ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

The Total span of frequencies and corresponding wavelengths used in communication system is
called ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM.

BANDWIDTH is the span of frequencies when the spectrum occupied by a signal and used by the
signal convey information.

ULTRAVIOLET

GAMMA RAYS

COSMIC RAYS
L
SONAR RADIOWAVES INFRARED I

X-RAYS
SERVOMECHANI G
SM H
T

101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021
VHF

UHF
VLF

EHF
SHF
LF

MF

HF

RANGE DESIGNATION ABBREVIATION

30 – 300 Hz Extremely Low Frequency ELF

300 Hz – 3 KHz Voice Frequency VF

3 – 30 KHz Very Low Frequency VLF

30 – 300 KHz Low Frequency LF

300 KHz – 3 MHz Medium Frequency MF

3 MHz– 30 MHz High Frequency HF

30 – 300 MHz Very High Frequency VHF

300 MHz – 3 GHz Ultra High Frequency UHF

3 – 30 GHz Super High Frequency SHF

30 – 300 GHz Extremely High Frequency EHF

 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Any power escaping into free space is governed by the characteristics of free space. If such power escapes
on purpose, it is said to be radiated and it then propagated in space in the form of what is known as electromagnetic
waves.

Free space – space that does not interfere with radiation and propagation of radiowaves.

Wavefront – a plane joining all points of equal phase. A wavefront shows a surface of constant phase of a wave.
A wavefront is formed when points of equal phase on rays propagated from the same source are joined together.
Figure shows a point source, several rays propagating from it, and the corresponding wavefront. A point source is
a single location from which rays propagate equally in all directions (an isotropic source). The wavefront generated
from a point source is simply a sphere with a radius R and its center located at the point of origin of the waves. In
free space and sufficient distance from the source, the rays within a small area of spherical wavefront are nearly
parallel. Therefore, the farther from a source, the more wave propagation appears as a plane wavefront.

Point source

Figure 1: Wavefront from a point

R
source

Isotropic source – a source that radiates uniformly in all directions

Power density (P )– the rate at which energy passes through a given surface area in free space. Power density is
energy per unit time per unit of area and is usually given in watts per square meter.

𝑃 Where:
P = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2 P – Power Density
Pt – Transmitted Power

Field intensity (E) – intensity of the electric field and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave propagating in
free space.

The electric field and magnetic field intensities of electromagnetic waves are also important. The two
quantities are the counterparts of voltage and current in circuits. They are measured in volts per meter and ampere
per meter respectively just as electrical circuits we have V = Z x H.
Where:
E – Electric Field Intensity, V/m
E=HxZ
H – Electric Field Intensity, A/m
Z – Characteristic Impedance, 
Where:
𝜇 𝜇 – permeability of medium, H/m
𝑍= √
𝜖 𝜖 – electric permittivity of medium, F/m
Z – Characteristic Impedance, 
For free space:

𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 = 1.257 × 10−6 H/m

1
𝜖= = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m
36𝜋×109

𝜇
𝑍 = √ = √(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(36𝜋 × 109 )
𝜖
𝑍 = √144𝜋 2 × 102 = 12𝜋 × 10 𝑍 = 120𝜋 

𝑃
P = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2

𝓔𝟐 𝑃
P = 𝓔𝟐 = 𝓟 × Z = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2 × 120𝜋
𝑍

𝟑𝟎𝑷𝒕 √𝟑𝟎𝑷𝒕
𝓔𝟐 = 𝓔𝟐 =
𝒓𝟐 𝒓
Problems:
1. At 20 km in free space from a point source, the power density is 200W/m2. What is the power density 25
km away from the source?

(a) 500 m away from a 500W source;

Given: Pt = 500 W r = 500 m

Calculating the power density, P: Calculating the Electric Field Intensity, E:

𝑃 500𝑊 √30𝑃𝑡
P = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2 = 4𝜋(500)2 E = =
√30(500 𝑊)
𝑟 500 𝑚

P = 159.15 𝜇𝑊/𝑚2 E = 0.245 𝑉/𝑚

(b) 36,000 km from a 3-KW source;

Given: Pt = 3 KW r = 36,000 km
Calculating the power density, P: Calculating the Electric Field Intensity, E:

𝑃 3 𝐾𝑊 √30𝑃𝑡
P = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2 = 4𝜋(36,000 𝑘𝑚)2 E =
√30(3,000 𝑊)
= 36,000 ×103 𝑚
𝑟

P = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝑲𝑾/𝒌𝒎𝟐 E = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝝁𝑽/𝒎

or
𝑃 3,000 𝑊
P = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2 = 4𝜋(36,000,000𝑚)2

P = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑 𝑾/𝒎𝟐
P = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟒 𝒑𝑾/𝒎𝟐
(c) 20 km away from a 1-KW source.
Calculating the Electric Field Intensity, E:
Given: Pt = 1 KW r = 20 Km
Calculating the power density, P: √30𝑃𝑡 √30(1,000 𝑊)
E = =
𝑟 20 ×103 𝑚
𝑃𝑡 1 𝐾𝑊
P = 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋(20 𝑘𝑚)2 or =
√30(1,000 𝑊)
20,000 𝑚

P = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑲𝑾/𝒌𝒎𝟐 E = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝑽/𝒎

or

𝑃 1,000 𝑊
P = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2 = 4𝜋(20,000𝑚)2

P = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑾/𝒎𝟐
P = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟗 𝝁𝑾/𝒎𝟐
2. At 20 km in free space from a point source, the power density is 200W/m2. What is the power density 25
km away from the source?
 There are two ways to solve the problem.
Method 1: Solve the Transmitted Power since the power density being measured came from the same
source, and then solve the power density at 25 km.

Given: P1 = 200W/m2 r1 = 20 km r2 = 25 km

Calculating the power density, P:

𝑃
P1 = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2
1

𝑃𝑡 = P1 4𝜋𝑟1 2 = (200 x 10-6)(4𝜋)(20,000)2 = 1.005 MW

𝑃𝑡 1.005 × 106
P2 = =
4𝜋𝑟2 2 4𝜋(25,0002 )

P2 = 128 W/m2

Method 2: Derive the formula of the transmitted power, Pt:

𝑃 𝑃
P1 = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2 ; P2 = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2
1 2

𝑃𝑡 = P1 4𝜋𝑟1 2 ; 𝑃𝑡 = P2 4𝜋𝑟2 2

Equate the two derived formulas:

P1 4𝜋𝑟1 2 = P2 4𝜋𝑟2 2

Dividing the whole equation by 4 (the same as cancelling 4 on both sides)

P1 𝑟1 2 = P2 𝑟2 2
𝜇𝑊
2 (200 2 )(20,000 𝑚)2
P2 = P1 𝑟𝑟12 = 𝑚
2 (25,000 𝑚)2

P2 = 128 W/m2
 Electromagnetic waves not in free space
Polarization – refers to physical orientation of the radiowaves in space.

There is a so-called principle of reciprocity that exists in an antenna. It states that the characteristics of
antenna such as impedance and radiation pattern are identical regardless of use for reception or transmission.

Attenuation:
The inverse square law for radiation mathematically describes the reduction in power density with distance
from the source. As a wavefront moves away from the source, the continuous electromagnetic field that is radiated
from the source spreads out. That is the waves move farther away from each other and, consequently, the number
of waves per unit area decreases. None of the radiated power is lost or dissipated because the wavefront is moving
away from the source; the wave is simply spreads over a larger area, decreasing the power density. The reduction
in power density with the distance is equivalent to a power loss and is commonly called wave attenuation. Because
the attenuation is due to the spherical spreading of the wave, it is sometimes called space attenuation of the wave.
Let P1 and E1 be the power density and field intensity, respectively, at a distance r1 from the source
of electromagnetic waves. Let similar conditions apply to P2 and E2 and r2 with r2 greater of the two distances.

𝒫 𝑃 /4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟 2
𝛼𝑃 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝒫1 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑡/4𝜋𝑟1 2 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑟2 )
2 𝑡 2 1

𝑟2
𝛼𝑃 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑟1

ℰ1 √30𝑃𝑡 ⁄𝑟1 2
𝛼𝑃 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔
ℰ2 √30𝑃𝑡 ⁄𝑟2 2

𝑟2
𝛼𝑃 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑟1

ABSORPTION
Absorption: In free, absorption does not occur because there is nothing to absorb them. However the picture is
different in the atmosphere. This tends to absorb some radiowaves because some of the energy from the
electromagnetic waves is transferred to the atoms and molecules in the atmosphere. Once absorbed, the energy is
lost forever and causes an attenuation in the voltage and magnetic field intensities and a corresponding reduction
in power density.
Absorption of radio frequencies in a normal atmosphere depends on frequency and is relatively insignificant
below 10 GHz. Frequency such as 60 and 120 GHz are not recommended for long distance propagation in the
atmosphere. Similarly, best not to use 23 and 180 GHz. Except in dry air, so-called “windows” exists at which
absorption is greatly reduced; frequency such as 33 and 110 GHz.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES

Reflection
Radiowaves are reflected by any conductive medium such as metal surfaces or the earth’s surface.
It is important that the electric vector be perpendicular to conducting surface; otherwise surface currents
will be set up and no reflection will result.
If the conducting surface is curved, reflection will once again follow the appropriate optical laws. When the
reflecting surface is not plane (that is, it is curved), the curvature of the reflected wave is different from that of the
incident wave. When the wavefront of the incident wave is curved and the reflective surface is plane, the curvature
of the reflected wavefront is the same as that of the incident wavefront.
If the reflecting surface is rough, reflection will be much the same as from a smooth surface, provided that
the angle of incidence is in excess of the so-called Rayleigh criterion. Rayleigh criterion states that a semirough
surface will reflect as if it were a smooth surface whenever the cosine of the angle of incidence is greater than /8d,
where d is the depth of the surface of irregularity and  is the wavelength of the incident wave.

Refraction
Electromagnetic refraction is the change in direction of a ray as it passes obliquely from one medium to
another with different velocities of propagation. The velocity at which an electromagnetic wave propagates is
inversely proportional to the density of the medium in which it is propagating. Therefore, refraction occurs whenever
a radio passes from one medium into another medium of different density. Electromagnetic traveling from a rarer to
a denser medium are refracted toward the normal; waves traveling the other way are bent from the normal.
Refraction also occurs when a wavefront propagates that has a density gradient that is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation (that is, parallel to the wavefront). The figure below shows wavefront refraction in a
transmission medium that has a gradual variation in its refractive index. The medium is more dense near the bottom
and less dense at the top. Therefore, rays traveling near the top travel faster than rays near the bottom and,
consequently the wavefront tilts downward.
 Diffraction
Diffraction is defined as the modulation or redistribution of energy within a wavefront when it passes near
the edge of an opaque object. Diffraction is the phenomenon that allows light or radio waves to propagate (peek)
around corners. The refraction and reflection assumed that the dimensions of the refracting and reflecting surfaces
were large with respect to a wavelength of the signal. However, when a wavefront passes near an obstacle or
discontinuity with dimensions comparable in size to a wavelength, simple geometric analysis cannot be used to
explain the results and Huygens’ principle (which is deduced from Maxwell’s equations) is necessary.
Huygens’ principle states that every point on a given wavefront can be considered as a secondary point
source of electromagnetic waves from which other secondary (wavelets) are radiated outward. The figure below
illustrates Huygens’ principle. Normal wave propagation considering an infinite plane is shown in figure a. Each
secondary point source (p1, p2, and so on) radiates energy outward in all directions. However, the wavefront
continues in its original direction rather than spreading out, because cancellation of the secondary wavelets occurs
in all directions except straight forward. Therefore, the wavefront remains plane.
When a finite plane wavefront is considered, as in figure b, cancellation in random directions in incomplete.
Consequently, the wavefront spreads out or scatters. This scattering effect is called diffraction. Figure c shows
diffraction around the edge of an obstacle. It can be seen that wavelet cancellation occurs only partially. Diffraction
occurs around the edge of the obstacle, which allows secondary waves to “sneak” around the corner of the obstacle
into what is called the shadow zone. This phenomenon can be observed when a door opened in to a dark room.
Light rays diffract around the edge of the door and illuminate the area behind the door.