Chapter - 2

Food Packaging and Storage

Supta Sarkar and Aparna Kuna

Abstract

Food Packaging is one of the most important processes in food industry

which helps in maintaining the quality of food products during storage,
transportation and distribution. It is primarily done in order to protect the
food products from external influences like biological, chemical or
mechanical damage; to contain the food, preserve it in its state as packed by
preventing quality deterioration, and to attract consumers and provide
product and nutritional information. For years, ancient people consumed
fresh food which they could gather from their natural surroundings without
storing the food. As the nomadic culture evolved, the need for containers to
store food has also emerged. It took over 300 years for food packaging to
finally evolve into the current form. There are many packaging materials
used ever since. Each type of packaging material has a different role to play
in packaging. Also packaging material like biodegradable packaging or
edible packaging may ensure the world’s need for environment friendly and
natural foods which is a major global concern now-a-day. The food
packaging industry has revolutionized to a great extent in the recent years
with advancement of novel food packaging technologies, such as active
packaging, aseptic packaging, smart packaging, bioactive packaging, edible
packaging which are research trends. Advances in such packaging
technology may prevent food spoilage by maintaining the food standard at
the highest possible degree which may help in satisfying the needs of
consumers throughout the food supply chain as well as fulfilling the
requirements as per Food Packaging Laws.

Keywords: packaging, packaging material, food packaging techniques,

novel packaging technology, food packaging law, storage
Introduction
Packing: Food packaging is done in order to provide the basic
protection to food materials from various direct and indirect contaminants,

Page | 29
apart from protecting the food from damage, leakage, etc. Food packaging
also aids in preservation and storage of food throughout the supply chain.

Packaging: Packaging is generally done as a final process where packed

goods/products are further packaged into bigger boxes, courier bags, bubble
envelopes, cardboard, cartons or whatsoever. However, both the term
packing and packaging are commonly used interchangeably.

Packaging is an art of presenting a product. It is more about the

appearance, colour, design or presentation of the final product wrapped in a
material to attract the consumers. Packaging also plays an important role in
tempting customers and influencing their decision to purchase a product.

The packaging industry have revolutionized to a great extent in the

recent years. About few decades back, there used to be just gunny bags,
metal cans, glass jars for packing, whereas now-a-days products are mostly
found in neatly packaged attractive packs. Of late, development of novel
food packaging not only improved the shelf life of foods, but also enhanced
safety and quality of food, along with increasing convenience to consumers.
Types of packaging
1. Primary packaging
2. Secondary packaging
3. Tertiary packaging

. Primary packaging is the material which comes in direct contact

with the contents packed. It covers the product and holds it. This is
usually the smallest unit of distribution or use. Example: Chips
packet.

. Secondary packaging is the material present outside the primary

packaging. It is also used to group primary packages together.
Example: Paperboard cartons of breakfast cereals (like Cornflakes),
cartons or trays of beverage cans.

. Tertiary packaging is the material which holds secondary packages.

It is used for bulk packaging in order to ease handling,
transportation, distribution, shipping or storage. Example: Wooden
crates, cardboard cartons, etc.
Functions of food packaging
There are three major function of packing: Protection, Preservation,
Promotion.

Page | 30
 The primary function of food packaging is to protect food products from
outside influences like biological, chemical or mechanical damage; to
contain the food and preserve it in its state as packed and to attract
consumers and provide the ingredient and nutritional information.
Convenience, traceability, tampering or pilferage indication are secondary
functions of packaging which are of increasing importance. The goal of
food packaging is to fill and present food in a cost-effective way that
meet the industry requirements and also expectations, needs and
desires of the consumers, while maintaining the food safety and
minimizing environmental impact (Coles 2003, Marsh and Bugusu, 2007).
Some important features of an efficient food package are listed below:
. It should protect the food from microbial contamination
. It should protect the food from physical damage like breakage,
leakage, pilferage during transit or storage
. It should be tamper resistant
. It should prevent permeation of water vapour, gases (Ex. O2, CO2,
N2, ethylene) and other volatile compounds contributing to odour,
into or out of the package

. It should help in compression and reducing the bulk of some

commodities
. It should not be toxic and should resist transfer of compound
between the food packed and the packaging material
. It should have good printability or labelling features
. It should facilitate inthe handling, storage and transportation
. It should help in product differentiation, branding and
advertisement of the products. Example: AMUL butter, KISSAN
Jam, MAGGI noodles
. It should be attractive to tempt the onlooker to try it
. It should be of low cost, reusable or easily disposable
Brief history of food packaging evolution

For a very long-time ancient people consumed what they could gather
from their natural surroundings without giving a thought for storing the food.
As the nomadic culture of people has gradually changed to staying in
sheltered areas, the need for containers to store food has also emerged. And
ever since people realised the importance to store food for their next day’s
consumption, food packaging and storage technology evolved in its crude

Page | 31
form. In the primitive age, people were using plant leaves to cover the food
or hold it, which perhaps spurt the need for the beginning of food packaging
evolution. As civilisation progressed, the concept of protecting food
products has surfaced in response to the escalating needs. Until the 1800s
packaging materials were made with naturally occurring items such as
leaves, gourds, shells in order to hold food. Baskets were being weaved
with grasses, wood, and bamboo. Some of the early materials which was
used to shape into food containers were pottery, paper and glass (Berger
and Welt, 2009; Risch, 2009). It took over 150 years for food packaging
to undergo changes and finally emerge in its current form. (Sen and Das.
2016).
Types of packaging material

Packaging material plays a significant role in determining the shelf life

of a food product. The selection of right packaging materials and
technology is very much important, which helps in maintaining the
product quality during distribution and storage. Packaging materials
which have been traditionally used in food packaging includes paper,
paperboards, glass, metals and plastics.Today’s food packaging materials
are often combination of several other materials to exploit each material’s
functional or aesthetic properties. As research continues to improve
the properties of food packaging, it is inevitable on part of food
packaging industry to lower the impact of packaging material on
environment and also improve degradation properties of the packaging
material (Marsh and Bugusu, 2007).

1. Paper and paperboard

The use of paper and paperboards for food packaging is considered as

the oldest form of flexible packaging and dates back to the 17th century with
increased use in the later part of the 19th century (Kirwan 2003). Almost all
papers used for food packaging are usually made from cellulose fibre
derived from wood. The first step of manufacturing paper or paperboard is
pulping which is done by mechanical grinding of wood. Paper made from
this kind of pulp are relatively weak than chemical pulp. Chemical pulp is
made by treating wood chip with acid (sulphite pulp) or by alkali (sulphate
pulp) followed by washing. The fibre pulp is subjected to several treatments
with chemicals such as slimicides and strengthening agents before being
converted to paper (Marsh and Bugusu, 2007; Brennan, 2006).

Paper

Plain paper is not used for packing foods for longer duration due to its
poor barrier properties. When paper is used as primary packaging, it is
Page | 32
almost always treated, coated, laminated or lacquered with materials such as

Page | 32
waxes, resins, or lacquers to improve their functional and protective
properties. Various types of papers used as packaging material are as
follows (Marsh and Bugusu, 2007; Brennan, 2006):

Kraft paper: It is made from sulphate pulp (alkali treated). Kraft paper
is available in unbleached (brown) or bleached form. The untreated kraft is
the strongest of all paper. It is a multipurpose paper used for bags and
wrapping. It is also used for packing flour, sugar, dried fruits and vegetables.

Sulphite paper: It is made from pulp processed by acid digestion.

Sulphite paper is lighter and not as strong as kraft paper. It is glazed to
enhance its appearance and to increase its wet strength and oil resistance. To
improve print quality, it is usually coated and is also used with plastic or foil
laminates. It is used in the form of bags, sachets or wrappers for packaging
biscuits and confectionary.

Grease proof paper: Grease proof paper is made from sulphite pulp
(acid treated) through a process known as beating, where the fibres break up
and become gelatinous, because of longer than normal hydration period.
These fine broken fibres are then densely packed which is resistant to oils
but not wetting agents. Grease Proof paper is used to wrap oily foods like
snack foods, cookies, candy bars, etc. It is being replaced by plastic
packaging materials.

Glassine: Glassine is processed grease proof paper which undergoes

further hydration in order to produce a very densely packed sheet with a
great smooth and glossy finish. Glassine has some resistance to moisture
penetration unlike grease proof paper. It is used as a liner for biscuits,
cooking fats like butter, fast foods, and baked goods.

Parchment paper: Parchment paper is made from acid-treated pulp

(passed through a bath of sulfuric acid) which is later washed, neutralised
and dried. The acid modifies the cellulose and makes it smooth and
impermeable to water and oil. However, it is not a good barrier to air and
moisture. It is used to pack fats such as butter.
2. Paperboard

Paperboard was first used in the early 1800s to manufacture folding

cartons (Risch, 2009). It is produced from the same material like paper but
unlike paper, it is thicker with a higher weight per unit area. It often consists
of two or more layers of pulp of different quality with a total thickness in
the range 300- 1100µm. It is commonly used for making secondary or
tertiary packages like boxes, cartons and trays. It rarely comes in direct food
contact

Page | 33
with the food. The various types of paperboard are as follows (Soroka,
1999; Brennan, 2006):

White board: Whiteboard is made from several thin layers of bleached

chemical pulp. It is usually used as the inner layer of a carton which may be
wax coated or laminated with plastic like polyethylene for giving it heat
sealable property. White board is the only paperboard which is
recommended as primary package for direct food contact.

Solid board: Solid board has multiple layers of bleached sulfate board,
which provides strength and durability. Solid boards are more rigid than
cartons, which provide more mechanical protection. It is laminated with
plastic like polyethylene to create liquid cartons (known as milk board).
Solid board is also used to package beverages like fruit juices and soft
drinks.
Chipboard: Chipboard is a recycled paper made from a mixture of
repulped waste with mechanical or chemical pulp. It often contains
blemishes and impurities of the original paper from which it is recycled, thus
making it unsuitable for direct contact with food, printing and folding. To
improve both appearance and strength, it is often lined with whiteboard. It is
the least expensive form of paperboard and is generally used to make the
outer layers of cartons for foods such as tea and cereals.

Fibreboard: Fibreboard can be solid or corrugated. The solid fibreboard

has an inner white board layer and outer kraft layer which gives good
protection against mechanical damage. Solid fibreboard can give better
barrier properties when they are laminated with plastics or aluminium. It is
used to package dry products such as coffee and milk powder. The
corrugated fibreboard is made with two layers of kraft paper with a central
corrugating material. Fibreboards are resistant to abrasion and crushing
damage which makes it most widely used package for bulk food shipping.
Corrugated boxes that are widely used today were developed in the 1850s, to
hold a number of smaller packages and as a shipping container [Risch,
2009].

Paper laminates: Paper laminates are produced based on kraft (alkali

treated) and sulfite pulp (acid treated). They can be laminated with plastic or
aluminium to improve various functional properties. For example, paper can
be laminated with polyethylene to make it heat sealable and to improve the
barrier properties for gas and moisture. It is used to package dried products
such as spices, herbs, and soups.

Page | 34
3. Glass
In food packaging, glass has an extremely long history. It is believed
that the 1st glass objects for holding food have appeared around 3000BC
(Sacharow and Griffin 1980). The glass containers are produced by heating a
mixture of sand (73%) which consists silica (99% SiO2) as its main
component, broken glass or ‘cullet’ (15-30% of total weight), soda
ash/sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and limestone/calcium carbonate (CaCO3 or
CaCO3.MgCO3) and alumina (stabilizers) to a temperature of 1350- 1600
˚C until the materials melt into a thick liquid mass. The molten glass is
then poured in moulds and shaped. Recycled broken glass (called as cullet)
is also used in manufacturing of glass which may account for as much as
60% of all raw materials (Marsh and Bugusu, 2007; Fellows, 2000). There
are several advantages and disadvantages of glass container as described
by Fellows, 2000 and Marsh and Bugusu, 2007.
Advantages

1. They are impermeable to moisture, gases, odours, vapors

and micro-organisms thus maintains product freshness for a
long duration without compromising on taste, flavor or safety
2. They are inert and do not react with the food packed or migrate
into food products
3. They have the ability to withstand high processing temperatures
makes it suitable for heat sterilization or heat processing when
hermitically sealed
4. They are transparent to microwaves
5. They are transparent to display the contents which allows
consumers to see the product
6. They can be molded into numerous different of shapes and colours
7. The variations in glass color can protect light-sensitive contents
8. They have filling speeds with those of cans
9. They are rigid, provides good insulation and have good vertical
strength to allow stacking without damage to the container
10. They are re-useable, resealable, and recyclable
Disadvantages

. Despite efforts being made to use thinner glass, its heavy weight
incurs higher transportation costs than other types of packaging

Page | 35
 . Its brittleness and lower resistance to mechanical damage compared
to other materials, makes it susceptible to breakage, fracture from
internal or external pressure or impact and thermal shock
. It can have potentially serious hazards from glass splinters in foods
4. Metal
Metal is the most versatile of all packaging forms and plays a very
important role in the process of food packaging, preservation and storage -
“Canning”. During the past century canned food has become an important
part of diet in the developed as well as developing countries. It offers
excellent physical protection and barrier properties. Its formability and
printability, recyclability, and consumer acceptance makes it a multifaceted
material. The most predominantly used metals in food packaging are
Aluminium and Steel (Marsh & Bugusu, 2007). Coated plates (tinplate, tin
free steel, polymer coated steel) are also commonly used metal food
packaging material.

Aluminium

Aluminum is a, silvery white light-weight metal derived from bauxite

ore, where it exists in combination with oxygen as alumina. The
aluminum oxide gives it a highly effective barrier property against air,
temperature, moisture, and chemical. It is widely used in food
industry as primary package. Unlike many other metals, its highly
malleable property makes it more versatile as it can be easily converted
to thin sheets and folded or rolled. Since it is easy to reclaim and process
into new products, it makes an ideal material for recycling. Aluminium
and its various alloys have high resistance to most forms of corrosion.
Aluminium is normally coated for packaging applications. The major
disadvantage of aluminum is its high cost compared to other metals like
steel, and its inability to be welded which makes it suitable only for
making seamless containers (Marsh & Bugusu, 2007). Aluminium used
for food packaging is mainly found in 2 forms: Aluminium foil &
Aluminium cans.

Aluminium foil: Aluminum foil is produced by rolling very thin sheets

of pure aluminium metal followed by annealing. Aluminium foils are made
in a wide range of thicknesses. The thinner foils are used to wrap food
and the thicker foils are used for making trays or containers. Aluminium foil
acts as an excellent barrier to light, gas, odours, flavours, moistness
and microorganisms. Aluminium foil trays or containers are used to pack
take- away meals or to bake, whereas aluminium foil is used for wrapping
food in order to preserve it. It is widely sold in the market in form of rolls.
Page | 36
 Aluminium can: In food industry it is primarily used for packaging
beverages. Aluminum’s malleable property offers ease of manufacturing
cans which can be made into two-piece cans. Two-piece cans are cans where
the bottom and body are drawn out of a single piece of aluminum which is
generally available in the form of a flat plate or shallow cup and the top of
the can is simply stamped. Most aluminum cans are made of two pieces.
After filling the can, top of the can is also sealed.
5. Tin

Tin Can is a misnomer since tin cans are made from tin plate, which
is low carbon steel with a thin layer of tin on both sides. The coating is done
by dipping sheets of steel in hot molten tin or by the electrodeposition of tin
on the sheets of steel known as electrolytic tinplate. Although tin
provides corrosion resistance property to the steel, tinplate containers
are often lacquered with different resins (epoxy phenolic and oleoresinous
groups and vinyl resins) to provide a barrier between the metal and the food
product. In addition to its excellent barrier properties to moisture, gases,
light and odour, tinplate has good thermal stability and thus can be heat-
treated and sealed hermetically. Tinplate has good ductility and formability
and thus it can be used for making containers of numerous different shapes.

Tin-free steel
Tin-free steel also known as Electrolytic chromium-coated steel (ECCS)
are steel plates with chromium electrodeposited on both sides. It provides
less resistance to corrosion than tinplate and requires coating of organic
material to provide complete corrosion resistance. It is more resistant to
weak acids and sulphur staining in comparison to tinplate. Chrome oxide
makes tin-free steel unsuitable for welding but makes it excellent for
adhesion of coatings suchas lacquers, paints and inks. Tin-free steel also has
good formability and strength and it is less expensive than tinplate (Brennen,
2006; Marsh and Bugusu, 2007).

1. Plastic

Plastics were discovered in the 1800s but were not used in any
packaging until the 20th century. It was first used during World War II, but
commercialization for food packaging occurred only after the war (Risch,
2009).

Plastics are highly malleable and so can be molded into different solid
objects. It is used in a multitude of products in different scales because of
its low cost, ease of manufacture and imperviousness to water. In
developed

Page | 37
economies, about one third of plastic is used in packaging (Andrady and
Neal, 2009). Even though there are many safety concerns with plastic, its
usage for food packaging is increasing over traditional materials such as
glass and metal due to its low cost and functional advantages like microwave
ability, thermosealability optical properties and unlimited sizes and shapes
(Lopez-Rubio et al. 2004). Plastics are synthesized by addition, condensation
or crosslinking polymerization of monomer units. There are 2 major
categories of plastics: thermosets and thermoplastics (Marsh and Bugusu,
2007). Thermoplastics are polymers whichsoften and melt on heating and
solidify again on cooling. Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene
and polyvinyl chloride. Thermosets are polymers, which hardens on cooling
and unlike thermoplastics they retain their shape and cannot be remolded or
return to their original form once set. They are hard and durable.
Types of plastic
There are various types of plastics as discussed below (Marsh &
Bugusu, 2007). Polyolefins and polyesters are the most common types of
plastics.
A) Polyolefins
i) Polyethylene (PE)
ii) Polypropylene (PP)
B) Polyesters
i) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
ii) Polycarbonate (PC)
iii) Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN)
C) Polyvinyl chloride
D) Polyvinylidene chloride
E) Polystyrene
F) Polyamide
G) Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH)
A. Polyolefins
Polyolefin is a collective term used for the two most widely used
plastics in food packaging: polyethylene and polypropylene. Polyethylene
and polypropylene both possess similar properties including flexibility,
lightness, strength, stability, resistance to moisture and chemical, and easy
processability.

Page | 38
i) Polyethylene (PE)
PE is the most simplest, versatile and inexpensive plastic synthesized by
polymerization reaction of ethylene. Polyethylene (PE) was one of the first
plastics used widely for food packaging. There are several types of
polyethylene in use today including low-density (LDPE), high-density
(HDPE), linear low-density (LLDPE) and very low density (VLDPE) [Risch,
2009]. According to its density, PE is classified into 4 types: very low-
density polyethylene (VLDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), medium-
density polyethylene (MDPE), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE).
However, in Food packaging LDPE and HDPE are the most commonly used
forms of polyolefins.
i.a) LDPE
LDPE was the first to be developed by Imperial Chemical Industries in
1933. It is flexible, easy to seal, strong, tough and resistant to moisture.
LDPE is relatively transparent and is used in applications where heat sealing
is necessary. LDPE shows excellent cold resistance (up to -70 °C), and
therefore is used in frozen-food packaging. Example: Bread and frozen food
bags, flexible lids and squeezable food bottles.
i.b) HDPE
HDPE is stiff, tough, strong, resistant to chemicals, permeable to gas,
moisture, easy to process, and easy to form. HDPE is a stronger plastic
and has a higher melting point than LDPE. It is used to make bottles for
juice, milk and water; margarine tubs, etc.
ii) Polypropylene (PP)
It is denser, harder and more transparent than polyethylene. It has good
chemical resistance and is effective barrier of water vapor. The various
forms of polypropylene have different hardness and melting points. It has
high melting temperature (160 °C) which makes it more suitable for
applications, where thermal resistance is required such as hot-filling and
microwavable packaging. It is used mostly in yoghurt containers and
margarine tubs.
B. Polyesters
Polyesters are obtained by condensation polymerization from ester
monomers which results as a reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol.
The different types of polyesters available are Polyethylene Terephthalate
(PET), Polycarbonate (PC) and Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN). However,
PET is the most commonly used polyester in food packaging.

Page | 39
i. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
PET is a thermoplastic polyester which is obtained by condensation
polymerization of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol. PET holds a large
section of the market as a packaging material for beverages and mineral
waters. The main reasons for being a first choice are its transparency, gas
barrier properties, lightweight and shatter resistance.

Advantages: PET has good barrier to gases (oxygen and carbon

dioxide) and moisture thus food products stored in PET have a long shelf-
life. They have good resistance to heat, solvents, mineral oils and acids but
not to bases. They are hard and almost unbreakable.
ii. Polycarbonate (PC)
PC is obtained by polymerization of a sodium salt of bisphenol acid
with carbonyl dichloride (phosgene). It provides very good barrier against
flavors and aromas, but its gas barrier properties are moderate (Kondo,
1990). PC has a wide range of temperature resistance. Its melting point is
230 °C and its brittle temperature is - 100 °C. Care must be taken
when cleaning polycarbonate, because harsh detergents such as
sodium hypochlorite can catalyze the release of bisphenol-A, which is
considered as a potential health hazard.
iii. Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN)
PEN is obtained by condensation polymerization of dimethyl
naphthalene dicarboxylate and ethylene glycol. It has more temperature
resistance. PEN is chemically similar to PET, but shows excellent barrier
properties for carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapor, which is superior to
those of PET. It provides better resistance at high temperatures which makes
to more suitable for hot refills, rewashing and reuse. It is more expensive
than PET.
C. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC is obtained by polymerization of vinyl chloride monomer. It is a
stiff, strong, heavy, amorphous, ductileand transparent material. It has
excellent resistance to grease and oil, chemicals like acids and bases. It has
good flow characteristics and stable electrical properties. PVC are made into
wide range of flexible products with the addition of plasticizers such as
phthalates, adipates, citrates, and phosphates. But because of several safety
and health concerns phthalates are not used in food packaging materials
(HHS 2005); instead, alternative non-phthalate plasticizers (E.g. Adipates)
are used which also have the potential to leach into food but at lower levels
than phthalates. Although PVC is primarily used for non-food applications,

Page | 40
its food uses include bottles and packaging films. PVC sheets are widely
used for blister packs for meat products. Due to the presence of chlorine
content, incineration of PVC causes environmental problems.
D. Polyvinylidene Chloride (PVdC)

PVdC is obtained by polymerisation of vinylidene chloride. It has

excellent barrier to water vapor, gases, fats and oil. It is heat-sealable.
Common applications of PVdC include the packaging of cured meats,
poultry, cheese, tea, coffee snack foods and confectionery. It is also used in,
retorting, hot filling, low-temperature storage and modified-atmosphere
packaging. Since PVdC contains double the amount of chlorine as in PVC
it also presents environmental problems with incineration.
E. Polystyrene (PS)

PS is obtained by polymerization of styrene. It is hard and brittle and

has relatively low melting point. PS is a clear and colorless polymer and are
used typically for low-cost applications. It is available commercially in both
sheet and pellet form. Common applications of PS include egg trays,
containers, cups, plates, disposable plasticware, bottles lids and food trays.
F. Polyamide (Nylon)

Polyamides are commonly known as Nylon. It is produced by a

condensation polymerisation of diamine and diacid. Polyamides are
polymers in which the repeating units are held together by amide links in its
main chain. Different types of polyamidesare characterized by the number of
carbons in the originating monomer. For example Nylon-6 which is used for
packaging has 6 carbons. Nylon has good chemical resistance, strength and
low gas permeability. Its thermal and mechanical properties are similar to
PET and thus has similar utility.
G. Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH)

EVOH is a produced by linking of ethylene and vinyl alcohol in the

same polymer chain. It acts as an excellent barrier to oxygen, fat & oil.
In dry conditions EVOH has excellent gas barrier properties. However, in
moist condition it is greatly affected, and therefore it is mostly used as
multilayer co-extruded films.
2. Ceramics

Ceramics are mostly used as kitchen ware. As ceramics are made from
natural materials such as clay, quartz and kaolin they may be contaminated
with heavy metals. These have the potential to migrate into food contained

Page | 41
within. Ceramics as packaging material are being regulated under the
EU Framework Regulation EC 1935/2004. As per the regulations, the
Specific Maximum Migration Levels (SML) of cadmium and lead into food,
are to be mentioned while using ceramics. It is also required that the
producer of ceramics declares on each product that it does indeed not
exceed this migration limit. Ceramics regulation is currently being revised
by all the countries, where it is in use.
3. Wood

Wood is widely used for packaging fresh produce, though its use is
limited when dealing with processed foods. The most common applications
of wood in food packaging are as barrels for wines, beers, spirits, salted
fish and vegetables in brine; wooden crates, particularly for bottles that
are returnable; tea chests; small fancy boxes for foods aimed at a tourist or
gift market; to construct pellets.

Wood is strong and provides better protection against crushing and

impact than cardboard boxes. It is however heavier and more expensive.
Wood containers can be made lightproof and leakproof. As a material, wood
is porous and so does not form a perfect barrier to moisture and air.
Depending on the method of construction wood containers can provide
excellent protection against pests. However, wooded barrels are very
difficult to make and the training takes several years. They are also very
expensive and so are re-used over and over again'being sent back to coopers
to repair any damage.

Tea chests are a very special case where a wood packaging has become
the accepted standard all over the world. They are made of thin plywood
over a timber frame and corners and edges are bound with tin strips to give
protection against dropping. Tea chests are lined internally with a paper/foil
laminate which provides an excellent moisture and air barrier. The only real
application of tea chests is for bulk distribution and export of tea. The use of
small wood boxes, for packaging goods for the tourist and gift market can, in
certain cases, provide opportunities for small food manufacturers. Generally
the containers will be supplied by a local craft group or carpenter. They are
ideal for dry goods such as spices and herbal teas although an inner plastic
bag would always be recommended to give better moisture protection and
avoid the chance of wood splinters entering the food. Some producers
market a range of local foods in an open-topped box over wrapped with
cellophane.

Page | 42
4. Cloth and Vegetable Fibres

Cotton, jute, linen and sisal are few types of material that are used for
food packaging. These materials are not used for small retail or consumer
containers, but are more commonly used to transport larger quantities of
food as shipping containers. One particular use for cloth packs is for foods
that are sold in specialist markets such as tourist souvenirs, such as
decorative packages made from a locally produced jute or cotton material,
which may have good promotion potential. Textile containers have no
significant barrier properties to moisture, odours and air, and also do not
protect foods from mechanical damage such as crushing or puncturing or
from micro-organisms, insects, rodents or birds. They are therefore used for
foods that are not susceptible to odour pickup or changes in humidity and
foods that are not easily damaged by crushing. They are mostly intended as a
lightweight container to hold the food together in a package that can easily
be bandied and transported. They are used for free-flowing foods such as
flours, sugar, salt, spices, cereals, tea and coffee beans. They are also widely
used for short-term transport of a wide variety of other foods including fresh
fruits and vegetables and dried fish, although the protection offered to foods
carried in this way is minimal. The main advantages of textiles are that they
can be manufactured locally from available materials and they can be easily
repaired. They are lightweight and have good non-slip properties which
means that sacks can be safely stacked. They are re-usable when cleaned and
they are biodegradable when discarded.

Food packaging techniques

Packaging today plays a very important role in food product quality by

providing protection from physical, chemical and environmental challenges.
The different packaging techniques are discussed below (Brennan, 2006;
Fellows, 2002, Majid et al. 2018):

Vacuum packaging: This is the simplest and most common method of

packaging which has been used for many years. It is a procedure where the
food is packaged in a material which has low oxygen permeability and then
vacuum is created by drawing out the air in the package prior to sealing. As
the air is evacuated the package collapse around the product. The main aim
of this packaging technique is to extend the shelf life of the food products.
Products with high fat content become rancid due to the reaction with
oxygen, present in the package. Thus in order to reduce the oxygen available
within the package, vacuum packaging proves to be a promising technique.

Page | 43
 Aseptic packaging: It is a procedure of filling of commercially sterile
product in a sterile packaging material under sterile environment and
ensuring that the packaging materials are sealed and tight enough to prevent
contamination. In order to kill microorganisms containing in the packages,
sterilization by various methods is done prior to filling. In the aseptic
packaging system, sterilization of packaging material is a critical step. In
aseptic packaging, the product is heated at ultra high temperature (UHT), for
a predetermined amount of time, then cools and flows through a closed
system to the packaging machine where the product is filled under sterile
conditions into a sterile packaging material. The packaging material and
equipment may be sterilized by using various methods such as heat,
irradiation, infrared light, hydrogen peroxide, etc. A wide range of products
can be packaged such as milk, juice, mineral water, drinks, wine, tea,
nutritional beverages, concentrates, dairy, sauces and tomato products.
Products packaged in this manner retain their taste and nutritive value
(Ansari & Datta, 2003).

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP): MAP is a procedure where

the internal atmosphere of food packages is modified by replacing air inside
the package with a predetermined mixture of gases prior to sealing. It is
usually done by introducing an inert gas. Commercially nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and oxygen is used for MAP. Mostly Nitrogen gas is widely used for
the modification of atmosphere which is odorless, tasteless, colorless, non-
toxic and non-inflammable. In MAP, the modified atmosphere can be
created by two methods.

1) In case of flexible packages like pouches the air is replaced from

the package by flushing with predetermined mixture of gas before
sealing
2) In case of trays, the air is removed by vacuum pump and the
predetermined mixture of gas is introduced before sealing

The modification offers protection of the food from spoilage,

dehydration, oxidation, weight loss and freezer burn as well as extend shelf
life of the products. It is generally applied to minimally processed or fresh
foods that are still undergoing respiration.
Other modern food packaging techniques

Active packaging: Active packaging involves incorporation of certain

additives inside the polymer, into packaging film or within packaging
containers with the objectiveto maintain and extend product shelf life (Day,
1989). This type of packaging is used as a substitute to conventional food

Page | 44
processing techniques like high heat treatments, dehydration, brining,
acidification, and addition of preservatives (Lopez-de-Dicastillo et al.,
2011). Packaging may be termed as active when it performs some specific
function in food preservation other than providing barrier properties to
external conditions (Roonie, 1995; Hotchkiss, 1995).

Active packaging includes addition of additives that have potential of

scavenging oxygen, adsorbing carbon dioxide, moisture, ethylene, flavour or
odour taints, releasing antioxidants, preservatives, ethanol, sorbates, and/or
maintain temperature (Day, 1989). Oxygen scavengers like ferrous oxide
used in packaging materials inhibit oxidative reactions by removing oxygen
and can be directly added to the package enclosure (Kerry et al., 2006).
Carbon dioxide scavengers and mediators (absorbent pads and moisture-
mediated bicarbonate chemicals in packets) can decrease the rate of
respiration of fresh foods and prevent vacuum difference (Vermeiren et al.,
1999; Brody et al., 2008). Controlled delivery of additives or active agents
directly into the food via packaging films for extended periods of storage and
distribution restricts the development of undesirable compounds produced
(Peltzer et al., 2009). However, the use of artificial active packaging
additives, for example antioxidative agents like butylated hydroxytoluene,
organophosphate, thioester is limited because of the toxicity which results
due to their migration into the food products (Gomez-Estaca et al., 2014).
Hence, the use of natural extracts obtained from plants, herbs and spices
which are generally recognized as safe are now replacing the use of synthetic
additives in packaging (Persico et al., 2009).

Different food products have different deterioration mechanism which

needs to be evaluated before applying active packaging. The shelf life of
packaged food is dependent on numerous intrinsic or extrinsic factors which
can directly influence the chemical, biochemical, physical and
microbiological characteristics of the food product and their shelf life. The
intrinsic factors may be water activity, pH, nutrient content, antimicrobial
compounds, respiration rate, redox potential, biological structure and
extrinsic factors may be storage temperature, relative humidity, exposure of
surrounding gaseous composition. By careful evaluation of all these factors,
it is possible to apply active packaging technology for maintaining the
quality of different food products and extending their shelf life (Day, 1989).

Bioactive packaging: Bioactive packaging is a novel packaging

technology which has a direct impact on the health of the consumer by
generating healthier packaged foods. The biopolymers involved in this
packaging technology is capable of withholding desired bioactive principles

Page | 45
in optimum conditions until their eventual release into the food product
which is employed by enzyme encapsulation, enzyme immobilization,
microencapsulation and nanoencapsulation (Lopez-Rubio et al., 2006; Majid
et al., 2016). This technology maintains the bioactive substance until their
controlled or fast release within the packed food during its storage period, or
prior to its consumption by taking into consideration about the specific
product or functional substance characteristics or requirements.

Currently bioactive packaging is mostly being applied for antimicrobial

(active) packaging (Lopez-Rubio et al., 2006).
This innovative packaging technology is applied through
i) Controlled diffusion of the functional or bioactive components or
nanocomponents from the biodegradable packaging materials
ii) Encapsulation of these bioactive substances either in the packaging
materials or within the foods
iii) Introduction of enzymatic activity of the packaging material which
can exert health-promoting benefit by transforming specific food-
borne components in the package

The development of such innovative packaging systems can improve the

effect on human health upon consumption by involving phytochemicals,
prebiotics, probiotics, encapsulated vitamins, marine oils, bioavailable
flavonoids, etc as active component in its packaging material (Lagaron,
2005).

Smart or intelligent packaging: This innovative packaging technology

is an integrated and interdisciplinary approach which involve expertise from
the fields of physics, chemistry, biochemistry, electronics and food science
and technology. Smart packaging or Intelligent packaging utilises a variety
of chemical sensors or biosensors to monitor the quality & safety of food
products. These sensors can suitably monitor the food quality and safety and
provide signal about thefreshness, pH, oxygen, carbon dioxide, pathogens,
gas leakage, ripeness regulators and indicators, bioprobes, radio frequency
indicators and toxin indicators, time-temperature indicator of the product
(Stauffer, 2005; Kuswandi et al., 2011).
The two major important functions of intelligent packaging are:
1) To monitor and record the internal and external conditions and
changes occurring
2) To assess the quality of the food product within package by
monitoring the headspace or food and signalling through the

Page | 46
 indicators about the safety and quality of the packaged food
(Stauffer, 2005)

The two most commonly used smart devices which has gained
widespread commercial application are Time-temperature indicators (TTIs)
and Radio frequency identification (RFID) (Kuswandi et al. 2011). TTIs are
a good example of smart packaging which shows changes in physical
characteristic of the food in terms of colour or shape as a result of
temperature change. These devices monitors the change of a certain food
quality parameter undergoing similar exposure to temperature. Some are
designed to monitor the changes in temperature and change of gases along
the transportation and distribution chain, and others are designed for using in
consumer packages. (Seldman, 1995). RFID is a radio wave based system
which is used for monitoring traceability of food packages through tags or
labels (data carrier), readers (receivers), and computer systems (software,
hardware, networking, database). Its uses in the food industry can improve
the efficiency of supply chains (Yametal., 2005).

Self-heating and self-cooling systems used as temperature regulators is

another important aspect of smart packaging. In self heating system the
heating occurs due to exothermic reaction which is produced by using
calcium or magnesium oxide or water. Whereas, evaporative cooling effect
is induced in Self cooling system which evaporates external components like
water that removes heat and gets adsorbed onto surface (Brody et al., 2008).
The major limitation of this heating system is that the heating device
occupies a large portion of package space.

Edible packaging: Edible films and coatings are produced from

agricultural wastes and/or waste from industrial food production and thus
imparting value addition. Such packaging material satisfies the world’s need
for environment friendly and natural foods. Edible films or coating are
developed from biopolymers made of polysaccharides like cellulose, starch,
chitosan, pectins, gums, alginates, and from animal and plant origin proteins.
Though this technology does not completely replace the traditional
packaging materials, they can reduce the traditional packaging both in terms
of cost and bulk. The use of these packaging materials can improve the
process of food preservation by providing the basic function of barrier to
gases and moisture as well as regulate the release of food additives and
nutrients to the packaged food (Campos et al., 2011).
Food packaging law in India
As per India’s Food Safety and Standards (Packaging) Regulations,
2018, which came into force on 24th December 2018 with publication in

Page | 47
the Gazette of India, it was notified that as on 1st July 2019, food business
operators must comply with the specified packaging regulations. The
regulations include general and specific requirements for food packaging
materials used in India. Food packaging materials must comply with the
Indian Standards (IS)-as developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS)- listed in Schedules I, and II for paper and paperboard materials,
metal and metal alloys, and plastic materials, respectively. Likewise,
printing inks used on food packaging must comply with the relevant BIS
standard. Schedule IV of the Indian regulations lists materials that are
suggested for packaging different categories of food, such as milk and milk
products etc. India’s food packaging regulations ban the use of recycled
plastics in food packaging, as well as the use of newspaper to pack or wrap
food.
The future of packaging
Packaging today possess many negative health and environmental
implications. But with continued advancements in packaging technology, the
packaging industry will continue to evolve.
The continued evolution of packaging is sure to offer:
1. Alternative to plastic
2. More environmentally friendly packaging materials
3. Packaging which has no transfer of toxic compounds to the food
4. Improved package design
5. Quality indicators with an affordable pricing
Conclusion
Food packaging techniques are on constant improvement mode in
response to lifestyle changes, convenience, increasing demand for quality
and safety of foods. Food packaging improves shelf-life and maintain the
sensory properties, quality, and safety of packaged food, and current
research is focussed on food packaging that is integrated into
environmental sustainability. However, innovative food packaging
technologies should be based on proper cost-benefit analyses inorder to
lower product cost without affecting improvements in food shelf life, apart
from being environmentally friendly.
Reference
1. Andrady AL, Neal MA. Applications and societal benefits of plastics.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences.
2009; 364(1526):1977-84.

Page | 48
2. Ansari IA, Datta AK. An overview of sterilization methods for
packaging materials used in aseptic packaging systems. Food and
Bioproducts Processing. 2003; 81(1):57-65.
3. Berger K, Welt B. A Brief History of Packaging, 2005.
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/AE/AE20600.pdf, accessed Jan 4, 2009.
4. Brennan JG. Food Processing Handbook. Edited by James G. Brennan.
2nd Edition, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. 2006;
2:300.
5. Brody AL, Bugusu B, Han JH, Sand CK, Mchugh TH. Innovative
food packaging solutions. Journal of food science. 2008; 73(8):107- 16.
6. Brody AL, Marsh KS. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology. 2nd
Edn., 1997, 745-758.
7. Campos CA, Gerschenson LN, Flores SK. Development of edible films
and coatings with antimicrobial activity. Food and bioprocess
technology. 2011; 4(6):849-75.
8. Coles R. Introduction. In: Coles R, McDowell D, Kirwan MJ,
editors. Food packaging technology. London, U.K.: Blackwell
Publishing, CRC Press, 2003, 1-31.
9. Day BP. Extension of shelf-life of chilled foods. Eur Food Drink Rev.
1989; 4:47-56.
10. Dept. of Health and Human Services (U.S.). Report on carcinogens.
11th ed. Research Triangle Park, N.C. National Toxicology Program,
Public Health Service, HHS, 2005.
11. Fellows P. Food Processing Technology. 2nd Edition. CRS Press.
Woodhead Publishing Ltd., 2000.
12. Gómez-EstacaJ, Lopez-De-Dicastillo C, Hernández-Muñoz P, Catalá R,
Gavara R. Advances in antioxidant active food packaging. Trends in
Food Science & Technology. 2014; 35(1):42-51.
13. Hotchkiss JH. Recent research in MAP and active packaging systems. In
27th Annual Convention, Australian Institute of Food Science and
Technology, Canberra, 1994.
14. Kerry JP, O’grady MN, Hogan SA. Past, current and potential utilisation
of active and intelligent packaging systems for meat and muscle-based
products: A review. Meat science. 2006; 74(1):113- 130.
15. Kirwan MJ. Paper and paperboard packaging. In: Coles R, McDowell D,
Kirwan MJ, editors. Food packaging technology. London, U.K.:
Blackwell Publishing, CRC Press, 2003, 241-281.

Page | 49
16. Kuswandi B, Wicaksono Y, Abdullah A, Heng LY, Ahmad M.
Smart packaging: sensors for monitoring of food quality and safety.
Sensing and Instrumentation for Food Quality and Safety. 2011; 5(3-
4):137- 146.

17. Lagaron JM. Biodegradable and sustainable plastics as essential

elements in novel bioactive packaging technologies. In First conference
on biodegradable polymers for packaging applications. PIRA
International Leatherhead (UK), 2005.

18. López-De-Dicastillo C, Catalá R, Gavara R, Hernández-Muñoz P. Food

applications of active packaging EVOH films containing cyclodextrins
for the preferential scavenging of undesirable compounds. Journal of
Food Engineering. 2011; 104(3):380-386.

19. Lopez-Rubio A, Almenar E, Hernandez-Muñoz P, Lagarón JM, Catalá

R, Gavara R. Overview of active polymer-based packaging technologies
for food applications. Food Reviews International. 2004; 20(4):357-387.

20. Lopez-Rubio A, Gavara R, Lagaron JM. Bioactive packaging: turning

foods into healthier foods through biomaterials. Trends in Food Science
& Technology. 2006; 17(10):567-575.

21. Majid I, Nayik GA, Dar SM, Nanda V. Novel food packaging
technologies: Innovations and future prospective. Journal of the Saudi
Society of Agricultural Sciences. 2018; 17(4):454-462.

22. Marsh K, Bugusu B. Food packaging-roles, materials, and

environmental issues. Journal of food science. 2007; 72(3):R39-55.

23. Peltzer M, Wagner J, Jiménez A. Migration study of carvacrol as a

natural antioxidant in high-density polyethylene for active packaging.
Food Additives and Contaminants. 2009; 26(6):938-46.

24. Persico P, Ambrogi V, Carfagna C, Cerruti P, Ferrocino I, Mauriello G.

Nanocomposite polymer films containing carvacrol for antimicrobial
active packaging. Polymer Engineering & Science. 2009; 49(7):1447-
55.

25. Risch SJ. Food packaging history and innovations. Journal of

agricultural and food chemistry. 2009; 57(18):8089-8092.

26. Rooney ML. Overview of active food packaging. In Active food

packaging. Springer, Boston, MA, 1995, 1-37.

27. Sacharow S, Griffin Jr RC. The evolution of food packaging. In:

Sacharow S, Griffin Jr. RC. editors. Principles of food packaging. 2nd
ed. Westport, Conn.: AVI Publishing Co. Inc., 1980, 1-61.
Page | 50
28. Seldman JD. Time-temperature indicators, in Active Food Packaging,
Ed. by M.L. Rooney. Chapman & Hall, New York, 1995, 74- 107.

29. Sen C, Das M. Trends in Food Packaging Technology. In Food

Process Engineering. Apple Academic Press, 2016, 37-58.

30. Stauffer JE. Radio frequency identification. Cereal Food World, 2005,
86-87.

31. Vermeiren L, Devlieghere F, Van Beest M, De KruijfN, Debevere J.

Developments in the active packaging of foods. Trends in food science
& technology. 1999; 10(3):77-86.

32. Yam KL, Takhistov PT, Miltz J. Intelligent packaging: concepts and
applications. Journal of Food Science. 2005; 70(1):R1- 10.

Page | 51