequal expected proportions, as well as when
you have to weight your cases or have not summated your data. If you only need to follow this
"quick start" guide for equal expected proportions (without the weighting of cases), the four
steps you need are shown below. At the end of these four steps, we show you how to interpret
the results from this test.

 Click Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Legacy Dialogs > Chi-square... on the top
menu as shown below:

Note: If you are on older versions of SPSS Statistics, you will not have to go through the Legacy
Dialogs me
 Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

 You will be presented with the Chi-square Test dialogue box, as shown below:
 Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

 Transfer the gift_type variable into the Test Variable List: box by using the button, as
shown below:

Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

Keep the All categories equal option selected in the –Expected Values– area as we are assuming equal
proportions for each category.

 Click the button to generate the output.

Experiment 3: Exploratory Factor Analysis
The Exploratory factor analysis can be found in Analyze/Dimension Reduction/Factor…

In the dialog box of the factor analysis we start by adding our variables (the standardized tests math,
reading, and writing, as well as the aptitude tests 1-5) to the list of variables.
In the dialog Descriptives… we need to add a few statistics to verify the assumptions made by the
factor analysis. To verify the assumptions, we need the KMO test of sphericity and the Anti-Image
Correlation matrix.

The dialog box Extraction… allows us to specify the extraction method and the cut-off value for the
extraction. Generally, SPSS can extract as many factors as we have variables. In an exploratory
analysis, the eigenvalue is calculated for each factor extracted and can be used to determine the
number of factors to extract. A cutoff value of 1 is generally used to determine factors based on
eigenvalues.

Next, an appropriate extraction method need to be selected. Principal components is the default
extraction method in SPSS. It extracts uncorrelated linear combinations of the variables and gives
the first factor maximum amount of explained variance. All following factors explain smaller and
smaller portions of the variance and are all uncorrelated with each other. This method is
appropriate when the goal is to reduce the data, but is not appropriate when the goal is to identify
latent constructs.

The second most common extraction method is principal axis factoring. This method is appropriate
when attempting to identify latent constructs, rather than simply reducing the data. In our research
question, we are interested in the dimensions behind the variables, and therefore we are going to use
principal axis factoring.

The next step is to select a rotation method. After extracting the factors, SPSS can rotate the factors
to better fit the data. The most commonly used method is varimax. Varimax is an orthogonal
rotation method that tends produce factor loading that are either very high or very low, making it
easier to match each item with a single factor. If non-orthogonal factors are desired (i.e., factors
that can be correlated), a direct oblimin rotation is appropriate. Here, we choose varimax.
In the dialog box Options we can manage how missing values are treated – it might be appropriate to
replace them with the mean, which does not change the correlation matrix but ensures that we do not
over penalize missing values. Also, we can specify in the output if we do not want to display all
factor loadings. The factor loading tables are much easier to read when we suppress small factor
loadings. Default value is 0.1, but in this case, we will increase this value to 0.4. The last step
would be to save the results in the Scores… dialog. This automatically creates standardized scores
representing each extracted factor.
Experiment 4: The Cluster Analysis in SPSS
Our research question for this example cluster analysis is as follows:
What homogenous clusters of students emerge based on standardized test scores in mathematics,
reading, and writing?
In SPSS Cluster Analyses can be found in Analyze/Classify…. SPSS offers three methods for the
cluster analysis: K-Means Cluster, Hierarchical Cluster, and Two-Step Cluster.
K-means cluster is a method to quickly cluster large data sets. The researcher define the number
of clusters in advance. This is useful to test different models with a different assumed number of
clusters.
Hierarchical cluster is the most common method. It generates a series of models with cluster
solutions from 1 (all cases in one cluster) to n (each case is an individual cluster). Hierarchical
cluster also works with variables as opposed to cases; it can cluster variables together in a
manner somewhat similar to factor analysis. In addition, hierarchical cluster analysis can handle
nominal, ordinal, and scale data; however it is not recommended to mix different levels of
measurement.
Two-step cluster analysis identifies groupings by running pre-clustering first and then by running
hierarchical methods. Because it uses a quick cluster algorithm upfront, it can handle large data
sets that would take a long time to compute with hierarchical cluster methods. In this respect, it
is a combination of the previous two approaches. Two-step clustering can handle scale and
ordinal data in the same model, and it automatically selects the number of clusters.
The hierarchical cluster analysis follows three basic steps: 1) calculate the distances, 2) link the
clusters, and 3) choose a solution by selecting the right number of clusters.
First, we have to select the variables upon which we base our clusters. In the dialog window we
add the math, reading, and writing tests to the list of variables. Since we want to cluster cases we
leave the rest of the tick marks on the default.

In the dialog box Statistics… we can specify whether we want to output the proximity matrix
(these are the distances calculated in the first step of the analysis) and the predicted cluster
membership of the cases in our observations. Again, we leave all settings on default.
In the dialog box Plots… we should add the Dendrogram. The Dendrogram will graphically show
how the clusters are merged and allows us to identify what the appropriate number of clusters is.

The dialog box Method… allows us to specify the distance measure and the clustering method.
First, we need to define the correct distance measure. SPSS offers three large blocks of distance
measures for interval (scale), counts (ordinal), and binary (nominal) data.
For interval data, the most common is Square Euclidian Distance. It is based on the Euclidian
Distance between two observations, which is the square root of the sum of squared distances.
Since the Euclidian Distance is squared, it increases the importance of large distances, while
weakening the importance of small distances.

If we have ordinal data (counts) we can select between Chi-Square or a standardized Chi-Square
called Phi-Square. For binary data, the Squared Euclidean Distance is commonly used.
In our example, we choose Interval and Square Euclidean Distance.

Next, we have to choose the Cluster Method. Typically, choices are between-groups linkage
(distance between clusters is the average distance of all data points within these clusters), nearest
neighbor (single linkage: distance between clusters is the smallest distance between two data
points), furthest neighbor (complete linkage: distance is the largest distance between two data
points), and Ward’s method (distance is the distance of all clusters to the grand average of the
sample). Single linkage works best with long chains of clusters, while complete linkage works
best with dense blobs of clusters. Between-groups linkage works with both cluster types. It is
recommended is to use single linkage first. Although single linkage tends to create chains of
clusters, it helps in identifying outliers. After excluding these outliers, we can move onto Ward’s
method. Ward’s method uses the F value (like in ANOVA) to maximize the significance of
differences between clusters.

A last consideration is standardization. If the variables have different scales and means we
might want to standardize either to Z scores or by centering the scale. We can also transform the
values to absolute values if we have a data set where this might be appropriate.
Experiment 5: The Logistic Regression Analysis in SPSS
First we need to check that all cells in our model are populated. Although the logistic regression is
robust against multivariate normality and therefore better suited for smaller samples than a probit
model, we still need to check, because we don’t have any categorical variables in our design we will
skip this step.
Logistic Regression is found in SPSS under Analyze/Regression/Binary Logistic…

This opens the dialogue box to specify the model

Here we need to enter the nominal variable Exam (pass = 1, fail = 0) into the dependent variable box
and we enter all aptitude tests as the first block of covariates in the model.
The menu categorical… allows to specify contrasts for categorical variables (which we do not have
in our logistic regression model), and options offers several additional statistics, which don’t need.
The first table just shows the sample size.

The next 3 tables are the results fort he intercept model. That is the Maximum Likelihood model if
only the intercept is included without any of the dependent variables in the analysis. This is basically
only interesting to calculate the Pseudo R² that describe the goodness of fit for the logistic model.

The relevant tables can be found in the section ‘Block 1’ in the SPSS output of our logistic regression
analysis. The first table includes the Chi-Square goodness of fit test. It has the null hypothesis that
intercept and all coefficients are zero. We can reject this null hypothesis.

The next table includes the Pseudo R², the -2 log likelihood is the minimization criteria used by
SPSS. We see that Nagelkerke’s R² is 0.409 which indicates that the model is good but not great.
Cox & Snell’s R² is the nth root (in our case the 107th of the -2log likelihood improvement. Thus we
can interpret this as 30% probability of the event passing the exam is explained by the logistic
model.

The next table contains the classification results, with almost 80% correct classification the model is
not too bad – generally a discriminant analysis is better in classifying data correctly.

The last table is the most important one for our logistic regression analysis. It shows the regression
function -1.898 + .148*x1 – .022*x2 – .047*x3 – .052*x4 + .011*x5. The table also includes the test
of significance for each of the coefficients in the logistic regression model. For small samples the t-
values are not valid and the Wald statistic should be used instead. Wald is basically t² which is Chi-
Square distributed with df=1. However, SPSS gives the significance levels of each coefficient. As we
can see, only Apt1 is significant all other variables are not.

If we change the method from Enter to Forward:Wald the quality of the logistic regression
improves. Now only the significant coefficients are included in the logistic regression equation. In
our case this is Apt1 and the intercept.
We see that , and we know that a 1 point higher score in the Apt1 test
multiplies the odds of passing the exam by 1.17 (exp(.158)). We can also calculate the critical
value which is Apt1 > -intercept/coefficient > -5.270/.158 > 33.35. That is if a pupil scored higher
than
33.35 on the Aptitude Test 1 the logistic regression predicts that this pupil will pass the final exam.

Experiment 6: Discriminant Analysis

SPSS will do stepwise DFA. You simply specify which method you wish to employ for
selecting predictors. The most economical method is the Wilks lambda method,” which selects
predictors that minimize Wilks lambda. As with stepwise multiple regression, you may set the
criteria for entry and removal (F criteria or p criteria), or you may take the defaults.

Imagine that you are working as a statistician for the Internal Revenue Service. You are
told that another IRS employee has developed four composite scores (X 1 - X4), easily
computable from the information that taxpayers provide on their income tax returns and from
other databases to which the IRS has access. These composite scores were developed in the
hope that they would be useful for discriminating tax cheaters from other persons. To see if
these composite scores actually have any predictive validity, the IRS selects a random sample of
taxpayers and audits their returns. Based on this audit, each taxpayer is placed into one of three
groups: Group 1 is persons who overpaid their taxes by a considerable amount, Group 2 is
persons who paid the correct amount, and Group 3 is persons who underpaid their taxes by a
considerable amount. X1 through X4 are then computed for each of these taxpayers. You are
given a data file with group membership, X 1, X2, X3, and X4 for each taxpayer, with an equal
number of subjects in each group. Your job is to use discriminant function analysis to develop a
pair of discriminant functions (weighted sums of X1 through X4) to predict group membership.
You use a fully stepwise selection procedure to develop a (maybe) reduced (less than four
predictors) model. You employ the WILKS method of selecting variables to be entered or
deleted, using the default p criterion for entering and removing variables.

Your data file is DFA-STEP.sav, which is available on Karl’s SPSS-Data page --

download it and then bring it into SPSS. To do the DFA, click Analyze, Classify, and then put
Group into the Grouping Variable box, defining its range from 1 to 3. Put X1 through X4 in the
“Independents” box, and select the stepwise method.

Click Method and select “Wilks’ lambda” and “Use probability of F.” Click Continue.
Under Statistics, ask for the group means. Under Classify, ask for a territorial map. Continue,
OK.

Look at the output, “Variables Not in the Analysis.” At Step 0 the tax groups (overpaid, paid
correct, underpaid) differ most on X3 ( drops to .636 if X3 is entered) and “Sig. of F to enter” is
less than .05, so that predictor is entered first. After entering X3, all remaining predictors are
eligible for entry, but X1 most reduces lambda, so it enters. The Wilks lambda is reduced from
.635 to .171. On the next step, only X2 is eligible to enter, and it does, lowering Wilks lambda to
.058. At this point no variable already in meets the criterion for removal and no variable out
meets the criterion for entry, so the analysis stops.

Look back at the Step 0 statistics. Only X2 and X3 were eligible for entry. Note, however, that
after X3 was entered, the p to enter dropped for all remaining predictors. Why? X3 must
suppress irrelevant variance in the other predictors (and vice versa). After X1 is added to X3, p to
enter for X4 rises, indicating redundancy of X4 with X1.

Interpretation of the Output from the Example Program

If you look at the standardized coefficients and loadings you will see that high scores on DF1
result from high X3 and low X1. If you look back at the group means you will see that those
who underpaid are characterized by having low X 3 and high X1, and thus low DF1. This
suggests that DF1 is good for discriminating the cheaters (those who underpaid) from the others.
The centroids confirm this.

If you look at the standardized coefficients and loadings for DF2 you will see that high DF2
scores come from having high X2 and low X1. From the group means you see that those who
overpaid will have low DF2 (since they have a low X2 and a high X1). DF2 seems to be good for
separating those who overpaid from the others, as confirmed by the centroids for DF2.

In the territorial map the underpayers are on the left, having a low DF1 (high X1 and low X3).
The overpayers are on the lower right, having a high DF1 and a low DF2 (low X2, high X3, high
X1). Those who paid the correct amount are in the upper right, having a high DF1 and a high
DF2 (low X1, high X2, high X3).
 Experiment 7: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a multivariate statistical procedure that is used to test how
well the measured variables represent the number of constructs. Confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) are similar techniques, but in exploratory factor
analysis (EFA), data is simply explored and provides information about the numbers of factors
required to represent the data. In exploratory factor analysis, all measured variables are related to
every latent variable. But in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), researchers can specify the
number of factors required in the data and which measured variable is related to which latent
variable. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a tool that is used to confirm or reject the
measurement theory.

General Purpose – Procedure

1. Defining individual construct: First, we have to define the individual constructs. The
first step involves the procedure that defines constructs theoretically. This involves a pretest to
evaluate the construct items, and a confirmatory test of the measurement model that is conducted
using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), etc.
2. Developing the overall measurement model theory: In confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA), we should consider the concept of unidimensionality between construct error variance
and within construct error variance. At least four constructs and three items per constructs
should be present in the research.
3. Designing a study to produce the empirical results: The measurement model must be
specified. Most commonly, the value of one loading estimate should be one per construct. Two
methods are available for identification; the first is rank condition, and the second is order
condition.
4. Assessing the measurement model validity: Assessing the measurement model validity
occurs when the theoretical measurement model is compared with the reality model to see how
well the data fits. To check the measurement model validity, the number of the indicator helps
us. For example, the factor loading latent variable should be greater than 0.7. Chi-square test
and other goodness of fit statistics like RMR, GFI, NFI, RMSEA, SIC, BIC, etc., are some key
indicators that help in measuring the model validity.
Assumptions
The assumptions of a CFA include multivariate normality, a sufficient sample size (n >200), the
correct a priori model specification, and data must come from a random sample.

Experiment 8: Conjoint Analysis

A graphical user interface is not yet available for the Conjoint procedure. To obtain a conjoint analysis,
you must enter command syntax for a CONJOINT command into a syntax window and then run it. v For
an example of command syntax for a CONJOINT command in the context of a complete conjoint
analysis--including generating and displaying an orthogonal design--see . v For complete command
syntax information about the CONJOINT command, see the Command Syntax Reference. To Run a
Command from a Syntax Window From the menus choose: File > New > Syntax... This opens a syntax
window. 1. Enter the command syntax for the CONJOINT command. 2. Highlight the command in the
syntax window, and click the Run button (the right-pointing triangle) on the Syntax Editor toolbar. See
the Core System User’s Guide for more information about running commands in syntax windows.
Requirements The Conjoint procedure requires two files—a data file and a plan file—and the
specification of how data were recorded (for example, each data point is a preference score from 1 to
100). The plan file consists of the set of product profiles to be rated by the subjects and should be
generated using the Generate Orthogonal Design procedure. The data file contains the preference scores
or rankings of those profiles collected from the subjects. The plan and data files are specified with the
PLAN and DATA subcommands, respectively. The method of data recording is specified with the
SEQUENCE, RANK, or SCORE subcommands. The following command syntax shows a minimal
specification: CONJOINT PLAN=’CPLAN.SAV’ /DATA=’RUGRANKS.SAV’ /SEQUENCE=PREF1
TO PREF22. Specifying the Plan File and the Data File The CONJOINT command provides a number of
options for specifying the plan file and the data file. v You can explicitly specify the filenames for the two
files. For example: CONJOINT PLAN=’CPLAN.SAV’ /DATA=’RUGRANKS.SAV’ v If only a plan file
or data file is specified, the CONJOINT command reads the specified file and uses the active dataset as
the other. For example, if you specify a data file but omit a plan file (you cannot omit both), the active
dataset is used as the plan, as shown in the following example: CONJOINT DATA=’RUGRANKS.SAV’
v You can use the asterisk (*) in place of a filename to indicate the active dataset, as shown in the
following example: CONJOINT PLAN=’CPLAN.SAV’ /DATA=* The active dataset is used as the
preference data. Note that you cannot use the asterisk (*) for both the plan file and the data file. ©
Copyright IBM Corporation 1989, 2013 9 Specifying How Data Were Recorded You must specify the
way in which preference data were recorded. Data can be recorded in one of three ways: sequentially, as
rankings, or as preference scores. These three methods are indicated by the SEQUENCE, RANK, and
SCORE subcommands. You must specify one, and only one, of these subcommands as part of a
CONJOINT command. SEQUENCE Subcommand The SEQUENCE subcommand indicates that data
were recorded sequentially so that each data point in the data file is a profile number, starting with the
most preferred profile and ending with the least preferred profile. This is how data are recorded if the
subject is asked to order the profiles from the most to the least preferred. The researcher records which
profile number was first, which profile number was second, and so on. CONJOINT PLAN=*
/DATA=’RUGRANKS.SAV’ /SEQUENCE=PREF1 TO PREF22. v The variable PREF1 contains the
profile number for the most preferred profile out of 22 profiles in the orthogonal plan. The variable
PREF22 contains the profile number for the least preferred profile in the plan. RANK Subcommand The
RANK subcommand indicates that each data point is a ranking, starting with the ranking of profile 1, then
the ranking of profile 2, and so on. This is how the data are recorded if the subject is asked to assign a
rank to each profile, ranging from 1 to n, where n is the number of profiles. A lower rank implies greater
preference. CONJOINT PLAN=* /DATA=’RUGRANKS.SAV’ /RANK=RANK1 TO RANK22. v The
variable RANK1 contains the ranking of profile 1, out of a total of 22 profiles in the orthogonal plan. The
variable RANK22 contains the ranking of profile 22. SCORE Subcommand The SCORE subcommand
indicates that each data point is a preference score assigned to the profiles, starting with the score of
profile 1, then the score of profile 2, and so on. This type of data might be generated, for example, by
asking subjects to assign a number from 1 to 100 to show how much they liked the profile. A higher score
implies greater preference.
Experiment 9: Time Series Analysis
The Apply Time Series Models procedure loads existing time series models from an external file
and applies them to the active dataset. You can use this procedure to obtain forecasts for series
for which new or revised data are available, without rebuilding your models. Models are
generated using the Time Series Modeler procedure. Example. You are an inventory manager
with a major retailer, and responsible for each of 5,000 products. You've used the Expert
Modeler to create models that forecast sales for each product three months into the future. Your
data warehouse is refreshed each month with actual sales data which you'd like to use to produce
monthly updated forecasts. The Apply Time Series Models procedure allows you to accomplish
this using the original models, and simply reestimating model parameters to account for the new
data. Statistics. Goodness-of-fit measures: stationary R-square, R-square (R 2 ), root mean square
error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), maximum
absolute error (MaxAE), maximum absolute percentage error (MaxAPE), normalized Bayesian
information criterion (BIC). Residuals: autocorrelation function, partial autocorrelation function,
Ljung-Box Q. Plots. Summary plots across all models: histograms of stationary R-square, R-
square (R 2 ), root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), mean absolute
percentage error (MAPE), maximum absolute error (MaxAE), maximum absolute percentage
error (MaxAPE), normalized Bayesian information criterion (BIC); box plots of residual
autocorrelations and partial autocorrelations. Results for individual models: forecast values, fit
values, observed values, upper and lower confidence limits, residual autocorrelations and partial
autocorrelations. Apply Time Series Models Data Considerations Data. Variables (dependent and
independent) to which models will be applied should be numeric. Assumptions. Models are
applied to variables in the active dataset with the same names as the variables specified in the
model. All such variables are treated as time series, meaning that each case represents a time
point, with successive cases separated by a constant time interval. v Forecasts. For producing
forecasts using models with independent (predictor) variables, the active dataset should contain
values of these variables for all cases in the forecast period. If model parameters are reestimated,
then independent variables should not contain any missing values in the estimation period.
Defining Dates The Apply Time Series Models procedure requires that the periodicity, if any, of
the active dataset matches the periodicity of the models to be applied. If you're simply
forecasting using the same dataset (perhaps with new or revised data) as that used to the build the
model, then this condition will be satisfied. If no periodicity exists for the active dataset, you will
be given the opportunity to navigate to the Define Dates dialog box to create one. If, however,
the models were created without specifying a periodicity, then the active dataset should also be
without one.
To Apply Models

1. From the menus choose: Analyze > Forecasting > Apply Models...

2. Enter the file specification for a model file or click Browse and select a model file (model files
are created with the Time Series Modeler procedure).

Optionally, you can: v Reestimate model parameters using the data in the active dataset.
Forecasts are created using the reestimated parameters. v Save predictions, confidence intervals,
and noise residuals. v Save reestimated models in XML format. Model Parameters and Goodness
of Fit Measures Load from model file. Forecasts are produced using the model parameters from
the model file without reestimating those parameters. Goodness of fit measures displayed in
output and used to filter models (best- or worst-fitting) are taken from the model file and reflect
the data used when each model was developed (or last updated). With this option, forecasts do
not take into account historical data--for either dependent or independent variables--in the active
dataset. You must choose Reestimate from data if you want historical data to impact the
forecasts. In addition, forecasts do not take into account values of the dependent series in the
forecast period--but they do take into account values of independent variables in the forecast
period. If you have more current values of the dependent series and want them to be included in
the forecasts, you need to reestimate, adjusting the estimation period to include these values.
Reestimate from data. Model parameters are reestimated using the data in the active dataset.
Reestimation of model parameters has no effect on model structure. For example, an
ARIMA(1,0,1) model will remain so, but the autoregressive and moving-average parameters will
be reestimated. Reestimation does not result in the detection of new outliers. Outliers, if any, are
always taken from the model file. v Estimation Period. The estimation period defines the set of
cases used to reestimate the model parameters. By default, the estimation period includes all
cases in the active dataset. To set the estimation period, select Based on time or case range in the
Select Cases dialog box. Depending on available data, the estimation period used by the
procedure may vary by model and thus differ from the displayed value. For a given model, the
true estimation period is the period left after eliminating any contiguous missing values, from the
model's dependent variable, occurring at the beginning or end of the specified estimation period.
Forecast Period The forecast period for each model always begins with the first case after the end
of the estimation period and goes through either the last case in the active dataset or a user-
specified date. If parameters are not reestimated (this is the default), then the estimation period
for each model is the set of cases used when the model was developed (or last updated). v First
case after end of estimation period through last case in active dataset. Select this option when the
end of the estimation period is prior to the last case in the active dataset, and you want forecasts
through the last case. v First case after end of estimation period through a specified date. Select
this option to explicitly specify the end of the forecast period. Enter values for all of the cells in
the Date grid. If no date specification has been defined for the active dataset, the Date grid shows
the single column Observation. To specify the end of the forecast period, enter the row number
(as displayed in the Data Editor) of the relevant case. The Cycle column (if present) in the Date
grid refers to the value of the CYCLE_ variable in the active dataset. Output Available output
includes results for individual models as well as results across all models. Results for individual
models can be limited to a set of best- or poorest-fitting models based on user-specified criteria.

Statistics and Forecast Tables The Statistics tab provides options for displaying tables of model
fit statistics, model parameters, autocorrelation functions, and forecasts. Unless model
parameters are reestimated (Reestimate from data on the Models tab), displayed values of fit
measures, Ljung-Box values, and model parameters are those from the model file and reflect the
data used when each model was developed (or last updated). Outlier information is always taken
from the model file. Display fit measures, Ljung-Box statistic, and number of outliers by model.
Select (check) this option to display a table containing selected fit measures, Ljung-Box value,
and the number of outliers for each model. Fit Measures. You can select one or more of the
following for inclusion in the table containing fit measures for each model: v Stationary R-square
v R-square v Root mean square error v Mean absolute percentage error v Mean absolute error v
Maximum absolute percentage error v Maximum absolute error v Normalized BIC See the topic
Chapter 6, “Goodness-of-Fit Measures,” on page 25 for more information. Statistics for
Comparing Models. This group of options controls the display of tables containing statistics
across all models. Each option generates a separate table. You can select one or more of the
following options: v Goodness of fit. Table of summary statistics and percentiles for stationary
R-square, R-square, root mean square error, mean absolute percentage error, mean absolute
error, maximum absolute percentage error, maximum absolute error, and normalized Bayesian
Information Criterion. v Residual autocorrelation function (ACF). Table of summary statistics
and percentiles for autocorrelations of the residuals across all estimated models. This table is
only available if model parameters are reestimated (Reestimate from data on the Models tab). v
Residual partial autocorrelation function (PACF). Table of summary statistics and percentiles for
partial autocorrelations of the residuals across all estimated models. This table is only available if
model parameters are reestimated (Reestimate from data on the Models tab). Statistics for
Individual Models. This group of options controls display of tables containing detailed
information for each model. Each option generates a separate table. You can select one or more
of the following options: v Parameter estimates. Displays a table of parameter estimates for each
model. Separate tables are displayed for exponential smoothing and ARIMA models. If outliers
exist, parameter estimates for them are also displayed in a separate table. v Residual
autocorrelation function (ACF). Displays a table of residual autocorrelations by lag for each
estimated model. The table includes the confidence intervals for the autocorrelations. This table
is only available if model parameters are reestimated (Reestimate from data on the Models tab).
v Residual partial autocorrelation function (PACF). Displays a table of residual partial
autocorrelations by lag for each estimated model. The table includes the confidence intervals for
the partial autocorrelations. This table is only available if model parameters are reestimated
(Reestimate from data on the Models tab). Display forecasts. Displays a table of model forecasts
and confidence intervals for each model.

Experiment 10: MANOVA

The research question indicates that this analysis has multiple independent variables (exam and gender)
and multiple dependent variables (math, reading, and writing test scores). We will skip the check for
multivariate normality of the dependent variables; the sample we are going to look at has some violations
of the assumption set forth by the MANOVA. The MANOVA can be found in SPSS in Analyze/General
Linear Model/Multivariate◻, which opens the dialog for multivariate GLM procedure (that is GLM with
more than one dependent variable). The multivariate GLM model is used to specify the MANOVAs.
Additional Experiment:
Experiment 11: Decision Tree Analysis
SPSS Modeler is statistical analysis software used for data analysis, data mining and forecasting.
Statistical analysis allows us to use a sample of data to make predictions about a larger
population. Creating predictive models utilizing the information currently at your fingertips to
predict what decisions will impact your future success. Predictive analytics is hugely important
as it allows you to see into the future and make quality decisions based on long term planning.
Decision tree analyses are popular models because they indicate which predictors are most
strongly related to the target. The purpose of decision trees is to model a series of events and
look at how it affects an outcome. This type of model calculates a set of conditional probabilities
based on different scenarios.
This blog will detail how to create a simple predictive model using a CHAID analysis and how
to interpret the decision tree results. In this example I will be predicting student enrollment,
which has two categories Yes, meaning those students who did enroll in the university and No,
those students who did not enroll.
Creating the Model:
Starting from the sources tab I’m going to drag in a statistics file node and import the .sav file
from my local machine.

To view the data drag in a table node and attach it to the statistics node already on the canvas.
Click run and double click to view the table output.

The next step in the process is to read in the data using a type node. The type node specifies
metadata and data properties for each field: the measurement level, data values, the role and
missing value definitions. From the screenshot you can see that the field enroll is our target.
Next drag a CHAID node and attach it to the existing type node. CHAID stands for chi square
automatic interaction detection and is one of the more popular decision tree models. And really
what’s going on behind the scenes is that the model is running the chi square test many times.
This will make more sense in just a little bit, but essentially, the model is picking the predictors
with the strongest relationship with the outcome field and that is determined by the field that has
the highest chi square statistic.

Edit the CHAID node and make sure the target is set correctly. You can also remove
any inputs or predictors that you don’t want included in the model. When you’re
ready click the Run icon in the lower left hand corner to create the model.
If all goes well you will get the golden nugget. Double click the nugget to see the results.
What we have here are the top predictors of enrollment. The top three predictors are financial
aid, overnight visit and alumni meeting. In total there were six predictors that the model deemed
important. To view the decision tree click on the Viewer tab.

Interpreting the Results:

The decision tree starts with the root node, which simply shows the distribution of the outcome
field, which as we know is enrollment. The data is then split based on statistical significance by
the predictor with the strongest relationship with the target field, financial aid in this case. And
you can see that there are five “buckets” that financial aid has been split into (0%, 1%-25%,
26%-5-%, 51%-75% and 75% +). Looking at those students who were offered a 51%-75%
financial aid package, the model was able to predict that those students would enroll roughly
54% of the time. This prediction applied to 416 students and the model was accurate 224 times.

As we continue to work our way down the tree, we see that the next most important variable is
an overnight visit. If a student was offered a financial aid package of 51%-75% and also took an
overnight visit we were able to accurately predict that they would enroll around 93% of the time.
Alternatively, if students did not take an overnight visit we predicted that they would not enroll
63% of the time. This rule applied to 289 students and we were accurate about 183 times.

And just like that we continue to work our way down the tree to the next most significant
variable until we reach a terminal node, which signifies that the prediction has ended.
This was a simple decision tree aimed as showing which variables help us to accurately predict
student enrollment. Keep in mind that predictive analytics can be applied in a variety of
industries including education, retail, healthcare and finance just to name a few.