FST 223

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PACKAGING

PACKAGING

Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution,

storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, and
producing packages. Or packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing
goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. It contains, protects, preserves,
transports, informs, and sells. In many countries it is fully integrated into government,
business, institutional, industrial, and personal use.

Packaging is a complex subject, it has been defined in several ways and its role to the
food industry and imperativeness to the consumer highlighted to include protection,
containment, transportation, preservation and advertisement to the food industry. Some
indicated the imperativeness of food package as an essential element requiring adequate
attention to forestall the potential of defective packaging negating all a food processor has
attempted to accomplish by the most meticulous forms of manufacturing processes.

Packaging has become a vital means for differentiating items and attracting consumer
attention. Packaging is now an important aspect in marketing and is treated as one of the most
influential factors concerning consumer purchase decision at the point of purchase.
Therefore, it is wise to investigate the effect of verbal and visual attributes on food packaging
in consumer purchase decision. These effects on analysis show that among all the packaging
attributes, information concerning the packaging and the shape of the packaging has a
significant impact on the purchase decision of processed foods. Interestingly, attributes, such
as graphics, colour, size and material, were not significant in influencing the purchase
decision of processed packaged foods. This provides important insights to marketers and food
manufacturers concerning the need to adopt an appropriate packaging strategy for processed
foods in the market.

OUTLINE THE HISTORY OF FOOD INDUSTRY

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 Food history is an interdisciplinary field that examines the history of food, and the
cultural, economic, environmental, and sociological impacts of food. Food history is
considered distinct from the more traditional field of culinary history, which focuses on the
origin and recreation of specific recipes. Food historians look at food as one of the most
important elements of cultures, reflecting the social and economic structure of society.

Before World War II packaging was used primarily to surrender and protect products
during storage, transportation and distribution. Some packages where designed with esthetic
appeal and even for ease of use by the end of the consumer, but package design was typically
left to technicians. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the mid – 18005, they
build it and com maximum had prevailed. After World War II companies become more
interested in marketing and promotion as a means of enticing customers to purchase their
products. As a result of more manufactures begans to vicro packaging as a way to lure
buyers. During mid1900s, several influence contributed to turn packaging into an integral
part of the most companies marketing mix. Consumers become better educated, wealth and
expectations generally increased, consequently consumer began to rely much more heavily on
manufactured good and processed foods items. New technologist related to production,
distribution and preservatives lead to a massive proliferation in the number and type of
products and brand available in the industrialized.

Thus packaging become vital means of differentiating items and informing

consumers. The importance of consumer packaging was elevated in the United States, during
the late 1970s, and 1980S. Rapid economic expansion and marked growth warned during the
period of forcing consumer to focus increasingly on luring consumer to their product brand at
the expanse of the competition. Packaging design becomes a marketing science. And as a
new corporate cost consciousness developed in response to the increased competitive
companies began to alter packaging techniques as a way to cut production, storage and
distribution expenses. Furthermore, marketers began to view packaging as a tool to exploit
existing product lines by adding new items and pump new life into maturing product.

In a developing country like ours the need for improved preparation, processing,
preservation and storage techniques as a way of enhancing demand for indigenous locally
consumed foods, coupled with increased application of food science and technology not only
to boot our dwindling agricultural production but also to ensure that the seasonal food
harvested are adequately preserved and/or kept under good storage conditions, cannot be
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over-emphasised. This practice has brought wealth and prosperity to many nations and has
greatly contributed to the raising of the standard of living in the industrialized countries of the
world. Today in different parts of the world, due to the fast advancement in science and
technology, the role of, packaging some foods naturally have efficient primary containers, for
example, nut, oranges, eggs etc. Such foods need to be packaged with only secondary outer
box, wrap or drum to hold the units together and gives gross protection. Other foods like milk
powder, dried eggs and fruits concentrates often will be filled into primary containers such as
plastic lines which are then packaged within protective cartons or drums. The packaging
protects the products and stops the energy, water and materials used to make them from going
to waste.

In the case of food and drink items, packaging continues to protect the items once
they are in the home and can extend the period when they are safe to eat and at their best.
Packaging also allows packs to be resealed if all the contents are not needed in one go and
well designed. The leaflets in this series show how some of our biggest companies have been
working to improve their packaging and suggest how consumers can make choices which
will lead to them having the products they need in good condition and end up with less
packaging in their bins.

Altogether around 10.8 million tonnes of packaging is used in the UK each year. Of
that around 4.9 million tonnes ends up either in household bins or being recycled. Of the total
packaging that we use within our homes most is used to protect our food and drink. Currently
8.3 million tonnes of food and drink is wasted by UK households each year. Nowadays
Nigerians have form the habits of buy foods from the malls and stored at homes.

LIST THE REASONS FOR PACKAGING OF FOOD

The main objective of packaging our food is to.

1) Rapid and reliable distribution helps reduce malnutrition, removes local

food surpluses and allows the consumer more choice in the foods
available.
2) Packaging and distribution reduce post harvest losses, this together with a
larger market allows producers to increase their income.
3) Prevent the shelf life of food.

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 4) To prevent it from attack of microorganisms and pest.
5) We package our food to make it look pleasant and attractive to consumers
6) Packaging plays an essential role in protecting and containing the
products
7) It also provides us with important product information about nutrition and
storage

Therefore, inadequate packaging in developing countries has profound effects on the

whole pattern and total amount of food consumed.

LIST VARIOUS FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS USED FOR LOCAL FOOD

PACKAGING IN NIGERIA
Packaging is a complex subject and its role to the food industry and to the consumers
includes protection, containment, transportation, preservation, and advertisement to the food
industry. Defective packaging has the potential of negating all the food processor has
attempted to accomplish by the most meticulous method of manufacturing processes.
Nigerians have diverse ready-to-eat foods, diet and drink varying from one tribe and
geographical locations to another, with different packing materials and methods adopted. The
common type of materials used to package food in Nigeria includes discarded bottles and
jars, old stock of paper prints, leaves, maize-sheath, glass-sided boxes, jute sacks, poly sacks,
polyethylene bags among others. The advantages of these materials includes availability and
low cost price; while the disadvantage includes easy contamination of packaged food ,easy
deterioration of packaging materials, easy spillage of packaged products, poor shelf-life of
packaged food among others. It is observed that the role of packaging is not accomplished in
the use of these materials; also no standard of regulatory body has been effective in ensuring
the safety of ready to- eat food.

Packaging materials

Textiles

Textile containers have poor gas and moisture barrier properties and have a poorer
appearance than plastics. Woven jute sacks, which are chemically treated to prevent rotting
and to reduce their flammability, are non-slip, have a high tear resistance, and good

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durability. They are used to transport a wide variety of bulk foods including grain, flour,
sugar and salt.

Cotton

Calico is usually a closely woven, strong, plain, cotton fabric which is inexpensive
and is satisfactory as a wrapper for flour, grains, legumes, coffee beans and powdered or
granulated sugar. It can be re-used as many times as the material withstands washing and is
easily marked to indicate the contents of the bag.

Muslin and cheesecloth are open-mesh, light fabrics used to wrap soft foods, which
they help hold together in the desired shape. Processed meats, smoked shoulders of ham, etc,
are tightly wrapped in cheesecloth, before being packaged into cellophane, wax paper etc.
Both muslin bags and cheesecloth wrappers have to be cut open and can seldom be re-used. It
is a very cheap material, made in huge quantities because of its multiple applications, but it
gives very little protection to food, and simply holds it together.

Wood
Wooden shipping containers have traditionally been used for a wide range of solid
and liquid foods including fruits, vegetables, tea and beer. Wood offers good mechanical
protection, good stacking characteristics and a high weight-to-strength ratio. However, plastic
containers have a lower cost and have largely replaced wood in many applications. The use of
wood continues for some wines and spirits because the transfer of flavour compounds from
the wooden barrels improves the quality of the product. Wooden tea chests are produced
more cheaply than other containers in tea-producing countries and are still widely used.
Wooden crates are imported for transporting fresh fruit and vegetables, fish etc. They are
used to hold foods together and protect them from crushing, but otherwise offer little
protection.

Traditional packaging materials

In general these materials are used to hold foods but they offer little in the way of
barrier properties needed for a long shelf life. The exception is glazed pottery, which
although heavy, has excellent properties.
Leaves

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 Banana or plantain leaves are the most common and widespread leaves used for
wrapping foods, such as certain kinds of cheese and confectionery (guava cheese). Cornhusk
is used to wrap corn paste or block brown sugar, and cooked foods of all sorts are wrapped
into leaves. 'Pan' leaves are used for wrapping spices (India), they are an excellent solution
for products that are quickly consumed, as they are cheap and readily available.

Vegetable fibres
These natural raw materials are converted into fibres to produce the yarn, string or
cord for packaging materials. Such materials, although categorised by the nature of the
constituent fibre, have certain common characteristics. They are very flexible, to some extent
resistant to tearing and permeable to water and water vapour. Their lightweight is an
advantage in handling and transport.
The rough surface makes stacking easier in comparison to man-made fibre sacks,
which slide due to their smooth surface. Another difference with man-made fibres is that the
natural raw materials are bio-degradable when left in their pure state. However, they rot when
moist limiting the number of times that they can be re-used.
Bamboo and rattan

These are widely used materials for basket making. Bamboo pots, cut out of the
bamboo stem are also found.

Coconut palm

Green coconut palm and papyrus leaves are frequently woven into bags or baskets,
which are used for carrying meat and vegetables in many parts of the world. Palmyra palm
leaves are used to weave boxes in which items such as cooked foods are transported.

Treated skins

Leather has been used for many centuries as a non-breakable container or bottle.
Water and wine are frequently stored and transported in leather containers (camel, pig and
kid goat hides). Manioc flour and solidified sugar are also packed in leather cases and
pouches.

Earthenware

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 Earthenware is used worldwide for storage of liquids and solid foods such as curd,
yoghurt, beer, dried food, honey, etc. Corks, wooden lids, leaves, wax, plastic sheets, or
combinations of these are used to seal the pots. If well sealed, it is a gas, moisture and
lightproof container. Unglazed earthenware is porous and is very suitable for products that
need cooling e.g. curd. Glazed pots are better for storing liquids e.g. oils, wine, as they are
moisture proof and airtight, if properly sealed. All are lightproof and if clean, restrict the
entry and growth of micro-organisms, insects and rodents. One should ensure that the glazing
of the earthenware does not contain lead. Most traditionally glazed pots do have lead glazings
which, although they are not really harmful for serving coffee or soup, should not be used for
acid drinks and other products which are to be stored for a long time.

Metal

Metal cans have a number of advantages over other types of container, including the
following:

• they provide total protection of the contents

• they are convenient for ambient storage and presentation

• they are tamperproof.

However, the high cost of metal and the high manufacturing costs make cans
expensive. They are heavier than other materials, except glass, and therefore have higher
transport costs.

Glass

Glass containers have the following advantages:

• they are impervious to moisture, gases, odours and micro-organisms

• they are inert and do not react with or migrate into food products

• they are suitable for heat processing when hermetically sealed

• they are re-useable and recyclable

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 • they are resealable

• they are transparent to display the contents

• they are rigid, to allow stacking without container damage.

The disadvantages of glass include:

• higher weight which incurs higher transport costs than other types of packaging

• lower resistance than other materials to fractures, scratches and thermal shock

• more variable dimensions than metal or plastic containers

• potentially serious hazards from glass splinters or fragments in

Flexible films
In general, flexible films have the following properties:
• their cost is relatively low
• they have good barrier properties against moisture and gases
• they are heat sealable to prevent leakage of contents
• they have wet and dry strength
• they are easy to handle and convenient for the manufacturer, retailer and
consumer
• they add little weight to the product
• they fit closely to the shape of the food, thereby wasting little space during
storage and distribution.
A summary of the different types of flexible films is as follows:
Cellulose
Plain cellulose is a glossy transparent film which is odourless, tasteless and
biodegradable (within approximately 100 days). It is tough and puncture resistant,
although it tears easily. However, it is not heat sealable and the dimensions and
permeability of the film vary with changes in humidity. It is used for foods that do not
require a complete moisture or gas barrier.

Polypropylene

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 Polypropylene is a clear glossy film with a high strength and is puncture resistance. It
has moderate permeability to moisture, gases and odours, which is not affected by changes in
humidity. It stretches, although less than polyethylene.
Polyethylene
Low-density polyethylene is heat sealable, inert, odour free and shrinks when heated.
It is a good moisture barrier but has a relatively high gas permeability, sensitivity to oils and
poor odour resistance. It is less expensive than most films and is therefore widely used.
High-density polyethylene is stronger, thicker, less flexible and more brittle than low-density
polyethylene and has lower permeability to gases and moisture. It has higher softening
temperature (121ºC) and can therefore be heat sterilised. Sacks made from 0.03
0.15mm high-density polyethylene have a high tear strength, penetration resistance and seal
strength. They are waterproof and chemically resistant and are used instead of paper sacks.
Other films
Polystyrene is a brittle clear sparkling film which has high gas permeability.
Polyvinylidene chloride is very strong and is therefore used in thin films. It has very low gas
and water vapour permeabilities and is heat shrinkable and heat sealable. However, it has a
brown tint which limits its use in some applications. Nylon has good mechanical properties a
wide temperature range (from 60 to 200°C). However, the films are expensive to produce,
they require high temperatures to form a heat seal, and the permeability changes at different
storage humidities.
Coated films
Films are coated with other polymers or aluminium to improve the barrier properties
or to import heat sealability. For example, nitrocellulose is coated on one side of cellulose
film to provide a moisture barrier but to retain oxygen permeability. A nitrocellulose coating
on both sides of the film improves the barrier to oxygen, moisture and odours and enables the
film to be heat sealed when broad seals are used. A coating of vinyl chloride or vinyl acetate
gives a stiffer film which has intermediate permeability. Sleeves of this material are tough,
stretchable and permeable to air, smoke and moisture. They are used, for example, for
packaging meats before smoking and cooking.

Laminated films
Lamination of two or more films improves the appearance, barrier properties or mechanical
strength of a package.
Coextruded films
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 This is the simultaneous extrusion of two or more layers of different polymers.
Coextruded films have three main advantages over other types of film:
• They have very high barrier properties, similar to laminates but produced at a lower
cost.
• They are thinner than laminates and are therefore easier to use on filling equipment.
• The layers do not separate.
Examples of the use of laminated and coextruded films are as follows:
Type of laminate Typical food application
Polyvinylidene chloride coated Crisps, snackfoods, confectionery, ice
polypropylene (2 layers) cream, biscuits, chocolate
Polyvinylidene chloride coated Bakery products, cheese, confectionery,
polypropylene-polyethylene dried fruit, frozen vegetables
Cellulose-polyethylene-cellulose Pies, crusty bread, bacon, coffee, cooked
meats, cheese
Cellulose-acetate-paper-foil- polyethylene Dried soups
Metallised polyester-polyethylene Coffee, dried milk
Polyethylene-aluminium-paper Dried soup, dried vegetables, chocolate

Selected laminated films used for food packaging

Type of coextrusion Application
High impact polystyrene- polyethylene Margarine, butter tubs
terephthalate
Polystyrene-polystyrene- polyvinylidene Juices, milk bottles
chloride-polystyrene
Polystyrene-polystyrene- polyvinylidene Butter, cheese, margarine, coffee,
chloride-polyethylene mayonnaise, sauce tubs and bottles

Paper & cardboard

Sulphate' paper is strong and hence used for paper sacks for flour, sugar, fruits and
vegetables. 'Sulphite' paper is lighter and weaker and is used for grocery bags and sweet
wrappers, as an inner liner for biscuits and in laminations. Greaseproof paper is sulphite
paper made resistant to oils and fats, for meat and dairy products. Glassine is a greaseproof
sulphite paper which is given a high gloss. It is resistant to water when dry but loses its
resistance once it becomes wet. Tissue paper is a soft paper used for example to protect fruits
against dust and bruising.
Many papers are also treated with wax to provide a moisture barrier and allow the paper to be
heat sealed. However, a simple wax coating is easily damaged by folding or by abrasive
foods. This is overcome by laminating the wax between layers of paper and/or polyethylene.
Waxed papers are used for bread wrappers and inner liners for cereal cartons.

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Boards are made in a similar way to paper but are thicker to protect foods from mechanical
damage. The main characteristics of board are thickness, stiffness, the ability to crease
without cracking and the degree of whiteness. White board is suitable for contact with food
and is often coated with polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride or wax for heat sealability. It is
used for ice cream, chocolate and frozen food cartons. Chipboard is made from recycled
paper and is not used in contact with foods (for example the outer cartons for tea and cereals).
It is often lined with white board to improve the appearance and strength. Other types include
paperboard and moulded paperboard trays (for example egg cartons)

IDENTIFY THE TYPES OF PACKAGING MATERIALS RIGID, SEMI

RIGID AND FLEXIBLE USED IN INDUSTRIAL FOOD PACKAGNG

Food packaging is known to employ a very wide variety of materials including the
rigid metals (Cans and drums), flexible metal (aluminum and tin foils), glass (jars and
bottles), rigid and semi-rigid plastics (canisters and squeeze bottles). Others include flexible
plastic of a wide variety of types that include pouches, and meat wrappers, rigid board, paper
and wood products. Flexible paper and laminates or multi-layers may combine paper, plastic
and foils to achieve properties unattainable with any single component. Food packaging has
indeed been adjudged to assume a complex form in recent centuries; sophisticated industries
have evolved to meet up with the divergent needs of food products. As technological know–
how appreciates, several renown food industries in conjunction with several technological
universities have immensely re-oriented the food packaging phenomena. Several earlier
workers have highlighted factors that influence the choice of food packaging materials such
as geometric properties (shape and size), chemical property (pH), Physical properties (color,
aero and hydrodynamic properties.) and thermal properties.

Essentially, the geometric features of food are known to be important in packaging,

in controlling fill in weight, freezing and canning among others. The pH level of the food
product intended to be packaged known to be either its degree of alkalinity or acidity is of
considerable importance. This is important because acidic food products have the tendency to
react with certain element of the packaging material, which can lead to a sort of
contamination. The colour, aero and hydro – dynamic properties due to their influence on
food products particularly in terms of general acceptability are also relatively significant in
packaging technology. Accordingly, the density and porosity of the food material to be
packaged determines greatly how the packaging material will be. The porosity of the material
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has tendency to influence the moisture sorption characteristic of the food products stored,
hereby having a cumulative effect on the shelf - life of the food products. Factors known to
influence the choice of packaging material of food products include permeability
characteristic, mechanical strength, light transmission and temperature change. Thus, the
degree of permeability of the packages to water vapor, gases and volatile odor compounds, is
pertinent in packaging consideration. Food with high equilibrium relative humidity such as
meat and cheese will tend to loose moisture to the atmosphere, which can result in a loss of
weight and deterioration in appearance and texture. Products with low equilibrium relative
humidity tend to absorb moisture particularly in high humidity atmospheres and this can
cause significant textural distortion

Foods with high fatty acids require a greaseproof package to prevent grease or oil
spoiling the appearance of the pack and possibly damaging the printing and decoration.
Grease proof and vegetable parchment papers and hydrophilic films provide varying degrees
of grease proofness for different application. Also package material should be able to
withstand the change in temperature which is likely to be encountered without any loss in
performance or appearance. Therefore the rate of change of temperature and the type of heat
may influence the choice of packaging material.
Shelf-life is explained in relation to the period of time during which the food product
will remain safe and retain desired sensory, chemical, physical and microbiological
characteristics and comply with any label declaration of nutritional data, when stored under
the recommended conditions. Shelf life of a product is determined by a great deal of
developmental work to arrive at what is termed adequate and satisfactory. Over the years, the
forecasting of shelf – life has become increasingly important with serious consequences if
incorrect. It is recognized that each type of food products needs its own procedure and
methods by which such forecasting is done.

DESCRIBE THE PROPERTIES OF THE PACKAGING MATRERIAL

Packaging and package labeling have several objectives

• Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may require protection from
shock, vibration, compression, temperature, bacteria and among other things etc.

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• Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required.
Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen
absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres
are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and
safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function.
• Containment or agglomeration - Small items are typically grouped together in one
package to allow efficient handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need
containment.
• Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport,
recycle, or dispose of the package or product. Some types of information are required
by governments.
• Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage
potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and
constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. Marketing communications and
graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and in many cases the point
of sale display.
• Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of
shipment. Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering
and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be
engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage; some package constructions
are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Packages may
include authentication seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not
counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye packs, RFID
tags, or electronic article surveillance tags, that can be activated or detected by
devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in
this way is a means of retail loss prevention.
• Convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution,
handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.
• Portion control - Single-serving packaging has a precise amount of contents to control
usage. Bulk commodities such as salt can be divided into packages that are a more
suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling
sealed one-liter bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to
fill themselves.

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 Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering
resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs. It may bear a
nutrition facts label and other information about food being offered for sale.

It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: primary,

secondary, etc.

• Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This
usually is the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package which is in direct
contact with the contents.
• Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, and may be used to prevent
pilferage or to group primary packages together.
• Tertiary or transit packaging is used for bulk handling, warehouse storage and
transport shipping. The most common form is a palletized unit load that packs tightly
into containers.

These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the
use, a shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary
packaging when used to combine smaller packages, or tertiary packaging when used to
facilitate some types of distribution, such as to affix a number of cartons on a pallet.

The above materials are fashioned into different types of food packages and
containers such as:

Type of Packaging
Aseptic processing Primary Liquid whole eggs or dairy products
Trays Primary Portion of fish or meat
Bags Primary Potato chips, apples, rice
Corrugated box of primary packages: box of
Boxes Secondary
cereal cartons, frozen pizzas
Cans Primary Can of tomato soup
Cartons,coated paper Primary Carton of eggs, milk or juice cartons

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 Flexible packaging Primary Bagged salad
A series of boxes on a single pallet used to
Pallets Tertiary transport from the manufacturing plant to a
distribution center
Used to wrap the boxes on the pallet for
Wrappers Tertiary
transport

Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is being processed.
Secondary packaging combines the primary packages into one box being made. Tertiary
packaging combines all of the secondary packages into one pallet.

Packaging systems
We can categorize packaging systems into four groups: primary packaging, secondary
packaging, distribution or tertiary packaging, and unit load.
Primary packaging
The first-level package that directly contacts the product is referred to as the “primary
package.” For example, a beverage can or a jar, a paper envelope for a tea bag, an inner bag
in a cereal box, and an individual candy wrap in a pouch are primary packages, and their
main function is to contain and preserve the product. Primary packages
must be non-toxic and compatible with the food and should not cause any changes in food
attributes such as color changes, undesired chemical reactions, flavor, etc.
Secondary packaging
The secondary package contains two or more primary packages and protects the
primary packages from damage during shipment and storage. Secondary packages are also
used to prevent dirt and contaminants from soiling the primary packages; they also unitize
groups of primary packages. A shrink wrap and a plastic ring connector that bundles two or
more cans together to enhance ease of handling are examples of secondary packages.
Tertiary package
The tertiary package is the shipping container, which typically contains a number of
the primary or secondary packages. It is also referred to as the “distribution package.”
A corrugated box is by far the most common form of tertiary package. Its main function is to
protect the product during distribution and to provide for efficient handling.
Unit load

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 A unit load means a group of tertiary packages assembled into a single unit. If the
corrugated boxes are placed on a pallet and stretch wrapped for mechanical handling,
shipping and storage, the single unit is referred to as a “unit load.” The objective is to aid in
the automated handling of larger amounts of product. A fork-lift truck or similar equipment is
used to transport the unit load.
Consumer/industrial packaging
Packaging systems can also be categorized into consumer and industrial packaging.
Consumer packaging means a package that will be delivered to the ultimate consumer in the
retail store. Usually, primary and secondary packages fit in this category. Industrial
packaging means a package for warehousing and distribution to the retail store. Tertiary
packages and unit loads fit in this category. Not all package systems are actually composed of
a set of primary, secondary, and tertiary packages. For example, the packaging system for
potato chips usually consists only of a flexible barrier bag and a corrugated shipping
container before they are palletized, while mayonnaise jars are sold in a club store as a two-
pack consisting of plastic bottles, shrink wrap, corrugated boxes, and pallet.
Often, the distinction between consumer and industrial packaging is more clear-cut than
between primary, secondary, and tertiary packaging.

LIST REASONS FOR PACKAGING OF FOOD

The Importance of Food Packaging

A trip down any aisle in the grocery store will show just how far the packaging industry has
come. Today’s consumers are greeted with innovative options that run the gamut from eco-
friendly packaging to designs that actually assist in the food preparation process. So much
consideration and science goes into selecting the correct container that, for manufacturers,
packaging is a strategic decision. The following variables should be considered when
choosing a container’s design:

1. Protection against damage or contamination by micro-organisms, air, moisture and

toxins – Products must be safeguarded against rough transport and possible tampering as well
as ensuring they meet any physical, chemical or biological needs.

2. Prevention of product spilling or leaking – Packages must be tightly sealed and made
resilient to ensure the product remains uncompromised at all stages of distribution until
opened by the consumer.

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3. Product Identification and Labeling – Nutrition, ingredients and sell-by dates are
important not only to the consumer, but to grocery stores as well. Bar codes help stores to
track inventory and sales.

4. Marketing of Product to Consumers – The integrity of the product is extremely

important, but marketing is equally essential. In addition to containing and protecting the
item, the packaging must speak to a buyer and ultimately lead to a sale. Containers that
achieve the ‘wow’ factor can set any product apart from its competitors.

Because packaging plays such an important role in the preservation and marketability of a
product, many companies seek a contract packaging service to help them obtain the best
quality packaging available. Benefits to a co-manufacturer include cost, speed, quality and
innovation.

Nature of the food

Perishability factors

Composition of the food

• Cost: Capital costs of equipment and facilities can be enormous. Through the utilization of
a contract packaging service, startup costs are significantly reduced while energy and labor
costs are kept low. Preservative

• Time: Co-packing services can significantly reduce lead time in getting a product to market
and can ensure enough time is allowed for quality assurance and validation. State-of-the-art
equipment like continuous motion machinery produces consistent and high speed assembly,
enacting multiple processes simultaneously without interruption.

• Quality and Innovation: Today’s market presents countless options in packaging and
labeling needs. Co-manufacturers guarantee meeting all food specifications and requirements.
More value is added by assisting in product development. Suggestions can be made in
regards to alternative ingredients, raw materials, processes and packaging. As product lines
continue to broaden, many manufacturers are faced with the constant need to evolve their
products. Relying on contract packagers allows them to remain flexible and respond quicker
to changes in the market. Inverter innovative i.e cut edge.

LIST VARIOUS FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS USED FOR LOCAL FOOD

PACKAGING IN NIGERIA

Nylon
Can
Foil

17
Leaves
Sack
Muslin cloth
Tetra packs
Bottle
Bottle Glass
Plastics

Packaging is a complex subject, it has been defined in several ways and its role to the
food industry and imperativeness to the consumer highlighted to include protection,
containment, transportation, preservation and advertisement to the food industry in their view
indicated the imperativeness of food package as an essential element requiring adequate
attention to forestall the potential of defective packaging negating all a food processor has
attempted to accomplish by the most meticulous forms of manufacturing processes.
Food packaging is known to employ a very wide variety of materials including the rigid
metals (Cans and drums), flexible metal (aluminum and tin foils), glass (jars and bottles),
rigid and semi-rigid plastics (canisters and squeeze bottles). Others include flexible plastic of
a wide variety of types that include pouches, and meat wrappers, rigid board, paper and wood
products. Flexible paper and laminates or multi-layers may combine paper, plastic and foils
to achieve properties unattainable with any single component. Food packaging has indeed
been adjudged to assume a complex form in recent centuries; sophisticated industries have
evolved to meet up with the divergent needs of food products. As technological know–how
appreciates, several renown food industries in conjunction with several technological
universities have immensely re-oriented the food packaging phenomena. Several earlier
workers have highlighted factors that influence the choice of food packaging materials such
as geometric properties (shape and size), chemical property (pH), Physical properties (color,
aero and hydrodynamic properties.) and thermal properties. Essentially, the geometric
features of food are known to be important in packaging, in controlling fill – in weight,
freezing and canning among others. The pH level of the food product intended to be
packaged known to be either its degree of alkalinity or acidity is of considerable importance.
This is important because acidic food products have the tendency to react with certain
element of the packaging material, which can lead to a sort of contamination. The colour,
aero and hydro – dynamic properties due to their influence on food products particularly in
terms of general acceptability are also relatively significant in packaging technology.
18
Accordingly, the density and porosity of the food material to be packaged determines greatly
how the packaging material will be. The porosity of the material has tendency to influence
the moisture sorption characteristic of the food products stored, hereby having a cumulative
effect on the shelf - life of the food products.

Factors known to influence the choice of packaging material of food products

These include permeability characteristic, mechanical strength, light transmission and
temperature change. Thus, the degree of permeability of the packages to water vapor, gases
and volatile odor compounds, is pertinent in packaging consideration. Food with high
equilibrium relative humidity such as meat and cheese will tend to loose moisture to the
atmosphere, which can result in a loss of weight and deterioration in appearance and texture.
Products with low equilibrium relative humidity tend to absorb moisture particularly in high
humidity atmospheres and this can cause significant textural distortion
Foods with high fatty acids require a greaseproof package to prevent grease or oil spoiling the
appearance degree of alkalinity or acidity is of considerable importance. This is important
because acidic food products have the tendency to react with certain element of the packaging
material, which can lead to a sort of contamination. The colour, aero and hydro – dynamic
properties due to their influence on food products particularly in terms of general
acceptability are also relatively significant in packaging technology. Accordingly, the density
and porosity of the food material to be packaged determines greatly how the packaging
material will be. The porosity of the material has tendency to influence the moisture sorption
characteristic of the food products stored, hereby having a cumulative effect on the shelf - life
of the food products appearance. The importance of shelf-life should therefore be tenaciously
considered with respect to each of the significant groups involved in the food chain. The
groups include the consumer, growers, other material suppliers, manufacturers, distributors
(wholesalers and caterer) and retailers. For the distributors, wholesalers, and caterers in
particular, the shelf life of a food product is intimately linked to the distribution systems in
addition to the basic facts that different types of products require different types of
distribution.
Also in any given distribution systems, changes in the climatic conditions, handling
practices and abuse can have drastic effects on products shelf-life. A total quality in the
system will need to extend right through the distribution system and it has potential of
becoming the weakest part of the chain which stretches from manufacture to the consumer. In
relation to this, there are special problems of distribution in the rural areas. The wholesale
19
and catering sectors also have the potential of representing major vulnerable areas within the
food chain. This is because where sufficient control is lacking, valuable shelf-life can be lost
(IFST, 1992).
However in Nigeria there are diverse and numerous types of locally produced ready-
to-eat foods sold in public places for immediate consumption. The packaging of these foods
are usually meant for containment with little or no attention paid to the safety of the
consumers and the shelf-life of the food. The hygienic state of the packaging materials and its
appropriateness for the food products are not considered in its selection. The role of
packaging in the food industry which includes protection, containments, transportation,
preservation and advertisement are not achieved in all most all of the packaging method used
in Nigeria. This in turn results in a huge loss of the food product not only during packaging
processes but also during transportation and sales. The only regulatory body in Nigeria,
“National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control” (NAFDAC) has made
tremendous progress in controlling the safety aspect in some of the food industry in Nigeria,
such as in the confectionaries, sachet water industry and pharmaceutical industry. However,
little or no efforts are made on the local food industry which is the most common in the
country. There is a need therefore to analyze the properties of the various types of food
packaging materials used and their suitability to the packaged food
Survey showed that virtually all the food products packaged by the local processors
and vendors in Nigeria are unlabelled. No indication is given of the name of the products, its
source or its composition nor any information on appropriate storage conditions or instruction
for use. This is one reason street foods are displayed open and unwrapped. Sellers and
consumers alike take this for granted. The packaging materials used by food vendor in
Nigeria include both flexible and rigid types. A large proportion of ready to eat foods are
packed in soft or flexible materials including broad leaves, paper and plastic film wraps. The
principal hard or rigid containers used on a large scale are glass and bottles. Glass sided
boxes, cane baskets and jutes or woven plastic sacks are also used in the bulk packaging of
products such as smoked fish and gari, flour respectively. The various types of food
packaging materials, types of food packaged, their characteristics, advantages and
disadvantages are as classified and discussed below:
Packaging in hard containers. Jars and bottles.
Glass containers used for food includes old jars and bottles that originally held
manufactured products such as beer, soft drinks, cream and pomade. They are obtained from
dealers in discarded containers, who collect them from homes, and in some cases, from refuse
20
dumps. Jars and bottles are used even if they have minor defects at the top. They do not have
any special crown or cover. Products packaged in bottles and jars includes roasted groundnut,
palm wine, ”kunu”(local drink produced from cereals),Burukutu”(local alcoholic drink
produced from cereals),local gin, ”Zobo”(local drink produced from Roselle plant) among
others.
In general, the food packaged in bottles and jars contains natural or added sugar and
therefore attract flies. Unfortunately, the products packaged are not sterilized before or after it
is packaged and may remain uncovered during sales. With the exception of few drinks, which
are strong liquor, the products have a very short shelf life at ambient temperatures and are
meant to be sold within a day. Glass containers are re-used as long as they remain
undamaged. They do not react with foods and can be washed. Products packed in glass have
an aesthetic appeal. Products sold in glass containers are not labeled. Purchase and use
therefore depends on previous experience with or knowledge of the foods. Glass-sided boxes.
A variety of ready to eat foods are displayed for sale in large boxes with transparent glass
sides. Over the last few years these boxes have become popular for the sale of pastries and
other fried or baked foods such as puff-puff, Akara,(beans-cake), groundnuts, pop corn,
doughnut, pies, and so on. These items previously were kept in open trays, large pans and
bowls and many vendors still use these containers. The base and top of the boxes are made of
wood, which holds one or more glass in place. The boxes are available in sizes of about
20x30cm with a height of 10 to 30cm or larger. They may be opened either at the top or from
the sides. These boxes protect the food from flies and dirt. This has improved the way in
which foods are displayed to customers. However, it may be warm and damp inside the boxes
and frequent opening and closing admits flies. Also, the foods may be handled many times by
different customers for inspection before purchase, such practices provides avenues for
contamination and microbial growth. However some of these boxes which are stationary are
usually lighted with electrical bulb to provide warmth for the product and to make it visible at
night.
Packaging in flexible material.

Leaves.
Leaves commonly used for wrapping food include those of Thespesia populnea
(malvaceae family), Marantodea spp (marantacaeae family) and plantain (Musa sinensis)
and the sheaths of maize (corn, Zeamays). Some items are packaged raw before cooking, e.g.
moimoin, ekuru, while others are wrapped in leaves after cooking while they are still hot e.g.
21
Agidi. Fungi growth occurs in the product after four days in storage. Donkunu, which is
another maize product are usually wrapped in maize sheath, the product also shows fungi
growth after three days of storage. Iru, which is a local food seasoning is produced from
fermented locust beans seed, are usually wrapped and sold in leaves. The product shows the
presence of maggots after three days of storage at ambient atmospheric conditions. Products
wrapped in leaves after cooking generally have a shelf life of two to three days. Cooked rice
and beans are stored in bulk in a large pan and sold wrapped in leaves of T.populnea. They
cannot be stored for more than 12 hours in the leaves.
Leaves for packaging are poorly handled and transported. They are often dirty and are kept in
the open with little or no provision for washing before use. They may therefore be a source of
microbial contamination of food. When broad leaves are stored for more than a week they
deteriorate through drying out or decay.
Paper.
Paper is used extensively to package a variety of ready to eat foods; with newsprint
the most, commonly used. Paper wrappers are not pre-formed into any shape, but pieces are
torn from a bigger sheet depending on the type of products. Akara (Beans-cake) are usually
displayed in open trays and sold wrapped in newspaper. The newspaper print usually stains
the food wrapped in them. The akara shows fungigrowth after three days of storage.
From the point of view of sanitation, the quality of paper is generally poor. Any old
newspaper, multi-wall Portland cement sacks, magazine and old stationary from schools and
offices are used. The Paper is not stored properly and cannot be cleaned. Such poor hygienic
practices coupled with the harmful effect of printing ink make the use of paper for wrapping
food a health hazard. The product packaged in paper includes Akara, fish (smoked or fried),
pastries such as doughnuts, meat pies, cakes, puff-puff etc, bread, yam (fried or roasted)
groundnut etc. The foods that are wrapped in paper are normally displayed in a pan, tray or
transparent glass box and are wrapped in paper when purchased. The paper facilitates
handling of the product but provides very little protection from damage or spoilage. Parcels
may be loose and the food can easily spill out.
Plastic bags.
Transparent plastic films formed into bags are becoming increasingly important in the
packaging of a variety of foods. Low density polyethylene (commonly called polyethylene) is
the best known. The adoption of these bags in packaging has significantly improved the
display of ready-to-eat foods from aesthetic and hygienic point of view. Unfortunately, many
food vendors are not familiar with the suitability or otherwise of the various types of plastic
22
films for different products. This can however lead to deterioration in quality of the food
during storage.
Polyethylene bags are manufactured locally and are available in different sizes,
ranging from narrow strips of 3x5cm to larger bags measuring 25x40cm. These films wraps
are desirable for packaging food because they are much less permeable to water vapour and
gases than paper and leaves and are chemically inactive with food. They are used to package
both solid and liquid foods. Polyethylene bags are useful for dry products such as gari, sugar,
milk and cocoa powder e.g. bourvita, as the items remain dry for a long time if properly
sealed. Since heat-sealing devices are not readily available, for many vendors, the open ends
of the bags are usually tied into firm knots after the food is inserted.
Bread and other pastries are packed in polyethylene bags on a large scale. Many
vendors expose their products to the sun while sealed in the bags. Moisture condenses inside
the bags, and this facilitates mould growth. Sometimes air is blown into bags with the mouth
to open them. This introduces vapour and microorganisms, which sets the stage for spoilage
when foods are placed in the bags. Home-made ice lollies, which are commonly sold in
plastic cups and beverages such as kunu zobo, normally served in calabashes, are now
sometimes packaged in small polyethylene bags for sale. Water is also sold in plastic bags in
response to official directives aimed at curbing the unhygienic practice of using a single cup
to distribute water to many customers. Some vendors package vegetables such as carrot,
cabbage and tomatoes, in polyethylene bags with tied ends this speed the rate of deterioration
since the exchange of moisture and gas with the atmosphere is cut off.
Heavier-weight polyethylene film wraps have limited application for food except for bulk
packaging or covering such items as cooked rice, boiled yam, boiled corn, porridge and
others that require heat and moisture to be retained.

Sacks.
The commonly used sacks in Nigeria are the jute and poly sacks. They are used to
packaged crops such as cocoa, groundnuts, maize, guinea corn, rice, beans, gari among
others. They are locally manufactured or obtained from discarded stock. It makes bulk
packaging and transportation of crops easy. However, it gets easily torn due to continuous
handling and re-uses leading to losses of products during storage and transportation

23
 Food packaging materials used in Nigeria are though cheap and readily available, but
are however unhygienic, easily depreciable and leads to losses of the packaged food. The
packages of most ready-to-eat foods primarily serve as containers for the products. They are
normally not intended as a means of extending shelf-life. The development of suitable
packaging materials for most traditional staples is hindered by lack of standards. Variations
exist in the composition, shape, weight, and methods of preparation of products from
different sources; and so it is not easy to design simple, inexpensive readymade containers for
such a wide range of items. There are no regulatory bodies controlling the packaging and
sales of ready-to-eat food, hence putting the health of the consumers at risk. The Nigerian
government should put in place a body to regulate the packaging and safety standards for
ready-to-eat foods. This will help in safe guarding the health of a common Nigeria.

List reasons for food packaging

Consumers often look at the packaging of the products as an aid in the purchase
decision makingss process. Packaging refers to the container or wrapper that holds a product
or group of products (Vidales, 1995). Apart from protecting the product from damage during
storage and distribution, packaging is also an important sales tool in promoting the product to
the ultimate consumer. Pilditch (1972) has defined packaging as the silent salesman in the
store and it was the only communication medium between a product and the final consumer
at the point of sales. Packaging is an ultimate selling proposition that stimulates impulse
buying behaviour (Kuvykaite, Dovaliene, & Navickiene, 2009). A good packaging design is
regarded as an essential part of successful business practice. Besides providing versatility,
sustainability and convenience to consumers, most importantly, packaging enables marketers
to better enhance the appeal of their products and attract consumers to the shelves (Rundh,
2005).

Materials for food packaging

Plastics
Plastics are a special group of polymers that can be formed into a wide variety of
shapes using controlled heat and pressure at relatively low temperatures, compared to metals
and glass. Plastics are actually a subcategory of polymers, but in packaging the terms tend to
be used interchangeably. There are hundreds of identified “species” of synthetic polymers but
in practice, only a few polymers are often used for food packaging. The use of plastics has
24
increased more rapidly than any other material, and plastic is now the second most used
material for packaging. Each plastic has its own unique properties, based on its chemical
composition. The performance and interaction with a variety of foods are different for each
material. Thus, the plastic material for the packaging of a specific food is selected to function
well within the parameters of the application. This subsection focuses on the properties and
applications of the plastics that are most commonly used for food packaging.

Types of plastics and general properties

Polyethylene (PE)
Polyethylene, polymerized from ethylene, is the plastic most commonly used for food
packaging. PE generally has flexibility, good moisture control, oil and chemical resistance,
and good impact strength. PE is also an inexpensive plastic, so for applications where its
performance is suitable, this plastic is usually the most economical choice. The simplest form
of PE is a completely unbranched structure of –CH2– units. However, some side branches are
always formed during polymerization. If the branches are relatively few and short (2–4
carbon atoms), the structure can fold and pack tightly and yields high-density polyethylene
(HDPE). Conversely, if there are many long branches, PE becomes low-density polyethylene
(LDPE). Low-density polyethylene is softer and more flexible, and has lower tensile strength
than HDPE. Since it has relatively weak intermolecular forces, LDPE has a low melting
temperature, 105–115 _C, so it is a useful material for heat sealing. LDPE also has good
impact and tear strength. Common applications for LDPE include stretch wraps, shrink
wraps, and many types of bags and pouches. LDPE is also used as an adhesive layer for
multilayer composite structures, as a coating on paper to provide water protection (such as in
milk cartons), in flexible lids for plastic tubs, in squeezable plastic tubes, in soft squeeze
bottles, and in a variety of other applications. By far the majority of its use in packaging is in
some form of flexible structure, and packaging is the largest market for LDPE.
Like LDPE, HDPE has good oil and grease resistance. It has better barrier properties than
LDPE, since permeation occurs almost exclusively through amorphous areas of a polymer,
and HDPE has less amorphous area and higher crystallinity than LDPE. It is, therefore, a
good water vapor barrier. However, its barrier to oxygen and carbon dioxide, though
improved over LDPE, is still very poor.
The improved stiffness of HDPE makes it more suitable than LDPE for rigid or semi-
rigid packaging applications, such as bottles, tubs, and trays. In particular, blowmolded
bottles for food products are the largest single packaging market for HDPE.
25
Linear LDPE (LLDPE) is a co-polymer of ethylene and a co-monomer that has short
“branches” of a uniform length, distributed randomly in the polymer molecule.
The density range of LLDPE is the same as that of LDPE. Compared to LDPE of equal
density, because of the structure, LLDPE typically has 50–75% higher tensile strength,
50% or greater elongation, and greater stiffness, along with improved impact strength and
puncture resistance. LLDPE is more expensive than LDPE but since the superior
performance allows the use of significantly less LLDPE in many applications, switching from
LDPE to LLDPE often permits significant economic savings. On the other hand, LLDPE has
a higher melting temperature and does not heat seal as well as LDPE so LDPE and LLDPE
are often blended to get the best mix of performance and cost. New catalysts allow LLDPE to
be produced with the equivalent of long-chain branches, improving its heat seal performance,
but with added cost.
Polypropylene (PP)
Polypropylene is polymerized from propylene gas, which is a relatively low-cost
feedstock like ethylene (Soroka, 2008a). As with the PE family, PP has good chemical and
grease resistance. Barrier properties of PP are similar to those of HDPE; it is a good ] water
vapor barrier but a poor gas barrier. The polypropylene structure includes methyl groups
(−CH3) attached to every other carbon in the polymer main chain; consequently PP has a
lower density and a higher glass transition temperature (the temperature above which a
plastic becomes soft and flexible) and higher melting temperature than PE. At freezing
temperatures, unmodified PP is very close to its glass transition temperature, and therefore
tends to have serious brittleness problems. On the other hand, PP is suitable for use with
products that require moderately high temperatures such as hot filling or reheating (but not
cooking) in a microwave oven.
One of the main uses of PP in food packaging is in closures (caps). Particularly for threaded
caps, while HDPE is deformed too readily and loses sealing force under stress, PP maintains
its original stiffness and performs successfully. PP also has outstanding living hinge
properties, which is particularly useful for caps where an integral hinge is part of the design.
The use of oriented polypropylene (OPP) film has increased rapidly in recent food packaging
applications because a wide range of properties (such as tensile strength, shrinkage rate,
transparency, etc.) can be manipulated by the orientation. OPP film has improved mechanical
strength and water barrier properties compared to unoriented (cast) film. OPP film, however,
is still not suited for gas barrier applications.

26
Biaxial orientation improves clarity because the variation of crystallized layers in PP is
reduced across the thickness of the film (less light refraction).
Polystyrene (PS)
Polystyrene is a linear addition polymer of styrene resulting in a benzene ring
attached to every other carbon in the main polymer chain. It is a material that is brittle and
clear and has high surface gloss. The use of PS in food packaging is aesthetically appreciated,
but the material cannot generally be used when extended shelf life is required because of its
poor water vapor and gas barrier properties. The brittleness of PS limits its use where good
impact resistance is required. In order to reduce the tendency to fracture, oriented polystyrene
(OPS) is commonly used. Typical applications include produce and meat trays, lids for drink
cups, and inexpensive party glasses. High-impact PS (HIPS) is a PS co-polymer with
polybutadiene (synthetic rubber). Adding the synthetic rubber causes HIPS to become opaque
but improves the impact resistance significantly. HIPS is commonly used for disposable
cutlery, tubs, and other thermoformed containers.
Polystyrene foam incorporates small bubbles within the plastic, which increase the
cushioning properties and insulating ability of PS. PS foam is usually called expanded
polystyrene (EPS). While it is not uncommon for this material to be called styrofoam, that
name is proprietary for Dow Chemical Company’s EPS building insulation and should not be
used to describe a packaging material. Foamed PS is commonly used for disposable coffee
cups, meat and produce trays, egg cartons, etc.
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH)/ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
Polyvinyl alcohol is produced by hydrolysis of polyvinyl acetate, PVA. Due to the
hydrogen bonding (OH) group in the structure, PVOH can provide an excellent gas barrier
when it is totally dry. However, PVOH is readily water soluble and loses its gas barrier
properties in humid conditions, which greatly limits its usefulness for food packaging. Also,
pure PVOH is difficult to process and cannot be thermoformed or extruded. PVOH is non-
toxic and biodegradable once dissolved. This material is generally used in water-soluble
pouches such as those for laundry or dishwasher detergent.
Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) is, in essence, a copolymer of ethylene and vinyl alcohol.
Modification with the ethylene groups decreases the water sensitivity of the material (so it no
longer is soluble in water) and greatly improves its process ability. EVOH has high
mechanical strength and toughness, good clarity, very high resistance to oil and organic
solvents, and excellent gas barrier properties. It is the most widely used packaging plastic for
an oxygen barrier. EVOH is expensive and susceptible to moisture so it is usually not used
27
alone. Other films that provide a reasonably good water barrier are generally used to surround
and protect EVOH from exposure to moisture.
Polyester (PET)
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is commonly produced by the reaction of ethylene
glycol and terephthalic acid and has been one of the fastest growing food packaging plastics
for the last several years. While PET is only one member of the general polyester family, the
name “polyester” is generally regarded as PET, as it is the most commonly used plastic of the
family. The properties of PET are attractive as a food packaging material; it has very high
mechanical strength, good chemical resistance, light weight, excellent clarity, and reasonably
high barrier properties. PET is also stable over a wide range of temperatures (−60 _C to
220_C). Thus, under some circumstances PET can be used for “boil-in-the-bag” products
which are stored frozen before reheating or in dual-ovenable containers, since it has
resistance to higher temperatures than many other plastics. PET is mostly oriented biaxially
to improve its mechanical strength and gas barrier properties.
Polyethylene terephthalate recently took over from HDPE as the most widely used
plastic in bottles of all types (HDPE still predominates in the overall container category). Its
first large-scale use was in bottles for carbonated soft drinks. Its barrier properties and
mechanical strength are much higher than those of HDPE, with excellent transparency. It is
more expensive than HDPE but offers improved performance, and its cost has decrease as
production has increased.
One disadvantage of PET is its low melt strength (the ability to maintain its general shape in
molten status). PET flows like a liquid (rather than like a viscous plastic) at its melting
temperature, and has a narrow melting temperature range. These characteristics make
forming and sealing difficult. Thus, careful control of processing temperatures is important
for PET. In order to increase the melt strength of PET, PET co-polymers can be used.
The most widely used co-polymer is glycol-modified PET (PETG). This has greatly reduced
crystallinity and reasonably good melt strength, which allows it to be thermoformed or
extrusion blow molded into clear bottles.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polyvinyl chloride is produced from vinyl chloride monomers. PVC has high
toughness and strength, good dimensional stability, good clarity, excellent oil barrier
properties, and good heat sealability. Even though it has many beneficial properties, PVC is
easily degraded at high temperature. It decomposes and gives off hydrogen chloride (HCl)
around its melting temperature. Thus, unmodified PVC is almost impossible to process due to
28
thermal degradation. Most PVC used in packaging is mixed with a large amount of plasticizer
to decrease its melting point and hence reduce thermal degradation. Since the incorporation
of plasticizer reduces the attractions between neighboring polymer molecules and reduces the
melting point, it also has significant impacts on all the material’s properties. For example,
highly plasticized PVC films have excellent stretch properties and unique “cling,” making
them ideal for hand wrapping fresh meats, but the films have poor barrier properties.
One of the most widespread uses of PVC is in various blister packages (e.g. medical
tablets, toothbrushes, etc.) and clamshells (e.g. USB memory cards, batteries, etc.).
Due to the ease of thermoforming, excellent transparency, and relatively low cost, PVC is an
attractive material for these types of packages. The high plasticizer content and the presence
of residual vinyl chloride monomer have been a concern for use of PVC as a food packaging
material. The levels of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) in PVC food packaging are
currently extremely low. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed limiting the
VCM level to between 5 and 10 parts per billion (ppb) (FDA, 2002). So far, no evidence
has been presented that PVC itself is a carcinogen, though VCM is known to be one.
However, in recent years, many PVC packages, such as water and vegetable oil bottles, have
been replaced by PET. PET is rapidly replacing PVC in thermoformed blister packages and
clamshells for food products, as well. However, PVC film is still widely used for the stretch
wrapping of trays containing fresh red meat and produce.
Polyamides (PA or nylon)
Nylons, or polyamides (PA), are a whole family of synthetic polymers. The term
“nylon,” formerly a DuPont trade name, is more frequently used in the US. It is formed by
condensation polymerization of a diamine and a dibasic acid or by polymerization of certain
amino acids. Various chemical structures can be produced but the amide (−CONH−)
functional group is always present in the main structure and is largely responsible for the
mechanical strength and barrier properties. Based on their polymerization method, two
categories of PA can be identified. One family is made by polymerizing a mixture of
diamines and diacids. These can be named using the number of carbons in the straight-chain
diacids and straight-chain diamines they are made from.
Thus nylon 6,6 is formed from a 6-carbon amine plus a 6-carbon acid. The other family of
PAs is formed from only one type of monomer, an amino acid, and is identified by the
number of carbons in that amino acid. Nylon 6, for example, is formed from a 6-carbon
amino acid. These two types of PA have similar physical and chemical properties.

29
The number of carbons in the structure affects the properties of PA. Longer carbon chains
(more CH2 groups) result in plastics with a lower melting point and increased resistance to
water vapor. A semi-crystalline polyamide, MXD6, was introduced in the 1980s. It is formed
by condensing metaxylene diamine and adipic acid (a straight-chain 6-carbon carboxylic
acid). MXD6 provides much higher water barrier properties than conventional PAs.
Polyamides in general provide excellent optical clarity, oil and chemical resistance, and
mechanical strength over a wide range of temperatures. In packaging applications, the use of
PA is often found in the form of film for hightemperature sterilization or hot-filling
applications. Pas also act as flavor and gas barriers, but have poor water vapor barrier
properties. Thus, for most applications PAs are combined with other materials, such as LDPE
and ionomer, to add water vapor barrier and heat sealability properties. These types of
materials are used in the vacuum packaging of meats and cheeses.
Polycarbonate (PC)
Polycarbonate is made from carbonic acid and bisphenol A. The proper name for PC
is polybisphenol-A carbonate (as is the case for “polyester,” the generic name has come
to mean this most used member of the family). The material is a very tough and rigid plastic
with excellent clarity. However, it has a relatively high permeability to both water vapor and
gases. Thus, it must be coated if good barrier properties are required. Its main packaging uses
are large refillable water bottles and refillable milk jugs. PC is also used to a very limited
extent in food packaging as a component of multilayer structures to provide transparency
and in high strength containers (with high barrier materials). For example, multilayer beer or
beverage bottles, containing PC and a thin barrier layer such as EVOH or PVDC, can be used
to extend shelf life while still providing transparency (Hernandez, 1997). However, the
application is limited by the relatively high cost of PC.
Ionomers
Ionomers have an unusual structure compared to other plastics. These plastics contain ionic
as well as covalent bonds, while other packaging plastics have only covalent bonds in their
structure. The plastic is manufactured by neutralization of ethylene-based co-polymers
containing acid groups with a base containing a metal (such as sodium, zinc, lithium, etc.).
The result is positively charged metal ions and negatively charged ions in the base polymer
chain, creating random cross-link like ionic bonds between the polymer chains. This
combination of ionic and covalent bonds creates a polymer with excellent 254 Food
Processing: Principles and Applications toughness as well as transparency. Ionomers also

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have excellent adhesion properties so they are commonly used in composite structures with
film, paper, or aluminum foil to provide an inner layer with excellent heat sealability.
They are especially useful in applications where the sealing layer may become contaminated,
making it difficult to provide strong heat seals, such as in packaging of processed meats. The
excellent impact and puncture resistance of ionomers, even at low temperatures, is also useful
for skin packaging of sharp items such as meat cuts containing bone (as well as for inherently
sharp products such as knives). Another advantage is ionomers’ high infrared absorption,
which allows faster heat shrink packaging processes. On the other hand, ionomers are
relatively high-cost materials and have relatively poor gas barrier properties.
Paper and paper-based materials
Paper and paperboard are the most commonly used packaging materials in the world.
In the US, over 50% of all packaging is paper based, including food packaging.
Paper is produced from plant fibers. More than 95% of paper is made from wood, and the
remaining sources are mainly agricultural by-products, such as straw (of wheat, rye, barley,
and rice), sugar cane bagasse, cotton, flax, bamboo, corn husks, and so on. Making pulp is the
initial stage in making paper or paperboard, and the quality of the paper is closely related to
the quality of the pulp. Pulping can be done using mechanical, chemical, or a combination
process. Mechanical pulping produces papers that are characterized by relatively high bulk
and low strength as well as relatively low cost. Their use in packaging is very limited.
Chemical pulping produces stronger and higher quality paper and is also more expensive.
Combination processes are intermediate in cost and properties. The pulp produced may be
unbleached or bleached to various degrees, and various sizing agents and other additives are
used to control functions and appearance.

Types Of Packaging Materials Used For Industrial Packaging Of Food Products

1. 1. Types Of Packaging Materials Used For Industrial Packaging Of Food Products.

The main purpose of packaging are to hold its contents securely to prevent leakage
and breakage, to protect the foods from different hazards like germs, heat, moisture
loss or moisture pick up, etc., to protect the contents while distribution, etc. For all
types of packaging, there are different types of packages. The different types of
packages can be classified into two groups:

Retail Containers: These containers protect food or the content from different
damages and at thesame time they advertise the product for retail sale. For example,

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glass bottles, sachets, over wraps, plastic bottles, metal cans, etc. They can be used for
home storage also.

Shipping Containers: These containers contain and protect food and other
items during distribution and transport or any other marketing function. For example,
sacks, stretch or shrink wrapped containers, corrugated fire board cartons, drums,
barrels, crates and foil bags. Industrial packaging materials are different from the
traditional packaging materials.

Different types of industrial packaging materials include: Metal Containers:

Two types of metal cans are used like, double seam, which are used for making
canned foods and metal containers with push on lids which are used to store dry foods
like coffee powder, milk powder, dry yeast, etc. Double seamed cans are made up of
aluminum or tin plated steel that are lined with specific lacquers suiting different
types of foods. Cans are widely used as they have many advantages. They can give
total protection to the food. They are tamper proof, and can be made in different
shapes and sizes. At the same time, they have certain disadvantages like they are
heavier than plastics and thus have high transport costs. Large metal drums are used
as shipping containers for oil, juices and many other liquid foods. Metal containers
made of aluminium are very helpful as they are impermeable to moisture,
microorganisms, lights, odors, etc. Glass Containers: Glass jars and bottles are very
popular for packaging foods. They protect food from moisture, pests, and micro-
organism. These are very useful as they can be processed under heat, reusable,
recyclable, rigid, can be stored and are transparent to display its contents or the food
inside. Along with different advantages it has certain disadvantages too. They are
heavier and for this require higher transport costs. They can be easily broken,
especially, when transporting through rough roads. These are mainly used for
packing foods like different preservatives such as jams, jellies, juices, pickles, beer,
wine, etc. Paper and Cardboard Containers: Paper and cardboard containers are
mainly made from wood pulp sand some other additional elements to make a proper
container. Different types of papers are used to wrap foods. For example, sulphate
papers are used as paper sacks for fruits, vegetables, flour, sugar, etc. Small paper
board tubs or sacks can be used for confectionery, snack foods, and nuts. Whiteboards
are suitable for ice cream, chocolates, and frozen cartons because they are coated with

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 wax or plastic to make the container heat sealable. Chip boards are used as outer
cartons, especially, for Tea or cereals but not contacting the food.

Plastic Films: Flexible plastic films are relatively lighter. They protect food and other
materials from heat, gas and moisture. They add little weight to the food and fit
according to the shape of the material transported. They dont take much space and
have dry and wet strengths making them convenient for the consumer, manufacturer
and the retailer. Foods like milk are packed in such flexible plastic films. Polythene:
Much less expensive than other packaging materials, they are act as a good moisture
barrier but not a good odor barrier. High density polythene are thicker, stronger and
are better barriers for moisture and gas. There are many other types of packages like
polypropylene, coated films, laminated films, coextruded films, rigid and semi rigid
plastic containers and many more. Each of these containers have individual
advantages and own quality. Pam Robinson provides up-to-date information about the
types of packaging material including foil bags used for industrial packaging of food
products.

Choosing a packaging material

Mechanical properties

The packaging material must be strong enough to prevent physical damage to the food (e.g.
bruising of fruits and vegetables and breakage of biscuits) and to other packaging materials
(e.g. glass bottles in fiberboard containers).

Physical properties

The packaging material must be able to protect the final physical nature of the food after
processing as well as protect the environment around the food. To do this, the material must
be able to control the movement of water, water vapor, oils and gases. It must also protect
against UV-light and heat gains and losses where necessary.

Chemical and biochemical properties

The package material must offer protection against chemical and biochemical spoilage by
maintaining an environment around the food that reduces or prevents deteriorative chemical

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and biochemical spoilage reactions. Products of chemical deterioration must also not migrate
into the food in any large quantities (e.g. corrosion of tin cans).

Microbiological aspects

The packaging material must be able to protect the food and prevent contamination from
external sources. The package environment should be able to slow or prevent the growth of
undesirable microorganisms in or on the food by use of anaerobic conditions or inert gas
atmosphere.

Insect and rodent infestation

The package material must protect against insect and rodent infestation, particularly in bulk
storage, in open warehouses, or where consumer storage conditions are likely to be
inadequate. Paper may not be suitable here but laminates can provide the necessary
protection.

Nature of the food to be packed

• The package material must not contaminate the food by leakage or migration of toxic
elements from it to the food.
• The final condition of the processed food will determine the nature of packaging
material (is the food raw or fresh, is packaging required for processing, etc.).
• Susceptibility to microbial and insect attack and inherent flora will influence the
nature of packaging material.
• If the food is still respiring or undergoing postmortem changes, the package material
must be chosen to control the in-package changes.
• Many foods possess an odor or are susceptible to aroma loss or odor pick-up during
storage. The packaging material must be selected to resist odors in the manufacturer
stores and in the consumer’s home environment.
• The packaging material must be easy to handle for rapid and uninterrupted production
and should allow for easy retrieval of the food by the consumer.

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Availability & cost

The package material must be easily available at a reasonable cost. the choice of food
packaging materials such as geometric properties (shape and size), chemical property (pH),
Physical properties (color, aero and hydrodynamic properties.) and thermal properties.
Essentially, the geometric features of food are known to be important in packaging, in
controlling fill – in weight, freezing and canning among others. The pH level of the food
product intended to be packaged known to be either its degree of alkalinity or acidity is of
considerable importance. This is important because acidic food products have the tendency to
react with certain element of the packaging material, which can lead to a sort of
contamination. The colour, aero and hydro – dynamic properties due to their influence on
food products particularly in terms of general acceptability are also relatively significant in
packaging technology. Accordingly, the density and porosity of the food material to be
packaged determines greatly how the packaging material will be. The porosity of the material
has tendency to influence the moisture sorption characteristic of the food products stored,
hereby having a cumulative effect on the shelf - life of the food products.

Importance of Product Packaging in Marketing

Whether getting ready to create packaging for a product, selling or considering

changing the packaging of an existing product and wondering if the appearance of a product’s
package is important. Many product providers may think that the product and its performance
is more important than what the packaging looks like, but the product packaging can play a
role in the success or failure of the sales of the product.

Function

The purpose of product packaging is to protect the product from damage. Product
packaging not only protects the product during transit from the manufacturer to the retailer,
but it also prevents damage while the product sits on retail shelves. Most products have some
form of packaging. For example, soups must have a container and package while apples may
have packaging for transport but not to sell the product from the produce department of the
local grocery store.

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Attraction

How a product is packaged may be what attracts the consumer to take a look on the
product as is sits on store shelves. For this reason, many companies conduct extensive
research on color schemes, designs and types of product packaging that is the most appealing
to its intended consumer.

Promotion

Packaging also plays an important role for portraying information about the product.
Outside packaging may contain directions on how to use the product or make the product.

Facilitates Purchase Decision

Packaging may also contain ingredients and nutritional information about the product.
This information can help to sell the product because it allows potential customers to obtain
the necessary information they need to make a purchase decision. Information contained on a
package may propel the reader to buy the product.

Differentiation

Packaging can also differentiate one brand of product from another brand. Because
the product packaging can contain company names, logos and the color scheme of the
company, it helps consumers to identify the product as it sits among the competition’s
products on store shelves. For example, as a shopper walks through the coffee aisle of the
local grocery store, the bright orange, pink and white packaging of the Dunkin’ Donuts coffee
brand may be easily recognizable for the consumer to grab on his way by the coffee shelf.
The shopper may identify with the company brand, which propels them to buy the product. If
the product packaging changes, it may alter the brand perception of the company, which
doesn’t mean that the consumer would not still purchase the product, but it may delay the
purchase until the person is able to identify the product according to its new packaging.

Using packaging as a marketing tool

The growth of digital printing has only added value to the use of packaging as a
marketing tool. The demand from today’s consumers is that brands need to be relevant to

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them as an individual. For example a shared belief in something (sporting team, lifestyle
choice/lifestyle stage, suburb, gender), digital printing has meant you are able to develop
personalised messaging for each of these without the additional costs associated with creative
messaging changes when using traditional printing methods.

I recognise that not everyone has access to digital printing technologies, but that does
not mean you shouldn’t treat your packaging as your number one marketing tool. Obviously,
personalised messaging has a direct correlation with sales. However, if you are smart about
your packaging design and develop an EMOTIONAL CONNECTION with the consumer,
then it can be an extremely effective marketing tool.

We have multiple examples of brands we’ve helped develop an emotional connection

with their consumers through their packaging. One of our favorites is a little brand called
Bills Organic Sourdough Bakery, we helped this wonderful brand build an emotional
connection with consumers through their packaging. Sales results speak for themselves
seeing an increase of 25% in just the first two weeks on shelf. Not a single dollar was spent
on additional marketing efforts.

There is a catch…

Now I know I’ve convinced you that packaging is your most valuable marketing tool,
however, this doesn’t mean you should rush off and update your packaging immediately. You
need to ask yourself a few key questions first:

• Do you know who your brand is? I mean this seriously… what’s the heart and soul of
your brand?
• What does it stand for? This has to be emotional…
• What is the one key value that sets you apart from all of your competitors? Again, this
has to be emotional, it can’t be a whiz bang snazzy product feature.
• Does this add value to your consumers? If you can answer the above three questions
then you’ll know the answer to this.

In reality, we should be answering these questions in relation to the heart of the brand.
The core essence that you love and feel connected to. If you find this and then answer these
questions you’re onto a winner.

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This is what any good packaging design agency will cover prior to starting any work… and if
they don’t? If it was me, I’d be concerned about the results that follow. One of our founders
favourite sayings is “we can produce the most beautiful packaging designs in the world, but if
they don’t translate to sales… they’re not worth the paper they’re printed on”.

Think about this the next time you’re updating your packaging… does your agency or
designer truly understand the heart of your brand? If the answers no it’s not going to translate
to your packaging design and you’ve missed a crucial opportunity to hero your number one
tool in the marketing mix… packaging.

Blog

Name

Quality

Design

Logo

Identity

Marketing tool

Product design is an important marketing variable. It is also a vital instrument in

modern marketing activities for consumer goods. To be successful in today’s increasingly
competitive marketplace, the product design, namely appearance, should include the
preferences of consumers. Packaging provides an attractive method to convey messages and
information about the product attributes to customers.

Bloch (1995) says that the importance of product design is crucial to the success of a product.
It ensures consumer attention for the product, communicates information, and it provides
sensory stimulation. According to Berkowitz (1987), an exclusive and unique package design
is a way for a new product to be noticeable among familiar packages offered by competitors.

The design of a package contributes to the communication of value and has a strong influence
on sales of a particular product. The package and package benefits are essential instruments
in marketing strategies.

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2.3 Packaging as a decision making instrument

Packaging plays a critical role in the purchasing decision. Silayoi and Speece (2007) deem
that in cases when the consumer is undecided, the package becomes a vital factor in the
buying choice because it communicates to the consumer during the decision making time.
The way how the consumer perceives the subjective entity of a product through
communication elements conveyed by the package, also influences the choice and is the key
factor for successful marketing strategies.

Packaging of specific food products

Respiring fruits and vegetables

• Examples are kales, cabbage, tomatoes, mangoes, bananas, potatoes, and onions.
• Packaging materials should be permeable to gas movement in and out of package.
This is because fresh fruits and vegetables are still respiring and the internal
atmosphere will alter reducing the O2 quantity leading to anaerobiosis and consequent
product spoilage.
• The following flexible film materials may be used:
o Cellulose acetate
o Lacquered cellulose
o PVC
o Lacquered orientated cellulose
• Ventilation (goring of small holes on the surface of the packaging material) may be
necessary to increase gas permeability.
• Larger or heavier quantities (>50kg) are usually packaged in the following materials:
o Multi-wall Kraft paper sacks laminated or lacquered on the inside to allow gas
permeation but reduce water loss
o Inside the multi-wall Kraft paper may be lined with jute and then waxed.
o Fibreboard cartons or boxes with partitions for individual items may also be
used.
o Molded pulp or plastic foam containers (coupled with shrink-wrapping) may
also be used.

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Fresh meat

• Drying or moisture escape should be prevented but O2 should be allowed.

• Use MSADT cellulose film with coating on the outside for moisture proofing. This
affords protection for about 2 – 4 days.
• When the cellulose is wet, O2 can pass through but water is prevented.
• For longer periods, use PVC or polythene packs, laminates, or aluminum foil; but
these are O2 impermeable so colour of meat may fade to brown.
• On opening and storage at cool temperatures for 1 – 2 weeks, the real colour is
restored.
• Use of O2 impermeable materials may encourage the growth of microorganisms such
as C. botulinum, which prefers anaerobic conditions.

Pasteurized products

• These require only a limited shelf life.

• The products in this category are usually heat-treated at less than 100C to destroy
pathogens but not spoilage microorganisms.
• The products may be heat processed and then aseptically transferred into suitable
packages or the pasteurization process may be in-package. In-package pasteurization
requires packaging materials that can withstand the required process temperatures
(e.g. glass) for liquid foods (beer, milk, etc.).
• Wax-coated paper cartons laminated with aluminum foil or polythene on the product
side can also be used.
• Tetra-pak systems also find widespread use. These are heat-sealable and easily
adaptable to continuous and aseptic filling.

Dehydrated (dried) foods

• These have low moisture contents (1 – 20%). Dried foods have aw below that at
which most microorganisms can grow.
• Drying achieves reduction in weight and volume hence facilitating transport and
storage. Drying is achieved by sun or air-drying, mechanical drying, spray drying,
freeze-drying or vacuum drying. Dried foods can be categorized into the following
groups:

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 • Dried foods are susceptible to non-enzymatic browning and oxidative changes.
Addition of SO2 can reduce these changes. The aim of packaging should be to:
o Prevent moisture transfer
o Prevent O2 and SO2 permeation

• Oxygen scavengers can be used for dried and O2 sensitive foods. For example, the
shelf life of white bread in polypropylene film can be extended from by over two
weeks at room temperature by incorporating an O2 absorbent into the package.
Examples of oxygen scavengers are finely divided iron powder contained in a sachet
highly permeable to O2 and water, glucose oxidase enzyme, Iron II carbonate, and
platinum catalyst. Use of oxygen scavengers is an example of ‘Active Packaging
System’.

Sugar confectionery

• These include boiled sweets and toffees, which tend to absorb moisture from the
atmosphere.
• Usually wrapped individually in moisture-proof cellulose films, Al foil, and coloured
or plain cellulose films.
• May be further wrapped in MSAT cellulose film plus paperboard cartons, glass jars,
tins as final outer containers to prevent moisture absorption during long-term storage.
• Chocolate and milk are susceptible to heat and light but not to oxidation. Packaging
must prevent water absorption by sugar in the chocolate causing ‘bloom’.
• Wrapped in Al foil heat sealable with glassine over wrap followed by simple bleached
Kraft paper for printing purposes.
• PVC trays have also been used.

Beer and soft drinks

• Beer is usually packed in glass. The bottle is usually brown or amber for protection
against UV light.
• The bottle should withstand the pressurized effects of CO2
• Strong cans (Al or Tin) with thick acid-resistant lacquers are also in use.

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 • Quantities are usually 0.5 – 5 liters. Large quantities may be packaged in wooden
barrels, Al barrels, large stainless steel tankers for road or rail transport.
• Soft drinks are usually packaged in glass bottles similar to beer, but the glass does not
have to be coloured.
• Ready-to-drink squashes are packaged in waxed or polythene laminated paperboard
cartons. Plastic (polystyrene) containers may also be used.
• Squashes are susceptible to flavor loss hence have a short shelf life.
• Heat processed fruit juices such as nectars and purees are packaged in metal cans
lacquered with an acid resistant lacquer.

Packaging of baked products

Packaging of Baked Products Product Packaging Standard breads To protect crumb

from staling and dehydration. Material should not be impervious; otherwise crust will soften
quickly leading to mould growth. Use waxed paper or regenerated cellulose. Polythene is
currently in use. Cakes Have high equilibrium relative humidity at room temperature hence
tend to dry out. Package in semi-permeable films e.g. QSAT and MSADT. Impermeable
materials such as MSAT and MxxT can also be used. Biscuits The equilibrium relative
humidity at room temperature is about 5% hence liable to moisture pick-up from the
atmosphere. Susceptible to oxidative rancidity and is affected by light. Also friable. Use
waxed paper or MSAT plasticized cellulose for flexibility. Use MxxT, which has a more
abrasion resistance. In the tropics, these cellulose films require lamination with Al foil or
using double the amount of wrapping film and packing, the film-wrapped biscuit in a
paperboard carton, which is then over-wrapped with polythene.

Metal fabrication is the building of metal structures by cutting, bending, and assembling
processes. It is a value added process that involves the construction of machines and
structures from various raw materials. A fab shop will bid on a job, usually based on the
engineering drawings, and if awarded the contract will build the product. Large fab shops will
employ a multitude of value added processes in one plant or facility including welding,
cutting, forming and machining. These large fab shops offer additional value to their
customers by limiting the need for purchasing personnel to locate multiple vendors for
different services. Metal fabrication jobs usually start with shop drawings including precise

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measurements then move to the fabrication stage and finally to the installation of the final
project. Fabrication shops are employed by contractors, OEMs and VARs. Typical projects
include loose parts, structural frames for buildings and heavy equipment, and stairs and hand
railings for buildings.
Processes
• Cutting is done by sawing, shearing, or chiseling (all with manual and powered
variants); torching with hand-held torches (such as oxy-fuel torches or plasma
torches); and via numerical control (CNC) cutters (using a laser, mill bits, torch, or
water jet).
• Bending is done by hammering (manual or powered) or via press brakes and similar
tools. Modern metal fabricators use press brakes to either coin or air-bend metal sheet
into form. CNC-controlled backgauges use hard stops to position cut parts in order to
place bend lines in the correct position. Off-line programing software now makes
programing the CNC-controlled press brakes seamless and very efficient.
• Assembling (joining of the pieces) is done by welding, binding with adhesives,
riveting, threaded fasteners, or even yet more bending in the form of a crimped seam.
Structural steel and sheet metal are the usual starting materials for fabrication, along
with the welding wire, flux, and fasteners that will join the cut pieces. As with other
manufacturing processes, both human labor and automation are commonly used. The
product resulting from fabrication may be called a fabrication. Shops that specialize in
this type of metal work are called fab shops. The end products of other common types
of metalworking, such as machining, metal stamping, forging, and casting, may be
similar in shape and function, but those processes are not classified as fabrication.
Overlap
Fabrication comprises or overlaps with various metalworking specialties:
• Fabrication shops and machine shops have overlapping capabilities, but fabrication
shops generally concentrate on metal preparation and assembly as described above.
By comparison, machine shops also cut metal, but they are more concerned with the
machining of parts on machine tools. Firms that encompass both fab work and
machining are also common.
• Blacksmithing has always involved fabrication, although it was not always called by
that name.
• The products produced by welders, which are often referred to as weldments, are an
example of fabrication.
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 • Boilermakers originally specialized in boilers, leading to their trade's name, but the
term as used today has a broader meaning.
• Similarly, millwrights originally specialized in setting up grain mills and saw mills,
but today they may be called upon for a broad range of fabrication work.
• Ironworkers, also known as steel erectors, also engage in fabrication. Often the
fabrications for structural work begin as prefabricated segments in a fab shop, then are
moved to the site by truck, rail, or barge, and finally are installed by erectors.
Raw materials
Standard raw materials used by metal fabricators are;
• plate metal
• formed and expanded metal
o tube stock,
• welding wire/welding rod
• casting
Cutting and burning
The raw material has to be cut to size. This is done with a variety of tools.
The most common way to cut material is by Shearing (metalworking);
Special band saws designed for cutting metal have hardened blades and a feed mechanism for
even cutting. Abrasive cut-off saws, also known as chop saws, are similar to miter saws but
with a steel cutting abrasive disk. Cutting torches can cut very large sections of steel with
little effort.
Burn tables are CNC cutting torches, usually natural gas powered. Plasma and laser cutting
tables, and Water jet cutters, are also common. Plate steel is loaded on a table and the parts
are cut out as programmed. The support table is made of a grid of bars that can be replaced.
Some very expensive burn tables also include CNC punch capability, with a carousel of
different punches and taps. Fabrication of structural steel by plasma and laser cutting
introduces robots to move the cutting head in three dimensions around the material to be cut.
Forming
Forming is a process of material deformation. Forming is typically applied to metals. To
define the process, a raw material piece is formed by applying force to an object. The force
must be great enough to change the shape of the object from its initial shape. The process of
forming can be controlled with the use of tools such as punches or dies. Machinery can also
be used to regulate force magnitude and direction. An example of machine based forming can

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also combine forming and welding to produce lengths of fabricated sheeting, most commonly
seen in the form of linear grating (used principally for water drainage) - (see example).[1]
Proper design and use of tools with machinery creates a repeatable form which can be used to
create products for many industries, including jewelry, aerospace, automotive, construction,
civil and architectural, etc.
Machining
Machining is the process of removing unwanted material from the block of metal to get the
desire shape. Machining is a trade, in and of itself, although Fab shops will generally entail a
limited machining capability including; metal lathes, mills, magnetic based drills, along with
other portable metal working tools.
Welding
Welding is the main focus of steel fabrication. The formed and machined parts will be
assembled and tack welded into place then re-checked for accuracy. A fixture may be used to
locate parts for welding if multiple weldments have been ordered.
The welder then completes welding as per the engineering drawings if welding is detailed, or
as per his/her own judgement if no welding details are provided.
Special precautions may be needed to prevent warping of the weldment due to heat. These
may include re-designing the weldment to use less weld, welding in a staggered fashion,
using a stout fixture, covering the weldment in sand during cooling, and straightening
operations after welding.
Straightening of warped steel weldments is done with an Oxy-acetylene torch and is
somewhat of an art. Heat is selectively applied to the steel in a slow, linear sweep. The steel
will have a net contraction, upon cooling, in the direction of the sweep. A highly skilled
welder can remove significant warpage using this technique.
Steel weldments are occasionally annealed in a low temperature oven to relieve residual
stresses. Such weldments, particularly those employed for engine blocks, may be line-bored
after heat treatment.
Final assembly
After the weldment has cooled it is generally sand blasted, primed and painted. Any
additional manufacturing specified by the customer is then completed. The finished product
is then inspected and shipped.
Specialities
Many fabrication shops have speciality processes which they develop or invest in, based on
their customers needs and their expertise:
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