MANUAL

FOR

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY II

EE 392

Marek Sosnowski

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Jasnuary 2008
 EE 392 LABORATORY MANUAL

CONTENTS

Page

1. Introduction. 1

2. Requirements. 3

3. Circuit simulation 5

4. Measuremet errors 6

5. The Laboratory Report. 7

Laboratory I FET 11

Laboratory II. The emitter follower 15

Laboratory III Common Emitter Amplifier. 18

Laboratory IV OP-AMP Basics. 21

Laboratory V OP-AMPS; Active Filters. 25

Laboratory VI Non-linear Circuits; Positive Feedback. 29

Laboratory VII Digital Circuits. 32

Laboratory VIII Design Project. 38

Appendix Resistor Color Code

 1. INTRODUCTION

This manual is your guide to the second electronics laboratory in the electrical
engineering program. It is assumed that by completing the first electronics laboratory
course you are familiar with basic electronic measurements and instrumentation, as well
as with elements of data analysis, presentation of results, and reporting. These elements
will be still emphasized and further developed in this laboratory. Professional engineering
practice requires using proper experimental methods and procedures. They include not
only good measurement techniques, but also proper recording of all relevant information,
preparing tables and graphs, etc. Almost as important as obtaining good data is their
proper presentation which often determines success in this laboratory course as it does in
engineering practice. Upon completion of the second laboratory course you should be
very familiar with effective laboratory practices and professional style data presentation.
They will be a great asset in your future.

The manual describes seven sets of experiments most of which require more than a week
laboratory session. The eighth set suggests a design project based on the hardware and
concepts learned in the course. The manual is not a set of precise recipes. On the
contrary, it describes basic circuits and concepts, inviting students to contribute details
and solutions. There is often more than one way to achieve a given goal and you are
expected to think and decide, for example making choices of the resistors or capacitor
values, or even whole circuits. There are thus elements of your own design in every set of
experiments. Hints and suggestions are scattered throughout the text.

An effort has been made to “synchronize” the topics of laboratory experiments with the
evolving program of EE curriculum. Ideally, the circuit theory should proceed by a
couple of weeks its realization in the laboratory. Reaching this goal turned out to be all
but impossible and students may have to dig deeper into their notes of electronic courses
to find material relevant to current experiments. This, however, should not be a great
problem. The laboratory does not require extensive theoretical knowledge and the manual
refers to an excellent book by. P. Horowitz and W. Hill The Art of Electronics, 2nd
edition, Cambridge University Press 1989, in almost every experiment. The title of this
book says it all: electronics is a science but it also is an art, particularly in a laboratory.
You may find there clear and useful information on almost any circuit, described almost
without math. You should obtain for this course The Student Manual for the Art of
Electronics by T. C. Hayes and P. Horowitz (Cambridge University Press 1989), where
many of our experiments are described.

A number of experiments described in the manual is based on operational amplifier

circuits, despite the fact they are not covered extensively in courses given prior to or
parallel to this laboratory. This choice was made because of the prominent role of “op-
amps” in contemporary analog circuit design. It is in fact easier to build complex circuits

1
with these handy blocks of electronics than it is with discrete transistors. It is even easier
to understand how such circuits work once some very basic rules and principles of
feedback are known. Do not feel discouraged if you meet a new concept for the first time
in this laboratory. In such a case only basics of the topic are required which you will have
opportunity to study later in another course.

One required skill is circuit simulation with PSPICE. Familiarity with this important
program vary widely among students and this laboratory is a good place to catch-up. The
most important insights which you may gain in this laboratory work will come from
comparison of the expected (theoretical or computer simulated) circuits performance with
experimental data. Details of exporting simulation results to programs, such as MS Excel,
for graphic comparison with measuremets are given in this manual in the chapter on
simulation.

2
 2. REQUIREMENTS

Attendance
A laboratory is a practical experience requiring proper equipment and involving
teamwork. Therefore attendance at all laboratory sessions is required. Students who miss
a laboratory session must make up for it at the first opportunity and arrange it with the
instructor. It is easiest to arrange a make-up session during regular meetings of other
laboratory sections. A student absent at a regular lab session has to make his or her
measurements and not use the data obtained by the group partner.

Preparation for laboratory work

You have to be prepared for each laboratory session. It is not only required, it is common
sense. Time is a precious commodity in the laboratory; it will be wasted if you are poorly
prepared. Besides completing the Prelab assignment, go over the text of the Laboratory
Manual carefully to be sure that you know what to do. Resolve any questions or
uncertainties with your instructor at the beginning of the lab session. This will save you
unnecessary make-ups.

Deliverables
Each set of experiments is preceded by a pre-laboratory assignment, which prepares you
for work in the laboratory. Prelabs are completed at home by each student individually
and are to be handed to the instructor prior to doing the experimental work. Laboratory
Reports are prepared by each group of students who have worked together on
experiments, after all measurements are completed.

Reports should be typed and have the standard properly filled cover page. All report
pages must be numbered. All graphs must be on proper graph paper (e.g. log-log graph
paper) or, better yet, they should be generated on a computer. The axes of the graphs must
be labeled and the units indicated. Schematics of all circuits should be included and the
conditions under which data were obtained (such as input voltage, frequency, etc.) must
be clearly indicated. The material indicated in bold print on the pages of the manual
should be discussed in the report and the questions in the text answered. See next chapter
for more details on preparation of reports.

Laboratory Notebook
Each group is required to have a Laboratory Notebook, which should have a current
record of laboratory procedures, schematics, and data. The Laboratory Notebook provides
documentation of your experimental work and may be reviewed by the instructor and used
for evaluating your performance.

Write as many details as you can; draw circuits that worked and did not work. Do not
erase errors; they are real stepping-stones to knowledge! If you do not make a note of
them you will repeat them later. Good notes save your time and make easier writing
reports. Do not believe that you will remember the details later. Information, which at
first seems obvious or unimportant, may save you repeating measurements.

3
You should compare experimental data with results expected from theory while the
circuit is operating on the laboratory bench. If there are large discrepancies, which can
not be explained by errors in measurements or approximations in the theory, they should
be tract down and cleared up. They may be due to errors in wiring, damaged components,
etc. and the time to find them is in the laboratory. You will never find that there was a
broken lead in your set-up while writing the report at home.

GOOD LUCK!

Note: The instructor may modify these requirements as he or she sees fit.

4
 3. CIRCUIT SIMULATION

In this laboratory course you should become familiar with an important circuit simulation
program SPICE. The program, developed long time ago (before there were PCs) at the
University of California in Berkeley, become the world standard for simulation of
electronic circuits. PSPICE® was the first version of SPICE available for IBM PC,
introduced in 1984. Initially, simulation of a circuit required writing a line code (netlist)
describing the configuration of circuit parts and nodes. The code is easy and efficient but,
in the spirit of the times, a visual graphic interface with the image of the circuit schematic
on the screen was introduced. Parts, wires, and sources are placed from windows menus
with a mouse. The latest review version of a limited demo version of the professional
package of PSpice is available free of charge. It can be downloaded from Cadence
website: http://www.cadence.com/products/orcad/index.aspx. Matlab is available free of
charge as part of the software package distributed to NJIT students. Additional
information may be obtained from www.mathworks.com.

The powerful program PSPICE solves very quickly complex circuit equations for various
signals and conditions and also displays results graphically. The best way to learn it is by
trying to simulate some of the circuits explored in this laboratory. Comparison of
simulations with your measurements will, hopefully, give you a better insight in the
operation of these circuits. Remember however that while simulations are very useful,
they are never a substitute for real data taken from real physical systems, which are the
true realm of engineering activity.

The objective of using PSPICE in this course is to give you an opportunity of comparison
the results of simulation with the real data obtained in the laboratory. You should use
PSPICE schematics with the actual values of the components in your circuits. For
example, use the values of resistances measured by an ohmmeter rather than those given
by the resistor color code. When comparing simulation curves (such as frequency
responses of RC or RLC circuits) with experimental data, plot them on the same graph.
To do this, you need to export simulation curves to a graphing program, such as EXCEL
or MATLAB, in which numbers from simulations and experiments can be put in different
columns. Use discrete points for experimental data and continuous curves for simulations.

Copying simulation curves from PSPICE to EXCEL

• Click on the caption label (the plotted variable) of the plot; it will become
highlighted. Or, in EDIT menu click SELECE ALL.
• From EDIT menu click COPY.
• In an open MS Excel™ worksheet click PASTE. Columns with the numbers
corresponding to the axes of the plot should appear.
• Click the graph button in the worksheet menu. Select XY (Scatter) as the chart
type and a fitted line graph (without points). Finish as usual and make the plot on a
separate sheet.

Adding experimental data to the plot

5
 • If you want to add experimental data to the plot, enter them in a new column of the
worksheet
• Plot them as new data series on the same graph using point type plot (no line)

Copying simulation plot (image) from PSPICE to WORD

• From FILE menu select PRINT then select option PRINT TO OFFICE
DOCUMENT IMAGE WRITER
• From the Office Document Imaging window select COPY IMAGE
• Paste to MS WORD

Copying schematics from PSPICE to WORDL

• Select the area you want to copy
• From EDIT select COPY TO CLIPBOARD
• COPY to WORD

4. MEASUREMENT ERRORS

There is no such thing as a perfect or ideal measurement which provides the “true value”
of the measured quantity. There are a number of reasons for this, from limitations of the
instrumentation used and those of the observer, to the variations in the devices in the
circuit on which the measurement is made. This does not mean that a good, useful
measurement is not possible. Obtaining it, however, requires not only adequate
instruments but also some attention and vigilance against gross mistakes which seem to
lurk in any laboratory setup. Gross mistakes are such errors as connecting a voltmeter
lead to a wrong point in a circuit or entering data incorrectly into a notebook or a
computer. These can be avoided by following proper procedures, careful data recording
etc. Here we are concerned with two other important concepts: accuracy and precision.

Accuracy can be defined as the difference between the value obtained from measurement
and a real ”true” value of a quantity. It can be expressed in absolute numbers, such as 10
mV, or in relative numbers, such as 0.5%. In the first case the measured voltage may be
different from the actual voltage by no more than 10 mV, in the second by the given
percentage. Accuracy is difficult to determine, because we never know what the real
value of the measured quantity is, but it can be roughly estimated if we know the precision
of instruments and the reliability of their calibration.

Precision of a measurement is related to the smallest difference between the measured

values that can be distinguished. For example, if a voltmeter precision is 0.1 V we could
measure the difference between 10.2 V and 10.3 V but no better. A reading of 10.25 may
be assigned to either of these values, we could not tell. Precision is often confused with
the resolution of the instrument scale. Just because an instrument has a finely divided
scale on which we can read numbers “precisely” (true for many digital instruments), it
does not necessarily follow that the measurement is precise. It may happen that when you
disconnect the meter and connect it again to the same source you get a different reading

6
on the same “precise” scale. It is generally true, however, that more precise instruments
are designed with finer scales or more digits in their numerical display.

To understand better the difference between accuracy and precision consider a voltmeter
that measures voltage consistently and reliably with the precision of 1 mV. A
measurement of the voltage of an accurate standard source used for calibration of
instruments gives a voltage 5 mV too high. This last error is the measure of the voltmeter
accuracy. Its measurements were quite precise but the instrument was not well calibrated
and showed consistently higher values. Such an instrument is still quite useful since we
are often interested in comparing different voltages and this meter is able to measure the
ratio of two voltages much better than it measures their absolute values.

In considering the effect of precision of instruments on measurement errors we are usually

concerned with relative rather than absolute numbers. An error of 0.1 V for measurement
of power line voltage of 117 V is very acceptable, since it gives the relative error of
0.1/117 < 0.1 % The same absolute error in a measurement of an amplifier output of 1 V
gives a large relative error of 10%.

5. THE LABORATORY REPORT

The report you turn in after completion of each series of experiments is the main product
of the team’s work which will be used for grading. Therefore you should devote enough
attention to this final but critical step in the laboratory experience. Writing good technical
reports is a valuable skill, which in the future will help advance you professional career.
Start practicing it now.

The purpose of the laboratory report is to provide information on the measurement

procedure, obtained results, analysis, and interpretation and discussion of these results.
The discussion and conclusions are very important in a report because they show what
knowledge you gained by doing the experiments.

There is no one best format for all technical reports but there are a few simple rules
concerning technical presentations which should be followed. Adapted to this laboratory
they may be summarized in the following recommended report format:

1. Cover page
2. Introduction
3. Experimental Procedure
4. Experimental Data
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions

Detailed descriptions of these items are given below.

1. The Cover Page should have the names of the team members, and a designation such
as Group 3, if the groups are numbered, section and course numbers (e.g. EE291, Section

7
003). It should also contain the number and the title of the experiments, such as
“Experiments VII RC circuits; Passive filters”. Cover page should also have the date of
the report delivery, not the due date.

2. The Introduction should contain a brief statement in which you state the objectives, or
goals of the experiments. It should also help guide the reader through the report by
stating, for example, that experiments were done with three different circuits or consisted
of two parts etc. or that additional calculations or data sheets can be found in the
appendix. It is also a good place to state that the experimental results were as expected or
that there were some problems, as explained in the Conclusions. You may state what was
learned in this set of experiments

3. The Procedure describes the experimental setup and how the measurements were
made. Include here circuit schematics with the values of components. Mention
instruments used, their settings and describe any special measurement procedure that was
used.

4. The Experimental Data section should be presented clearly with a reference to the
procedure the schematic used in measurements. Tables are often a good way of
presenting results. This section can also include some calculations or data analysis. For
example, in describing the measurements of a frequency distribution, make a table with
frequency in one column and the peak-to-peak voltage measured with an oscilloscope in
another. The third column might contain the voltage rms values, calculated from the first
column, which may be compared with the data obtained with a voltmeter, listed in fourth
column. Another column may contain values calculated from theory.

In many student’s reports in the past there was not enough information in this section. For
example, when reporting measurement of an amplifier gain, input and output voltages
were recorded but no information would be given on the frequency at which the
measurements were performed or whether the data were taken with a voltmeter or an
oscilloscope. Remember: giving more information is not a mistake, less may be.

The best form of presentation of some of the data is graphical. In engineering

presentations a picture is often worth more than a thousand words. There are some simple
rules concerning graphs and figures which should always be followed. If there is more
than one figure in the report, the figures should be numbered. Each figure must have a
caption following the number. For example: Fig. 1 Schematic of the resonance circuit
used in experiment 1, or Fig. 3. Dependence of voltage VR on frequency. All components
in the schematics should be labeled with symbols (C1, R2) or values (10 nF, 100k). If
symbols are used, particular values used in experiments should be listed in the text. All
graphs, beside captions, should have clearly labeled axes. Axes, beside labels, should
have scales and units. For example, in a graph of a diode characteristic, a horizontal axis
may be labeled with a symbol VD and have marks (ticks) indicating voltage scale: 0.1, 0.2,
0.3, etc. with the word “volts” or symbol V written under the axis. Similarly the vertical
axis may have symbol ID, for current, with numbers and units designated by the symbol

8
mA, for miliamperes. The lack of proper figure identification and labeling is a very often
seen shortcoming in student’s reports.

An example of proper graphical prestation of the results of simulations and the

experimental data for a frequewncy distribution of a low pass filete is shown in Fig. 5.1

120

EXPERIMENT
PSPICE
100

80
-3 dB
Vout (mV)

60

40

20

f(-3dB) = 160 Hz

0
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 5.1. Comparison of the measured frequency distribution with PSPICE simulation on semi logarithmic
plot for the low pass filter.

5. The Discussion is a critical part of the report which testify to the student’s
understanding of the experiments and its purpose. In this part of the report you should
compare the expected outcome of the experiment, such as derived from theory or
computer simulation, with the measured value. Before you can make such comparison
you may have to do some data analysis or manipulation. The simplest example would be
conversion of peak to peak voltage obtained from an oscilloscope to rms values or
conversion of a waveform period to frequency. When comparing experimental data with
numbers obtained from theory, make very clear which is which. The best way of
analyzing strings of data, such as a frequency distribution, is to make an appropriate graph
on which the theory is represented by a continuous curve and experimental data by points.
In such case you do not need to join the points with a continuous line; their distance from
the curve will be the measure of agreement of the experiment and theory. See the chapter
in simulation in this manual for instruction on exporting PSPICE simulation curves to
worksheets of a program such as MS Excel to which you can also enter experimental data.
An example is given in Fig. 5.1.

9
If there is no theoretical curve on the graph, the data points may be joined by a continuous
line which is to represent the measured function. A caution is advised if there are just a
few data points on the graph. Computers may draw a meaningless zigzag stick figure
through such scattered points. You may do a much better job by drawing a smooth line
between the points by hand, unless you use software with capabilities of fitting a spline or
other function, based on statistical analysis of the data.

A critical part of discussion is error analysis (see the chapter on errors, above). In
comparison of theory and experiment you may not get and usually do not get a perfect
agreement. Sometimes the agreement is poor. It does not necessarily mean that your
experiment was a failure. The results will be accepted, provided that you can account for
the discrepancy. Precision and accuracy of the instruments or your ability to read the
scales is in most cases not a convincing explanation. The value of some circuit
components may not be well known and a nominal value given by the manufacturer does
not always correspond to reality. Very often, however, the reason for the difference
between the expected and measured values lies in the experimental procedure or in not
taking into account all factors that enter into analysis. A good example comes from a
student’s report. Low-pass filter characteristic obtained by measuring voltage across a
capacitor did not agree with the theoretical curve. The measurements appeared to be
precise and the scatter of experimental points was negligible. The instructor pointed out a
small value of capacitance, which students choose for the filter. After some discussion
they realized that the capacitance of the cable connecting the circuit to the meter changed
its characteristics. When this capacitance was taken into account the agreement was quite
good and the report was accepted. The above example shows that data analysis requires
an open mind and a critical approach to your own work and that routine methods may not
be sufficient.

6. The Conclusions, should contain several short statement closing a report. They should
inform the reader if the experiments agreed with the theory. If there were differences
between measured and expected results, try to explain possible reasons for these
differences. You may also say what could have been done differently, how experiments
may be improved, or make other comments on the laboratory. Constructive and original
statements are highly valued.

10
 LABORATORY I

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR; THE J-FET

OBJECTIVES

Familiarity with basic characteristics and parameters of the J-FET.

Applications of J-FET as a current source and a variable resistor.

PRELAB

Draw a circuit for measurements of characteristics of a depletion mode, n-channel JFET,

described in part 1 of the Laboratory (below). Sketch basic characteristics of a n-channel
J-FET (ID vs. VDS and ID vs. VGS) and explain why it may be used as a constant current
source and a voltage controlled resistor. Indicate the parts of the characteristics where
these functions can be realized.

References:
1. P. Horowitz and W. Hill The Art of Electronics, 2nd edition, Cambridge University
Press 1989, pp.113-129, 138-140.
2. T. C. Hayes and P. Horowitz and The Student Manual for the Art of Electronics
Cambridge University Press 1989, pp. 156-162, for more explanation also pp. 142-147
and 153-155.

LABORATORY

Equipment needed from the stockroom: EE 392 parts kit, analog universal meter,
resistance substitution box, leads.

1. JFET CHARACTERISTICS; VP AND IDSS.

1.1.Insert a JFET into the protoboard, connect the source to ground and the drain to a 15 V
power supply through an ammeter, which will measure the drain current (ID). Measure
this current for different voltage values between the gate and the source (VGS). Use
only negative voltage on the gate. Determine the pinch-off voltage (VP), i.e. the gate
voltage at which the drain current is (practically) zero. Get a few measuremetns at
low current, with VGS close to VP so that you have enough points on the logID vs. VGS
graph to determine VP. (see description of the report, below). Measure also IDSS, the
drain current with VGS = 0. This current flows through the transistor when the gate
connected to the source. Repeat measuremets of Vp and IDSS values for another

11
 transistor of the same type in your kit and see if there is
+15 V
significant difference between the two transistors. If
so, make sure that you can identify these transistors
mA
when you use them in other measurements.

D 1.2.Next, measure ID(VDS) characteristics of one of the

VGS
G S transistors for VGS = 0 and two different negative
values. Note the linear part of the characteristics,
where ID is proportional to VDS (behaves like a
resistor) and the saturation part, where current is
(almost) independent of the voltage.

You will explore saturation range of the JFET transistor characteristic in part 2 and the
linear range in part 3, below.

2. FET AS A CURRENT SOURCE.

The flat part of the ID vs. VDS characteristics of the FET allow to use this device as a
simple constant current sources because the current is (almost) independent of the voltage
across it. Test this idea with two transistors. Measure the current with different values of
the load resistor RL (100 Ω – 100 kΩ) chosen from the resistance substitution box.
+15 V
How good is this current source? Determine the range
mA
of the load resistor values which allows the current to
stay constant within a given interval (say 2 % or 5%).
What is the range of voltage across the transistor
RL operating as a current source.

V You can buy JFETs with the gate connected to the source,
so called current regulator diodes. These two terminal
devices, calibrated for different current values, are current
equivalents of Zener diodes which provide a constant
voltage.

+15 V A variation of JFET current source, with self-biasing, is

shown on the next schematic. One of its advantages is that
mA you can obtain different current values by adjusting the
resistor R (a few k). Try this simple circuit and again
RL determine the range of load resistor RL which allows you to
keep the current constant.
Is this a better current source than the one without a
R V resistor? How does it work? Do you see feedback in
this circuit? What does the voltmeter here show?

12
3. JFET AS A VARIABLE RESISTOR.

In the linear part of the JFET ID vs. VDS characteristics, the current through the transistor
is (roughly) proportional to the voltage across it, like in a resistor. Moreover, the slope of
these characteristics depends on VGS so that changing the latter changes the value of the
“resistance”. This effect can be used in many “voltage controlled circuits”.

Experiment with the JFET as a variable resistor by using

Vin it instead of a regular resistor in a two resistor voltage
divider.
R Chose R = 10 k.

Vout Apply a small sinewave signal (about 0.2 V) to the input

and observe variation of the output amplitude while
VGS changing VGS (negative voltage must be used!). To see if
the transistor really behaves as a resistor, switch the
waveform generator to a triangular wave. You may
increase input signal. Nonlinear dependence of voltage on
current will show as a distortion of the straight lines of the
waveform. A resistor has a linear I-V characteristic and
will not distort a triangular wave.

From observation of the output waveform with a triangular wave at the input
estimate in what range of input voltage the transistor behaves approximately as a
resistor? Explain your observation.

The circuit shown below is an improved version of as a two resistor voltage divider, with
R a regular resistor and the transistor being an adjustable resistor. The divider ratio can be
adjusted by the control voltage Vc. A compensation circuit (between the output and the
transistor gate) greatly improves the circuit linearity as a part of output voltage (what
fraction?) is added to VGS. Check that this circuit behaves much better as a voltage
controlled resistive divider.
Compare the range of Vin with undistorted triangular wavef orm with the previous
case of the uncompensated circuit. Explain.
Vin
Hint: The source drain resistance is:
R
10n 1 V
Vout = 2k[(VGS − VT ) − DS ]
RDS 2
1M
where k is a constant. For linear
Vc behavior RDS must depend only on VGS.
1M

13
REPORT

Describe briefly the measurements. Include all schematics. Show all results with proper
units. Do not forget to include the frequency used in ac measurements. For part 1, make a
graph of ID vs. VGS characteristic and indicate the values of IDSS and VP on the graph. Vp
is best determined from a plot of logID vs. VGS. If you have data for two transistors, plot
them on the same graph. For part 2, you may plot ID vs. log RL to cover a wide range of
resistance. In the discussion, comment whether the parameters IDSS and VP are the same
for a given transistor type.. Address the topics and answer the questions printed in
bold letters in the manual. Add any observations or conclusions you wish to make.

A PROJECT IDEA (OPTIONAL): ONE TRANSISTOR AM TRANSMITTER.

You could use the last circuit for amplitude modulation of a high frequency carrier signal,
just as it is done in AM radio transmission. Supply the input with a high frequency
sinewave (about 1 MHz) and modulate its amplitude by feeding a low frequency signal (in
the kilohertz range) through a capacitor (~ 1 µF) to the slider of the potentiometer. The
low frequency signal may be picked up by an AM radio tuned to the appropriate
frequency (in this case about 1 MHz). If you supply an amplified signal from a
microphone you may hear your voice “on the air”. A piece of wire attached to the drain
may serve as a transmitter antenna, extending the reception distance.

HF

R
10n
Antena
- 15 V
1M

100 k
1M
330 k
Audio

14
 LABORATORY II

THE EMITTER FOLLOWER

PRELAB

1. What is the approximate value of the voltage gain of an emitter follower? Why may
such a circuit be useful?

2. What are the values of input and output impedances of the emitter follower you expect
to measure? Are they related?

LABORATORY

Equipment needed from the stockroom: EE 392 parts kit, leads, 2 scope probes.

1. EMITTER FOLLOWER WITH SINGLE AND DOUBLE POLARITY POWER

SUPPLIES.

Wire the circuit shown below. The value of the small protective input base resistor is not
critical.

+10 V

VCC

330
Vin
Vout
3.3k

15
(a) Observe the follower operation.
Drive it with a symmetrical sine wave at the input (check that the signal from the
waveform generator has no dc offset voltage). Increase the input voltage from less than 1
V (p-p) to about 2V (do not drive the B-E junction to breakdown on a negative half cycle).
Observe input and output waveforms using two channels of an oscilloscope scope and
note their amplitudes and phase relation. Note, especially with low signal voltage, the
difference in the peak voltage and the time of zero crossing on the two channels. Expand
vertical and horizontal scale as needed. Use the scope DC input to see if there is a dc bias
on your signal.

Next connect VCC to 5 V and VEE to -5 V (see the figure below) and observe the output
again. Measure input and output voltages. Calculate voltage gain.
How large output voltage can you get from the circuit (without distortion)?
Explain the difference between this and the previous case.

(b) Measure the input and output impedances, Zin and Zout.
Determine Zin (the impedance looking into the transistor base) by measuring signals on
both sides of the 10 k resistor connected in series at the input. You may leave in place the
small input resistor used in the previous circuit. Recall that the input impedance is the
ratio of the input voltage to the input current, which from the Ohm’s law is proportional to
the voltage drop across the resistor.

Load the output with a resistor (1k or less) through a 4.7 µF blocking capacitor. Use a
sinusoidal signal at the input and observe a change in the output signal when the resistor is
connected. Determine the Thevenin equivalent resistance viewing the follower as a
voltage source with Zout in series. Work at a frequency at which the load circuit does not
act as a filter (ω >> 1/RC).

Hint: Note that the load resistor forms a voltage divider with Zout.

VCC

10k
Vin 4.7u
Vout

3.3k
1k

VEE

16
2. EMITTER FOLLOWER WITH COUPLING CAPACITORS.

Can you use a single polarity power supply for a follower operating with a symmetrical
input? Try the circuit shown in the figure below. Measure both ac and dc components of
the output voltage with a scope. Measure the emitter and base dc bias with a DVM.
Explain results. How could you eliminate dc component from the output voltage? Try!

VCC (+10 V)
130k

Vin
10nF
Vout
150k
7.5k

Is the frequency response of the last circuit different than of those in 1? Determine
frequency f-3dB by decreasing the generator frequency until the output signal drops 3dB.

REPORT

Present clearly the result of all measurements. Answer all questions and comment
on topics typed in bold print in this manual.
Use PSPICE simulation to obtain the frequency responses of the circuit in 2 and
compare the measured f-3dB.with the simulation.

17
 LABORATORY III

COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

OBJECTIVES

Experience in design of a single stage amplifier. Simulation of circuit performance with

PSPICE and comparison with measured values.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES

To work properly in an amplifier circuit a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) must be

properly biased and operate in the active mode. This is achieved by a proper resistor
network. The following conditions should be established:

1. The collector should be biased half

VCC way between ground and VCC so that
the output can swing both way equally.
RC
R1 This defines the value of Rc for a given
collector quiescent current (with no
C1 Vout
input signal).
Vin 2. The emitter should be biased at about 1
V to achieve temperature stability.
This defines the value of RE (assume
R2 that emitter and collector quiescent
RE R3 currents are the same). Temperature
stability comes from a negative
feedback: If the transistor heats up and
the emitter current increases, the
C2
voltage drop across RE increases,
decreasing the voltage difference
between the base and the emitter, thus
decreasing the current through the
transistor and lowering its temperature.

3. Find the ratio of R1:R2 to put the base ~0.6V above the emitter (at 1.6 V).
4. Chose R3 for the required gain G = RC/(RE||R3’), where R3’ = R3+re, with re ~ 50 Ω
being the “intrinsic emitter resistance”.
5. Select the values of C1 and C2 for the required f-3dB. Note that C1 is a
component of an RC filter with Rin = Rb||β (R3+re). Rb is the equivalent resistance
of the base biasing network (R1||R2) and β ~ 100.

18
PRELAB

Design a common emitter amplifier following the schematic shown in the figure above
(for more information see ref. 1).

Design requirements:

1) gain at quiescent point between 40 and 100, specified by the instructor for each group;
2) f-3dB must be not larger than 200 Hz;
3) Vcc = 15 volts;
4) quiescent current Ic = 0.5 mA.

Specify component values to meet these requirements but check also the parts selection in
your kit. Obtain components from other sources, if needed. You may deviate from the
design specification by 10% if you do not find the required components.

Check your design by simulating circuit performance with PSPICE using the same signals
as you will use in the laboratory.

References:

1. T. C. Hayes and P. Horowitz "Student Manual for The Art of Electronics" Cambridge
University Press 1989, pp. 115 - 117
2. P. Horowitz and W. Hill "The Art of Electronics" 2nd ed. Pp. 82 -85.

19
 LABORATORY

1. ASSEMBLY AND TESTING

Wire the amplifier circuit following your design. Measure VE, VB, and VC in quiescent
conditions. Drive the input with small sinusoidal signal (output should not exceed 1 V)
and measure the values of the design parameters: small signal voltage gain, quiescent
current, and the frequency f-3dB. Use DVM for accuracy but note the phase relation
between input and output waveforms on the oscilloscope.

Measure also input and output impedances (Rin and Rout). To find input impedance,
connect a series resistor to the input and measure voltage across it. The resistor should be
large enough to measure the ac voltage across it. You may use the scope probes on the
two ends of the resistor and measure the voltage displaying the difference between the two
channels. To find output impedance, load the output with a resistor RL (through a
capacitor – you need ac only!) and measure the output voltage drop due to the load. The
voltage divider formula (with unknown Rout and known RL) will give you Rout.

Note: Circuits with high gain may oscillate. To prevent this, make neat and short
connections between components and pay attention to grounding. Fixed resistors and
capacitors are preferred to resistance and capacitance boxes.

2. FINE TUNING

If the measurements do not agree with the design parameters, fine tune your circuit by
replacing or adding resistors. You may also introduce a trimming (adjustable) resistor for
convenient tuning. Do not be concerned with obtaining an exact value of f-3dB as long as it
is not larger than specified.

REPORT

In the report compare the design parameters with their measured values. Describe any
fine tuning which had to be done on the circuit. Compare measurements with simulation
results from PSPICE, including the measured f-3dB vs. the value from simulated frequency
distribution of the circuit. Compare measured and calculated values of input and output
impedances.

To improve this amplifier you could expand this circuit by adding more stages
(transistors). What would you do to: (a) increase the input impedance (b) decrease the
output impedance? Hint: recall previous experiments.

NOTE: You could use this amplifier in your project at the end of this laboratory
course (audio, RF?)

20
 LABORATORY IV

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASICS

OBJECTIVES

Familiarity with operational amplifiers (op-amps) and basic op-amp circuits: inverting,
non-inverting, and summing amplifiers. Input and output impedances of op-amp circuits.

INTRODUCTION

Operational amplifiers (so called Op-Amps) are analog devices made in the form of
integrated circuits containing tens of transistors with well matched elements designed to
achieve desired performance parameters. The come in a variety of packages, often in
multiple units, and range in price from a fraction of a dollar to tens of dollars for special
precision amplifiers. They are easy to use and very handy in many applications. If you
need to process analog signals you will most likely use Op-Amps rather than discrete
transistors.

Analog op-amp circuits operate always with negative feedback accomplished by a

connection between the output and the negative input. Output voltage is kept below
saturation i.e. between a couple of volts below the positive supply voltage and a couple of
volts above the negative (or zero) power supply voltage. First order analysis of op-amp
circuits can be made with two simple rules: (1) the voltage between the negative and the
positive inputs is zero and (2) the inputs draw no current

PRELAB

Draw schematic diagrams of an inverting, a non-inverting, and a summing operational

amplifiers. Express relation between output and input as functions of the values of
resistors used in the circuits. What are input impedances of these circuits?

References:

1. T. C. Hayes and P. Horowitz "Student Manual for The Art of Electronics", pp. 175-
179.

2. S. Franco “Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits”,

McGraw-Hill 1988. Chapter 1.

21
 LABORATORY

Equipment needed from the stockroom: scope probe, resistance substitution box, leads.

1. INVERTING AMPLIFIER

a. Using an op-amp in your parts kit wire an inverting amplifier.

Supply the op-amp with ± 15 V from the power supply at your bench (do not forget to
connect power supply “ground” to the circuit board). Choose two sets of resistors in
the circuit to obtain two different gain values, between five and a hundred. Measure
the resistors with a digital ohmmeter. Measure dc and ac gains (at about 1 kHz) and
compare them with the values calculated from the known resistors in the circuit. Do
not drive the op-amp output to saturation.

b. Determine input impedance (resistance) of the two amplifiers.

Measure voltage at the two ends of the input resistor. A voltage drop on the resistor
indicates current flowing to the circuit through its internal resistance.

c. Estimate output impedance of the two amplifiers

Load the output with a known resistor and measure the change it makes in the output
voltage. Since you expect that op-amp has low output impedance, use low resistance
for your load (e.g. 100 ohms). Remember, however, that the circuit is not designed to
draw large current. Keep it below 10 mA by limiting output voltage in these
measurements. You may not be able to measure the small value of the output
impedance precisely but at least try to estimate its order of magnitude.

2. NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

Assemble a non-inverting amplifier with a gain below 100. Check if gain agrees with the
values of resistors in the circuit. Estimate its output impedance, as in 1c.

What input impedance you expect this circuit may have? Try to measure the input
impedance (as in 1b) by attaching a large (1 M) series resistor at the input. What are
your conclusions?

Next, remove the resistors and connect the output of the op-amp to its negative input with
a wire. Measure the gain. What is the name of this circuit and what is it good for?

22
3. SUMMING AMPLIFIER

Build a two input summing amplifier with equal gain on both inputs. First test it with a
signal from a waveform generator on one input and a d.c. voltage from a power supply on
the other. Next use two sinewaves; one on each input, and observe interesting effects of
adding two waves. (Check out second generator from the stock-room.)

Consider trigonometric identity:

a +b a −b
sin a + sin b = 2 sin( ) cos( )
2 2

The above equation says that adding two sinewaves of the same amplitude and frequency
gives a sinewave of the same frequency and the double amplitude. This seems obvious
but try to prove it experimentally. Really interesting things happen when the two waves
have almost but not quite the same frequency. You should be able to observe a low
frequency modulation of the wave with the higher frequency, equal to the mean frequency
of the input waves. This interference phenomenon is also important in analog to digital
conversion. When a sampling frequency is not high enough (too close to the frequency of
the sampled waveform), frequencies that were not present in the original analog signal
appear in the digitized signal (so called aliasing).

To observe interference of two sinewaves make sure that each generator gives you the
same amplitude at the amplifier output. If the gains on the two inputs are not the same
you may compensate by adjusting amplitudes on the generators. Set both generators
frequencies approximately to the same value. Fine tune one of the generators while
observing the scope. Note and explain your observations. The experiment is easier at
low frequency, 1 kHz or even 100 Hz or below.

23
4. AN EXAMPLE OF OP-AMP CIRCUITS: CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER

Using the rules of op-amp circuit design, given in the introduction to these experiments, it
is easy to see that the voltage at the output of the circuit below is equal to the input current
multiplied by the resistance R. The negative input is at ground (the same potential as the
positive input -rule 1) and current I has no place to go (rule 2) but through R. By
choosing the resistor value one can obtain a desired conversion of current into voltage
shown by the meter.

+15 V
Light

Photo-transistor
-
V
+

The circuit can be used as an “ideal ammeter”, i.e. the ammeter without internal
resistance, if one needs to measure currents flowing to ground. This is because the
ammeter terminals will be always at ground, no matter what the current is (within the op-
amp specs). The voltmeter need not be ideal; even if it has quite low resistance (rather
than infinite resistance for the ideal one) the low output impedance of the op-amp will not
cause much voltage drop. In the example above, a photo-transistor is connected at the
input. Instead of the base current, photons of light control the collector current of this BJT
transistor which behaves like a current source, with current dependent on the light
intensity. The circuit is thus a sensitive light meter which could be used, for example, in
low-level light photography.

Assemble and test the performance of the light meter circuit. If you use a phototransistor,
the resistor R should be of the order of 100k, larger if you use a photodiode. You may
substitute a light sensor for another current generating device if you wish to experiment.

REPORT

Include all schematic and results. Compare measured and calculated amplifier gains.
Describe and comment on your test of one of the circuit in the last section.

24
 LABORATORY V

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS; ACTIVE FILTERS

OBJECTIVES

Frequency response of operational amplifiers. Relation between bandwidth and gain.

Slew rate. Design of first order active filters with operational amplifiers.

INTRODUCTION

Before building filters with operational amplifiers (so called active filters) we have to
investigate the frequency response of a simple op-amp circuit. The circuit behaves, in
fact, like a low pass filter and thus can be used as an amplifier only in a limited frequency
range. There is a rule that applies to these circuits which says that the gain bandwidth
product (GBP) is a constant. It means that one can trade gain for a wider frequency
response. The specifications of a popular 741 op-amp give the open loop gain (no
feedback) as 200,000 and the bandwidth limiting frequency of only 5 Hz (GPB = 1 MHz).
From the GBP rule one may expect, for example, the bandwidth of 100 kHz with gain of
10. There are many other op-amp on the market today with larger GBP.

Frequency response is not the only characteristic that limits the speed of an amplifier.
Slew rate or the maximum rate of output voltage increase is often more important in many
applications which call for large signal amplitude. To understand the difference between
the two consider the fact that frequency response is defined independently of the signal
amplitude. If, however, the output amplitude is increased (say, by increasing the input
voltage, not necessarily the gain), then the voltage has to increase faster (in V/µs) as the
slope of the sinewave increases, even as its frequency does not change. Internal structure
of an op-amp circuit limits this maximum slope which makes steep parts of a sine wave
look like a ramp, distorting the signal. Decreasing the signal amplitude, without lowering
the frequency, restores the proper waveform shape.

PRELAB

Design a first order low pass and a high pass filters using an op-amp and components
available in your kit. Choose reasonable f-3dB frequencies, from tens of Hz to tens of kHz,
so that you can test these circuits with the equipment at your bench. The high pass filter
should have much lower f-3dB than the low pass filter. Simulate performance of the
circuits (frequency response) with PSPICE.

25
References:

:1. P. Horowitz and W. Hill The Art of Electronics, second edition, Cambridge University
Press 1989, 2nd edition, pp. 187-224
2. T. C. Hayes and P. Horowitz "Student Manual for The Art of Electronics", pp.184-203.
3. S. Franco “Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits”,
McGraw-Hill 1988. Chapter 3, especially section 3.3.

R2

R1
Vin -
Vout
+

R2
C R1

Vin
-
Vout

Low-pass and High-pass single stage active filters

26
 LABORATORY

Equipment needed from the stockroom: scope probe, resistance substitution box, leads.

1. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

AND THE GAIN BANDWIDTH PRODUCT (GBP)

Assemble a non-inverting amplifier with a low gain, up to 10. Check its frequency
response. Op-amp performance is limited at high frequency; it behaves as a low-pass
filter. Measure its bandwidth, which is defined by f-3dB frequency.

Repeat the bandwidth measurements for two more resistor sets, with the amplifier gain in
tens and hundreds range. Measure the gain and the bandwidth in each case.

Note: It is not necessary to measure a whole frequency distribution for the three cases.
Measure it for the first case and then find quickly f-3dB for the other two. A good way is to
look at the phase shift between input and output signals.

2. SLEW RATE

Measure the slew rate of the non-inverting amplifier by feeding a square wave at the
input.
You will get this parameter from the slope of the output waveform which will not change
with increasing signal amplitude.

3. LOW-PASS FILTER

Build the low-pass filter of your design and check its frequency response. Drive the
circuit with a sine wave and record input (constant) and output voltage for different
frequencies. Be sure to obtain more points at the “interesting” part of the curve, near and
well above f-3dB. Make preliminary graphs of the amplitude as a function of frequency in
the laboratory; you will have a chance to discover early if something is wrong.

Measure also the phase shift between input and output signals. The goal is to see the
phase shift as the frequency increases, passing through f-3dB. Make the measurements also
at much lower and much higher frequencies than f−3dB. Measurement of phase shift is an
accurate method of determining the filter characteristic frequency (f−3dB).

27
4. HIGH-PASS FILTER

Build the high-pass filter of your design and test it like the low pass filter, above. Build
the circuit on the same board but using different components. If you have more than one
op-amp in the same package common power supply wiring will serve both circuits.

5. BAND-PASS FILTER

Connect the two circuits (high-pass and low-pass filters) in series to obtain a band pass
filter. (Does it matter which is first?) Verify that it performs as a band-pass filter.
Alternatively, you may build a wide-band filter with a single op-amp, as shown in the
figure below. For this filter to work well, the low-pass frequency (low f-3dB) should be
much lower than the high-pass (high f-3dB) frequency.

C2

R2

C1 R1

Vin -
Vout
+

REPORT

Besides the usual circuit information, schematics, etc. attach tables with the data on
frequency response measurements (amplitude and phase). The measured frequency
distributions should be presented as discrete points and the PSPICE simulations as
continuous curves on the same graphs. This will allow for easy comparison of the data
with simulation results. See the instuctions for exporting PSPICE grahs to EXCEL
worksheets, form which you can generate the graphs. Discuss the agreement (or lack of
it) between the measured and simulated functions.

28
 LABORATORY VI

NON LINEAR CIRCUITS; POSITIVE FEEDBACK

OBJECTIVES

Introduction to non linear circuits and putting positive feedback to good use.
Comparators, Schmitt trigger, and oscillators.

INTRODUCTION

Most of the circuits studied in this laboratory are linear - output signal is proportional to
input signal, or at least should be to a good approximation. Many analog circuits, such as
amplifiers and filters, belong to this category. Such circuits are designed to be stable so
that a given input results in a unique output. Stability is achieved through negative
feedback and positive feedback is deemed undesirable and spells trouble (oscillations). In
this series of experiments we explore a different class of circuits which often utilize
positive feedback and whose output does not depend uniquely on the input voltage.
Digital circuits belong to this class as they sense if signal levels are within certain
intervals , defined as 0 or 1, and ignore other values.

A comparator is a circuit which senses input voltage level with respect to some threshold
and changes its output state between “low” and “high” which are the circuit saturation
voltages, usually equal or close to the supply voltage. A comparator can be easily made
from an op-amp but specially designated chips are better for this purpose. A comparator
does not need to have the many features required of a good linear amplifier and can trade
these qualities for speed of operation. A Schmitt trigger can be thought of as a comparator
with hysteresis; it has two thresholds and two output levels. Oscillators do not even need
input voltage. They provide their own through a positive feedback circuit and give output
waveforms continuously, as long as they are powered.

PRELAB

Using an operational amplifier or a comparator from your parts kit design a Schmitt
trigger with an adjustable threshold and a fixed hysteresis of your choice between 0.2 V
and 0.5V. Hysteresis is the difference between input voltages at which output switches
states (“low” to “high” and vice versa) and threshold is their mean value (center of the
hysteresis loop).
Adjustable threshold can be obtained by building a voltage divider incorporating a
potentiometer. A better voltage source for threshold adjustment may include an op-amp in
the voltage follower configuration to buffer the divider. Use a single polarity power
supply. Note: an op-amp output voltage (in saturation) is defined by the power supply

29
voltage. Comparator circuits usually require a pull-up resistor between the output pin and
a voltage source which may be different than the chip power supply.

Draw also a schematic of an RC relaxation oscillator obtained by adding an RC network

to the Schmitt trigger in the negative feedback loop.

References:

1. P. Horowitz and W. Hill The Art of Electronics, Cambridge University Press 1989, 2nd
edition, pp.
2. T. C. Hayes and P. Horowitz "Student Manual for The Art of Electronics", pp.227-242.
3. S. Franco “Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits”,
McGraw-Hill 1988. Chapter 8.

Vo

Vin - Vin - Rp
Vout Vout
+ R2 + R2

R1 R1

(a) (b)

Schmitt Trigger with fixed threshold and hysteresis defined by resistive network R1, R2.
(a) circuit realized with an op-amp, (b) circuit with a comparator and a pull-up resistor Rp.

R1

Vout
+ C

R
C R

A sign wave oscillator (Wien bridge) with an op-amp. R1 has to be chosen carefully (it
depends on the lamp resistance) for this circuit to work well.

30
 LABORATORY

Equipment needed from the stockroom: scope probe, resistance substitution box, leads.

1. SCHMITT TRIGGER

Assemble and test the Schmitt trigger of your design. Determine hysteresis and the range
of threshold voltage. Is hysteresis independent of the threshold setting? If not, how could
you improve it (make hysteresis independent of the threshold adjustment)?

2. OSCILLATORS

Assemble one of the oscillators, the RC relaxation circuit or the sine-wave oscillator Wien
bridge. Measure frequency of oscillations and check its dependence on circuit
components. Sketch obtained waveforms.

REPORT

Present all schematics and measurements. Describe briefly how the circuits you tested
work. Do the measured frequencies and waveform agree with expectations? Include all
observations on the circuits performance and if possible give explanations.

What is the role of the lamp in the Wien bridge oscillator?

31
 LABORATORY VII

DIGITAL CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVES

Introduction to digital circuits. TTL and CMOS digital integrated circuits. Basic gates
and flip-flop circuits.

INTRODUCTION

Digital circuits represent great majority of integrated circuits manufactured today. Among
them MOS and CMOS devices are most prevalent but TTL circuits based on bipolar
device technology are still important. Although both types of devices may perform
identical logic functions their behavior and signal or power requirements are somewhat
different. It is a good idea to acquaint yourself with these differences from the start.
Properly treated digital circuits will reward you with predictable and reliable performance
allowing you to concentrate on the logic problem at hand.

We will experiment with two different digital devices: logic gates and sequential circuits,
so called flip-flops. While the output of a logic gate is completely determined by its input
states, the output of a flip-flop depends also on the past states, i.e. the device has
elementary memory. . Flip-flops are basic building blocks of counters, arithmetic
accumulators, and other important circuits. Flip-flops are combinations of logic gates and
are controlled not only by input signals but also by clock pulses. The latter feature
ensures that the output states change only at a certain time, synchronously with a system
clock which controls many devices in a complex circuit.

For consistency we will power all digital circuits with a single polarity power supply
providing standard voltage +5 V with respect to ground. Input states can be realized with
switches providing connections to the same power supply or to ground. In any case do not
drive inputs with voltage levels exceeding the power supply voltage.

PRELAB

Design an exclusive OR gate (XOR), using standard gates in your parts kit.
Design a digital circuit which will tell you by lighting an LED that a given month of the
year has 31 days. The month is to be represented by a binary number entered by switches
with positions corresponding to binary digits (0 and 1). For example, June is represented
by 0110 or switches in states: off, on, on, off. You may use K-maps as an aid in the
design, if you wish.

32
Prepare also tables showing operation of D and J-K flip-flops i.e. the status of outputs for
different input states.

References:

1. P. Horowitz and W. Hill The Art of Electronics, Cambridge University Press 1989, 2nd
edition, parts of chapters 8 and 9.
2. T. C. Hayes and P. Horowitz "Student Manual for The Art of Electronics", pp.309-339.

LABORATORY

Equipment needed from the stockroom: scope probe, analog multi-meter, resistance
substitution box, leads.

1. SIMPLE DIODE GATES

You can easily assemble basic logic gates using diodes and resistors:

+5V

1k

A A

B Q B Q
1k

a b

Assemble and test the two circuits shown above. What logic functions do they
perform?
What are disadvantages of these simple circuits that make them unsuitable for a
wide use in digital systems?

33
2. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS GATES

+5V

270 +5V
1k
to gate LED
input
LED
S
270

Defining input states with a switch and indicating output states with an LED.

2.1 Output Voltage Levels

Examine two integrated circuit gates in your parts kit, one TTL and one CMOS. Use 5 V
to supply the chips and switches for setting input states, as shown above. Check the logic
functions they perform (the truth table).

Note the HIGH and LOW output voltage levels for both types of chips.

2.2 Threshold Input Voltage

With one gate input set to HIGH vary the voltage at the other input and note the level at
which the gate output switches states from H to L and from L to H. Make this threshold
voltage measurements for both TTL and CMOS devices. Do not apply to the inputs
higher voltage than the supply voltage of the chip! To be safe use a 10k potentiometer
connected between the power supply (+5 V) and ground. Center tap of the potentiometer
will give you adjustable voltage for the gates input.

2.3 Floating Inputs and Undefined States.

In TTL gate, disconnect the inputs and examine the output state. Measure voltages on the
inputs with DVM. What states are assumed by floating inputs in TTL devices? What
needs to be done to assert these inputs LOW?

In CMOS gate connect one input to HIGH and leave the other undefined by attaching to it
a few inches length of wire. Observe output while moving your hand over the wire.

34
CMOS circuits draw practically no power when left in a given state (quiescent operation)
They have two complementary transistors in series between power source and ground with
one of the transistors in the “off” state. These circuits, however, draw current during
switching which transfers charge to the gate capacitance. To examine a serious problem
which occurs when CMOS input states re undefined, connect all input gates on a chip to
the center tap of a 10k potentiometer connected between power supply and ground. Place
an analog ammeter between the chip supply pin and the power supply. There should be
only a small supply current when the gate voltage is HIGH or LOW. Switch the ammeter
range to 100 mA, or more, and observe the supply current as you turn the potentiometer so
that the gate input state becomes undefined. When you see the current surge change the
state to L or H or turn off supply voltage. Leaving the circuit with high supply current can
overheat it and damage.

These experiments should demonstrate to you important practical rules of digital circuits:

All input states should be well defined, either LOW or HIGH.

These levels should be in appropriate voltage range for a given device type.

Never leave inputs floating. Tie unused inputs to the power source or ground.

These rules are especially important for CMOS devices, the most popular today. By
following them you will avoid a lot of problems in your practice.

3. COMBINATIONAL LOGIC WITH GATES.

Build an exclusive OR gate (XOR) with chips available in your parts kit.
Demonstrate a digital circuit indicating which month of the year has 31 days (see Prelab).

4. SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS (FLIP-FLOPS).

4.1 D and J-K Flip-Flops

Examine operation of both D and J-K flip-flops by asserting different input states using
switches. Use square wave from the waveform generator as a clock signal. Use proper
DC bias in the generator to obtain positive pulses. Prepare tables showing input and
output states.

Using D flip-flop, verify that the timing of the state change is defined by the edge of the
clock pulse. To do this, connect Q to D and watch the clock and D signals on the scope.
Increase the clock frequency and observe propagation delay or the delay between the
edges of the clock and Q pulses.

35
 SET
D Q out
in
CLR
Q

SET SET SET SET

D Q D Q D Q D Q
in

CLR
Q CLR
Q CLR
Q CLR
Q

LSB MSB

A circuit for testing timing of a D flip-flop and a four digit binary ripple counter.

4.2 Ripple Counter

You noticed in the previous circuit that the frequency at Q was half of that at the clock
input. The circuit effectively divides the number of pulses by two. Cascading a number
of such circuits one can divide the number of pulses by 4, 8,..and so on. Driving an LED
with each consecutive output should give you a binary display of the number of pulses
that came to the input. Assemble such a counter with four D flip-flops. Count pulses
generated by a switch.

Note: Some integrated circuits contain a number of flip-flops, which can not be connected
the way shown in the figure above because their clock inputs are tied together and
connected to one pin. For example 74LS174 with six flip-flops has one common clock
signal pin. You need four of such chips to build the ripple counter, using only one flip-
flop from each chip.

In testing the ripple counter you are likely to see that the counter display does not
correspond to the number of switching. This is due to the so called switch bounce - each
switch closure generates not one but a number of pulses as the metal contacts come
together. A remedy is a switch debouncer, a circuit easily built with logic gates which
generates one pulse for each switch closure (see ref. 2). To check that your counter works
properly, use a very low frequency square wave as the input to your circuit. Use proper
DC bias in the generator to obtain positive pulses.

Increase square wave frequency to observe ripple effect or time lag between pulses
coming from different segments. This undesirable delay can be eliminated in synchronous
counters built with K-J flip-flops in which all pulses are synchronized with the clock
signal.

36
REPORT

Present all schematics and measurements. Include tables showing input and output states
of gates and flip-flops. Include observations on the circuits performance and provide
explanations.

37
 LABORATORY VIII

DESIGN PROJECT

OBJECTIVES

After completing seven series of experiments described in this manual you should have
gained sufficient experience with analog and some digital circuits to venture into an
exciting area of design and more independent work. If the time allows student teams
should select their own circuit projects, assemble, and test them. It is suggested to utilize
parts and circuit elements already used in this course and combine them in a new design.
If, however, the students prefer to use other components, circuits, or sensors they are only
encouraged to do so. The project should start with PSPICE simulation of the circuit,
which later will be compared with the result of experiments.

Several experiments described in this manual as optional, like the one at the end of
Experiments I, may be performed now if there was no time for it earlier. An interesting
project may include a combination of analog and digital circuits, like an amplifier with
adjustable gain or a filter with adjustable bandwidth, in which parameters are changed by
digitally controlled transmission gates (analog switches). Another example maybe a three
stage amplifier with high input impedance achieved with an FET, a common emitter
amplifier with a BJT (like in Experiments III) and a BJT voltage follower.
The limits are set only by time and imagination.

PRELAB

Provide a brief description and a schematic of a circuit you plan to build. Describe also
the expected circuit performance.

REPORT

Make it brief but do not skip essentials: schematics, performance data and, above all, your
comments and conclusion

38
 APPENDIX

RESISTOR COLOR CODE

BANDS 1 2 3 4

R = (BAND 1) (BAND 2) x 10(BAND 3)

BAND COLOR VALUE

Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9

BAND 4 SPECIFIES RESISTOR TOLERANCE

RED 2% GOLD 5% SILVER 10% NONE 20%

EXAMPLE: RED RED YELLOW SILVER represents 220 k, 10% resistor