See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/352981532

Principles of Optical Networks

Chapter · July 2021

CITATIONS READS

0 641

1 author:

Muhammad Hamza El-Saba

Ain Shams University
81 PUBLICATIONS 75 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Biological Radiation Effects of Cell Phones , and Probable Risks to Public Health View project

Advanced Electronic Engineering Encyclopedia (AEEE) View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Muhammad Hamza El-Saba on 04 July 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

Optical Networks
Contents

9-1. Introduction
9-2. Evolution of Optical Network Technologies
9-2.1. Single Channel Systems
9-2.2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) Systems
9-2.3. Simple Optical Networks
9-2.4. Wavelength Routed Optical Networks
9-2.5. Optically Switched Networks
9-2.6. Optical Time Division Multiplexing (OTDM)
9-2.7. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
9-3. OSI Model and Optical Network Standards
9-3.1. The 7-Layers of the OSI Model
9-3.2. . Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI))
9-3.3. Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
9-3.4. Optical Transport Network (OTN)
9-4. Practical Optical Networks
9-4.1. Point-to-Point WDM (G.692)
9-4.2. Other Optical Network Standards
9-4.3. Add-Drop Multiplexed (ADM) Networks
9-4.4. Centralized WDM Circuit Switch
9-4.5. Optical Packet Switching
9-4.6. Wavelength Switched Optical Network (WSON)
9-5. Optical Fiber Access Networks
9-5.1. Fiber to the Premises (FTTP) Technology
9-5.2. Fiber to the Home (FTTH)
9-6. Summary
9-7. Problems
9-9. References

-277-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

-278-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

Optical Networks

9-1. Introduction
A network is a collection (net) of devices and transmission links which
provides a means of information interchange within a group of nodes
(users ). The optical communications systems all share the common
feature of using optical fibers instead of copper wires, with high speed.
The first -generation of optical systems in 1980 ’s had a capacity of 40
Mbit/s per fiber. The capacity of optical systems has jumped by a factor
of more than 10000 over a period of 20 years . In the same time , the
applications of optical technology moved from short distance links (a few
tens of km) to the very long links of the backbone networks, completely
substituting the traditional copper conductors . In the last few years the
optical technology also started to be deployed in the final access networks
.

Fig. 9-1. Evolution of communication speed limit

Nowadays, there is a significant amount of research aimed at producing a

new generation of “lightwave networks” which will operate quite
differently from the systems we have today. The way in which we are
building a lightwave network is critically dependent on the job of the
-279-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

network and the environment in which it operates. The following figure

depicts an example of optical network systems.
.

Fig. 9-2. Example of an optical network system

The following figure depicts the hierarchy of optical network systems

Fig. 9-3. Hierarchy of an optical network system

-280-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

After reading this chapter you should be able to:

 Describe the general characteristics of optical networks.
 Understand the role of the major components of an optical network.
 Distinguish between different optical network types and understand
their properties.

-281-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

9-2. Evolution of Optical Network Technologies

We can consider the development of optical systems as having a number
of stages:

9-2.1. Single Channel Systems

This is the simplest possible system. Each physical link carries a single
channel and each end of the link is terminated and processed
electronically. The following figure shows a very simple network which
is connected with optical fibers

Fig. 9-4. Simple WDM network.

9-2.2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) Systems

In simple WDM we advance from one channel per link to many channels
but we still use electronics at each end of the optical link to route the
signals and build a network. WDM technology came out of the laboratory
in 1996 and several long undersea WDM links were installed in full
production. A number of companies also introduced commercial products
for WDM networks. Even simple WDM links include amplifiers and
perhaps devices to flatten the gain curve of the amplifier. But this is still
to be considered “simple” from the network point of view.

9-2.3. Simple Optical Networks

A simple optical network is where there is some optical processing or
switching of the signal performed. A series of WDM connections with
optical add/drop multiplexors at the nodal points qualifies for this
description. Another example might be a broadcast and select LAN or
MAN optical network. Simple here means the use of very elementary
levels of logic (like optical add/drop multiplexors).

-282-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

Fig. 9-5. Simple WDM network.

9-2.4. Wavelength Routed Optical Networks

The concept here is that we have a true network consisting of optical fiber
links with optical routing nodes at the intersections. Individual signals
are routed through the network based on their wavelength. Individual
wavelengths are not changed in the routing nodes and paths through the
network are at least semi-permanent. The network is relatively static.

Fig. 9-6 Schematic of a wavelength-routed network.

-283-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

9-2.5. Optically Switched Networks

Optically switched networks are something a sort of ideal. The network
topology is essentially the same as for a wavelength-routed network.
However, there are two big differences:

1. Wavelengths are changed at the nodes.

2. New paths can be set up and torn down relatively quickly.

This therefore becomes an optical circuit switched network.

A WDM circuit-switching system is illustrated in the following figure.

Fig. 9-7. Example of a centralized WDM circuit Switch

IBM's Rainbow WDM network is a popular example of circuit-switched

broadcast and select networks. In Rainbow, each station is equipped with
a single tunable Fabry-Perot filter, and a single fixed transmitter
connected to a passive star coupler by two fibers. Each transmitter is
tuned to a distinct wavelength and the receivers are capable of tuning to
-284-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

any wavelength channel on the network. Therefore, it is possible for an

end-node to make connection with any other end-node in the network,
employing a simple medium access protocol based on polling.

9-2.6. Optical Time Division Multiplexing (OTDM)

An OTDM network offers end-to-end synchronous digital connections
using the principles of TDM, “Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
and SDH”

9-2.7. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Optical CDMA is a good candidate for a medium access control protocol
in a shared medium LAN. In this case every device uses the same
wavelength and therefore bus-based solutions would be unattractive as
they involve too much loss. However, CDMA would be a very attractive
way of operating a reflective star network.

-285-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

9-3. OSI Model and Optical Network Standards

Through the late 1970's into the 1990's the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) developed an extensive and detailed standard for
communications called Open Systems Interconnection (OSI). The OSI
model failed in the marketplace for many reasons but prime among them
was that it took so long to develop that when it was finished it was a
standard for 1970's technology in the era of the 1990's. Perhaps more
important was that it was eclipsed by the growth of the TCP/IP protocol
on which the Internet is based. However, the ISO model is still very
useful as a reference in describing data communications processes

Fig. 9-8. The OSI communication model and its 7 layers.

9-3.1. The 7-Layers of the OSI Model

The logical functions of the various layers are as follows:

i. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

As discussed above the primary function of the physical layer is to take a
stream of bits presented to it by a link layer and to deliver that stream of
bits unchanged to the partner link layer at the other end of a physical link.
Thus the scope of the physical layer is across a physical link.

-286-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

ii. Link Layer (Layer 2)

The link layer accepts frames (or “blocks”) of data from a network layer
and delivers them to the partner network layer at the other end of a single
physical link connection (not across the network).

iii. Network Layer (Layer 3)

The network layer routes data frames from one network port to another.
In addition it provides a multiplexing function on the link layer such that
a single link layer may support many logical link connections. That is, a
single network port can support data transfer with multiple network ports
at other places within the network. There are a number of other necessary
functions here such as control of the flow of data from the user to the
network. For the network layer to function there must be a header
appended to the front of the data containing information that the network
can use to route the data towards its destination. For this to happen we
have assumed the presence of a network-wide addressing structure such
that network ports can be specified uniquely.

iv. Transmission Layer (Layer 4)

The network layer has provided a connection between end users across
the network. Depending on the type of network, this connection may not
be very reliable. The primary function of the transmission layer is to
provide end-to-end error detection and recovery (data integrity). This
function provides the same function as the error recovery function at the
link layer (layer 2) except that it operates across the network rather than a
single link. Albeit that there are many errors that can apply in the network
context that cannot occur across a link such as the delivery of frames in a
different sequence from that in which they were delivered to the network.

v. Session Layer (Layer 5)

This layer provides a mechanism to multiplex many logically
independent connections onto the same network connection.

vi. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The presentation layer transforms the data into a form expected by the
user application. For example this function may include code translation.

vii. Application Layer (Layer 7)

After all this network processing it is sobering to realise that somewhere
there is a user and they may want to process some data. The application
layer is where they do it.

-287-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

9-3-2. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI))

The fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) network consists of a set of
nodes (e.g., LAN stations) connected by an optical fibers (or other
medium) into one or more logical rings. A logical ring consists of a set of
stations connected as an alternating series of nodes and transmission
medium to form a closed loop. This is shown in the following figure.

Fig. 9-9. FDDI token ring: example of logical configuration

FDDI provides equivalent bandwidth to support a peak data rate of 100

Mbps. It provides connectivity for many nodes over distances of many
kilometers in extent. FDDI provides packet service via a token ring.

9-3-3. Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

The Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is an ANSI standard, which
was developed in conjunction with Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
for optical fiber networks. SONET is a wide area network (WAN), which
is used as a transport network to carry loads from other WANs. Using
SONET equipment, we can create a SONET network that can be used as
a high-speed backbone carrying loads from other networks such as ATM

Fig. 9-10. Illustration of a simple SONET network.

-288-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

SONET defines a hierarchy of electrical signaling levels called

synchronous transport signals (STSs). Each STS level (STS-l to STS-
192) supports a certain data rate, The SONET standard includes four
functional layers: the photonic, the section, the line, and the path layer.
They correspond to both the physical and the data link layers

Fig. 9-11. Illustration of the SONEDT layers compared with OSI model.

i. Path Layer
The path layer is responsible for the movement of a signal from its optical
source to its optical destination. At the optical source, the signal is
changed from an electronic form into an optical form, multiplexed with
other signals, and encapsulated in a frame. At the optical destination, the
received frame is demultiplexed, and the individual optical signals are
changed back into their electronic forms. Path layer overhead is added at
this layer. STS multiplexers provide path layer functions.
ii. Line Layer
The line layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a
physical line. Line layer overhead is added to the frame at this layer. STS
multiplexers and add/drop multiplexers provide line layer functions.
iii. Section Layer
The section layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a
physical section. It handles framing, scrambling, and error control.
Section layer overhead is added to the frame at this layer.
iv. Photonic Layer
The photonic layer corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model. It
includes physical specifications for the optical fiber channel, the
sensitivity of the receiver, multiplexing functions, and so on. SONET
uses NRZ encoding with the presence of light representing 1 and the
absence of light representing O.
-289-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

v. SONET Frames
Each synchronous transfer signal STS-n is composed of 8000 frames.
Each frame is a two-dimensional matrix of bytes with 9 rows by 90 x n
columns. For example, STS-l frame is 9 rows by 90 columns (810 bytes),
and an STS-3 is 9 rows by 270 columns (2430 bytes). Figure 9-12 shows
the general format of an STS-l and an STS-n.

Fig. 9-12. Illustration of the SONEDT frame.

vi., Bit, Byte and Frame Transmission

One of the interesting points about SONET is that each STS-n signal is
transmitted at a fixed rate of 8000 frames per second. This is the rate at
which voice is digitized. For each frame the bytes are transmitted from
the left to the right, top to the bottom. For each byte, the bits are
transmitted from the most significant to the least significant (left to right).
Figure 9-13 shows the order of frame and byte transmission

Fig. 9-13. STS-l frames in SONET.

9-3-4. Optical Transport Network (OTN)

OTN is a set of standards which allow interoperability and the generic
transport of any protocol across an optical network. OTN is implemented
as a “wrapper” around another protocol. So the optical network can be
completely transparent. Also, some protocols don’t have the same level of
troubleshooting capabilities as other protocols. For example, Ethernet is
not as good as SONET, because Ethernet wasn’t originally designed for
-290-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

the WAN. An OTN wrapper allows the optical network operator to

troubleshoot with OTN instead.

Fig. 9-14. Illustration of the OTN standard.

9-4. All-Optical Networks

The reason for the discussion of the OSI model is to show that different
forms of networking can (and should) be built on-top of one another. In
the case of all-optical networks we have four different possible structures:
1. Point-to-Point WDM
2. Add-Drop Optical WDM Networks
3. Optical TDM Networks (with an add/drop function).
4. Wavelength Routed Networks

9-4.1. Point-to-Point WDM (G.692)

The ITU standard G.692 is entitled “Optical Interfaces for multichannel
systems with optical amplifiers”. This covers long distance point-to-point
WDM systems using STM-4, STM-16 and/or STM-64 on 4, 8, 16 or 32
channels. The maximum link distance for a system without amplifiers is
160km or up to 640km with optical amplification. The draft standard
specifies a wavelength reference grid based on 100GHz spacing and a
reference (center) frequency of 193.1THz. This (193.1THz)
approximately equals 1,553.5 nm. Users are free to use any wavelength
on the grid in an arbitrary way! Users are also free to select which part of
the spectrum they use. Unequally spaced channels are allowed provided
the channel wavelengths are situated on the grid. Early system
implementations tend to use:
 4 channels with 400 GHz (3.2 nm) spacing
 8 channels with 200 GHz (1.6 nm) spacing
 16 channels with 200 GHz (1.6 nm) spacing
 32 channels with 100 GHz (.8 nm) spacing
-291-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

9-4.2. Other Optical Network Standards

The standard model G.692 described above covers only point-to-point
WDM links. There is a need for a standard covering more extensive
optical networks. In April 1997 the ITU-T specified a framework for the
development of a series of standards to cover optical networks. They have
alphabetic identifiers rather than numbers at this stage of standards
development.

G.onf Framework for an optical network

G.otn Network architecture
G.oef Equipment functions
G.oni Information model
G.onm Management aspects
G.ons Frame formats
G.onp Physical layer
G.onc Components

Till now, the committee had not agreed on the definition and scope of just
what constitutes an optical network. In fact this is a serious issue and
there are many conflicting opinions.
9-4.3. Add-Drop Multiplexed (ADM) Networks
Perhaps the simplest form of true all-optical network is the “Add-Drop
Multiplexed Network“. The concept is illustrated in figure 7-8. An optical
WDM link passes through many locations. At each intermediate location
one or more individual optical channels are removed (dropped) from the
WDM stream and terminated in a local device An optical WDM link
passes through many locations. At each intermediate location one or more
individual optical channels are removed (dropped) from the WDM stream
and terminated in a local device. The cable is “tapped” at intermediate
points and individual channels removed or added.

Fig. 9-15 Illustration of an Add-Drop Multiplexed (ADM) Networks

-292-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

Note that this is directional so that for example the wavelength used for
the channel from B to C could be re-used for a channel from A to B and
another from C to D or E. At a particular “drop” a single wavelength
implies two possible (full-duplex) connections - one downstream and one
upstream.Devices used for the add/drop function are wavelength selective
and don't have the loss problems of passive taps. The following figure
shows a more complex “ring” type of ADM network, where Each end
user can (or rather could) communicate with any other end user in either
direction around the ring.

Fig. 9-16. Add-Drop Multiplexed Ring Network

9-4.4. Centralized WDM Circuit Switch

A WDM circuit-switching system is illustrated in Figure 345. This
performs the same logical switching function as an electronic circuit-
switching system but the switching function is performed optically. All
the tunable equipment (lasers) is kept in a centrally managed location

9-4.5. Optical Packet Switching

Optical packet switching networks (if they existed) would be true meshed
networks where data was transported in short blocks (packets or cells).
In a packet switched network data is transferred from one user to the
other in groups of bytes variously called packets, cells, frames or blocks.
While there are technical differences between these terms (usually
depending on the context within which they are used) the principle
-293-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

involved is the same. A packet of data is sent from a user to the network.
This may be variable in length and delimited by some control sequence or
it may be fixed in length. The packet contains a header prepended to the
front which contains information that allows the network to determine the
destination to which the data must be routed. This header may consist of
either the network address of the desired destination or an identifier that
allows the network to choose which of a selection of predefined routes
(called circuits) is to be used for the data.. The network node (also called
a switch) receives the packet and places it on an outbound link connection
towards the destination. This is how most modern electronic networks
(X25, SNA, ATM, TCP/IP) work. To achieve this we would need optical
logic processing as well as optically activated switches etc. The following
figure depicts the IBM7929 optical network system for connecting
several mainframe computer nodes in a city.

Fig. 9-17. Example of a metropo;itan optical network system (IBM 7929).

9-4.6. Wavelength Switched Optical Network (WSON)

Wavelength switched optical network (WSON) is a type of telecommuni-
cations network. A WSON consist of two planes: the data and the control
planes. The data plane comprises wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM) fiber links connecting optical cross-connect (OXCs) through a
comb of several tens of wavelength channels, with typical data rates of 10
or 40 Gb/s. Optical end-to-end connections (i.e., lightpaths) are
established in the optical domain and switched by OXCs at the
wavelength granularity
In WSONs the optical signal is switched at the wavelength
granularity, therefore the wavelength assignment process, selecting the
carrier of each established lightpath, plays a crucial role in dynamic
network operation.
The dynamic provisioning and maintenance of lightpaths is managed by
the control plane. The control plane is implemented on a separate network
and typically employs one network controller for each node in the data

-294-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

plane, as shown in the figure. The Generalized Multi-Protocol Label

Switching (GMPLS) protocol suite, the de facto standard control plane
for WSONs proposed by the IETF, is composed of three protocols.

9-5. Optical Fiber Access Networks

The telecommunications landscape has matured to a point that service
providers seek to offer network convergence and enable the revolution of
consumer media device interaction. These demands are being met by a
deeper penetration of optical fiber access networks.

Fig. 9-18. Different forms of the fiber to the x (FTTx) optical communication links.

9-5.1. Fiber to the Premises (FTTP) Technology

Fiber to the premises (FTTP) is a new optical network access standard.
FTTP is a form of fiber-optic communication delivery in which an optical
fiber is run directly onto the customers' premises. This contrasts with
other fiber-optic communication delivery strategies (termed FTTx) such

-295-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

as fiber to the node (FTTN), fiber to the curb (FTTC), or hybrid fiber-
coaxial (HFC), all of which depend upon more traditional methods such
as copper wires or coaxial cable for last mile delivery. The following
figure depicts the different FTTx distribution strategies

Fig. 9-19. Different forms of the fiber to the x (FTTx) optical communication links.

Active modules in the network can be divided in two main groups: OLT
(Optical Line Terminal) located in central office and ONT (Optical
Network Terminal) or ONU (Optical Network Unit) at the far end of the
network. Note that ONT is also called optical network unit (ONU).
Actually, ONT is an ITU-T term, whereas ONU is an IEEE term. Central
office could contain multiple equipment, such as public switched
telephone network switches (PSTN), Ethernet switches, asynchronous
transfer mode switches (ATM), IP routers, and video-on-demand servers,
backup storage systems.
Fiber to the premises can be further categorized according to where the
optical fiber ends, namely: FTTH and FTTB. Fiber to the home (FTTH)
is a form of fiber optic communication delivery in which the optical
signal reaches the end user's living or office space.

Fiber to the building (FTTB) is a form of fiber optic communication

delivery in which the optical signal reaches the private property enclosing
the home or business of the subscriber or set of subscribers, but where the
optical fiber terminates before reaching the home living space or business
office space, with the path extended from that point up to the user's space
over a physical medium other than optical fiber (e.g., copper line loops).

-296-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

The simplest optical distribution network can be called direct fiber. In this
architecture, each fiber leaving the central office goes to exactly one
customer. Such networks can provide high bandwidth since each
customer has his own dedicated fiber extending all the way from the
central office. However, this approach is more costly due to the amount
of fiber and central office machinery required. More commonly, each
fiber leaving the central office is actually shared by many customers. It is
not until such a fiber gets relatively close to the customers that it is split
into individual customer-specific fibers. There are two competing optical
distribution network architectures which achieve this split: active optical
networks (AON) and passive optical networks (PON).

Fig. 7-20. Active optical network (AON) and passive optical network (PON).

The main feature of PON is to share fiber between the Central Office
(CO) and Optical Network Units (ONU). The PON establishes a tree
structure that enables bi-directional communication between a server

-297-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

(central office) and multiple customers (ONUs) with centralized control

and routing at central office.

Active optical networks (AON) rely on some equipment to distribute the

signal, such as a switch, router, or multiplexer. Each signal leaving the
central office is directed only to the customer for whom it is intended.
Incoming signals from the customers avoid colliding at the intersection
because the powered equipment there provides buffering.

Fig. 9-21. Detailed structure of a passive optical network (PON).

The most common type of active optical networks is called Active

Ethernet. Active Ethernet uses optical Ethernet switches to distribute the
signal, thus incorporating the customers' premises and the central office
into one giant Ethernet network. Such networks are identical to the
Ethernet computer networks used in businesses and academic institutions,
except that their purpose is to connect homes and buildings to a central
office. Each switching cabinet can handle up to 1000 customers, or more.
The IEEE 802.3ah standard enables service providers to deliver up to 100
Mb/s full-duplex over one single-mode optical fiber to the premises.

Passive optical network (PON) is a point-to-multipoint, fiber to the

premises network architecture in which unpowered optical splitters are
used to enable a single optical fiber to serve multiple premises, typically
32-128. A PON configuration reduces the amount of fiber and central
office equipment required compared with point to point architectures.

9-5.2. Fiber to the Home (FTTH)

Communication service carriers try to maximize the number of services
they offer to customers via a bundled offering. Technologies such as
voice over IP (VoIP), IP television (IPTV), and broadband are becoming
commonplace across the society. As bundled services and technologies
-298-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

are deployed, carriers are realizing that their original copper cable
networks, which were designed to deliver a single service, are stressed
and in many cases incapable of offering the desired services. In addition,
after about three years, service carriers will need the capability of more
than 40 Mb/s as multiple services are used in the home, faster internet
access and high-definition TV (HDTV) becomes more prevalent. Leading
this wave is the deployment of single-mode optical fiber deeper into the
access networks to curb the high bandwidth requirements of customers.
Nowadays, the fiber to the home (FTTH) is the fastest growing global
broadband technology.

FTTH is commonly deployed in two specific configurations, as shown in

figure 12-22. In the first one, fiber is dedicated to each user in the access
network. This is called a point-to-point (PTP) network. In the second,
one fiber is shared (via a power splitter) among a set number of users,
typically between 16 and 32. This is called a passive optical network
(PON). PTP networks are characterized by the use of one fiber and laser
per user. They are the simplest FTTH networks to design. PTP networks
are sometimes referred to as all-optical Ethernet networks (AOEN).
Typically a PON is capable of reaching subscribers 20km from the
transmitter. Figure 12-23 depicts the different components of the PON.
PON is supported by a set of standards, such as broadband PON (BPON),
ethernet PON (EPON) and Gigabit PON (GPON).

Fig. 9-22. Illustration of the PTP and PON forms of FTTH.

Transmission standards utilized in FTTH networks are based on ATM

and Ethernet technologies. Carriers are extremely familiar with both
technologies, which support a variety of services. Today, most PTP
networks use Ethernet technology and are governed under Institute of
-299-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 803.2ah standards. PTP

networks are simply an extension of legacy Ethernet used in metropolitan
and enterprise networks. Bandwidth rates are only limited to the
transmitter type at the CO and the home. Till now, the majority of
municipally owned FTTH networks in Japan utilized PTP networks.

Fig. 9-23. Illustration of the PON components

Table. 9-6. Different types of xPON and their characteristics.

BPON EPON GPON
Standard ITU-T G983 IEEE 803.2ah ITU-T G984
Bandwidth Downstream ~ Up to Downstream
622Mb/s symmetric ~2.5Gb/s
Upstream 155Mb/s 1.25 Gb/s Upstream
155Mb/s
Downlink 1490 and 1550 1550 1490 and 1550
(nm)
Uplink (nm) 1310 1310 1310
Transmission ATM Ethernet ATM, Ethernet

-300-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

9-7. Summary

A network is a collection of transmission links and other equipment

which provides a means of information interchange within a group of
nodes (end users). The vast majority of optical communications systems
in use today all share a common feature. Logically they could be
implemented just as easily on copper wire. In other words, fiber has been
used as a substitute for copper wire (with many advantages, including
speed). Around the world there is a significant amount of research aimed
at producing a generation of “lightwave networks” which would operate
quite differently from the systems we have today

OTN stands for Optical Transport Network. It is a set of standards which

allow interoperability and the generic transport of any protocol across an
optical network.

All-optical networks have No electronic conversion of data. They are

typically based on star coupler, and wavelength routers.

Wavelength routing networks are composed of one or more wavelength

selective elements and the fibers connecting them. Wavelength routing
networks get around the problems of splitting loss and lack of wavelength
reuse by channeling the transmitted power to a specific route between the
source and destination end-nodes.
-301-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

What is All Optical Network (AON)? It is a network containing both

active and passive elements. Active elements are in Central Office, at
customer, in repeaters, switches and etc. All that equipment add cost and
complexity to the network. What can be done instead? Passive Optical
Network (PON) which had no active components between CO and
customer.
Passive optical network (PON) is a point-to-multipoint, fiber to the
premises network architecture in which unpowered optical splitters are
used to enable a single optical fiber to serve multiple premises, typically
32-128. A PON configuration reduces the amount of fiber and central
office equipment required compared with point to point architectures.

-302-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

9-8. Problems

9-1) Describe the operation of optical local area networks (LAN) in 10

points.

7-2) What are the types of switching networks? Give examples of

practical optical switching networks, and show, by neat sketches how
devices are interconnected in such networks.

7-3) What is the bit rate of FDDI? What is its baud rate?

7-4) When would optical fibers be used in an Ethernet-type LAN?

7-5) What do you know about optical switches and routers? On what OSI
layer do routers operate?

7-6) Choose the most correct answer for the following statements

1. In a ................topology, if there are n devices in a network, each device

has n-1 ports for cables.
A) Mesh
B) Star
C) Bus
D) Ring

2. The product of the bit rate and distance of a fiber-optic system is 2

Gbits km/s. What is the maximum rate at 5 km?
a. 100 Mbits/s
b. 200 Mbits/s
c. 400 Mbits/s
d. 1000 Gbits/s

3. What is the frequency limit of a copper wire?

A. approximately 0.5 MHz
B. approximately 1.0 MHz
C. approximately 40 GHz
D. none of the above

4. The product of the bit rate and distance of a fiber-optic system is 2 Gbits-km/s.
What is the maximum rate at 5 km?
A. 100 Mbits/s
B. 200 Mbits/s
C. 400 Mbits/s
D. 1000 Gbits/s
-303-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

5. A single fiber can handle as many voice channels as

A. a pair of copper conductors
B. a 1500-pair cable
C. a 500-pair cable
D. a 1000-pair cable

6. The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) standard calls for nodes to
be attached to ----- rings carrying signals in opposite direction.
a. one pair of fiber
b. 2 pairs of fiber
c. 10 pair of fiber
d. 1000 pair of fiber

7. SONET stands for

a. System Optical Network
b. Synchronous Optical Network
c. Silica Optic Network
d. System Optical Fiber Net

8. In which OSI layers does the FDDI protocol operate?

A) Physical
B) Data link
C) Network
D) A and B

9. In FDDI, data normally travel on ..................

A) The primary ring
B) The Secondary ring
C) Both rings
D) Neither ring

-304-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

9-9. Bibliography

[1] John D. Day and Hubert Zimmerman , The OSI Reference Model:
Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol 71, No 12, pp.1334-1340, December 1983.

[2] A. W. Snyder and J. D. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory: Chapman

and Hall, London. 1983

[3] J. Wilson and J. F. B. Hawkes, Optoelectronics, An Introduction -

Second Edition: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989

[4] Jawad A. Salehi , Code Division Multiple-Access Techniques in

Optical Fiber, Networks - Part1: Fundamental Principles: IEEE
Transactions on Communications, Vol. 37, No 8. pp. 824-833, August
1989

[5] Robert J. Hoss, Fiber Optic Communications Design Handbook:

Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1990.

[6] Gerd Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications - Second Edition:

McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1991

[7] Paul E. Green, Fibre Optic Networks: Prentice Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey, 1993.

[8] Packet-Switched Signaling System between Public Networks

Providing Data Transmission Services, ITU-T Rec. X.75, Helsinki, 1993.

[9] Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) Physical Layer Protocol

(PHY-2), ANSI X3.231-1994, ANSI, New York, 1994.

[10] R. L. Freeman, Reference Manual for Telecommunication

Engineering, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1994.

[11] IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms, 6th

ed., IEEE Std. 100-1996, IEEE, New York, 1996.

[12] N. Sambo, N. Andriolli, A. Giorgetti, P. Castoldi, “Wavelength

Preference in GMPLS-controlled Wavelength Switched Optical
Networks,” Network Protocols and Algorithms, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 110–
125, 2011.
-305-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA
 Optoelectronic Devices & Systems Chapter 9

-306-
Prof. Dr. Muhammad EL-SABA

View publication stats