MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

The Overview

The main emphasis on this course is understanding how bodies respond to applied
loads. For successful machine or structural design, a through mastery of this course is a must.
This course deals with the relations between externally applied loads and their internal effects
on bodies. Our purpose of studying this course is to ensure that the structures used will be safe
against the maximum internal effects that may be produced by any combination of loading.

Watch:

Read: Strength of Materials by Ferdinand L. Singer

Module 1 : Simple Stress

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the student must be able to:

 Distinguish the different kinds of simple stresses.

 Determine the conditions under which stress is constant.
 Determine the strength of materials.
 Familiarize the different formulas.
 Apply the formula sin solving problems in simple stress.

Course Materials:

Mechanics of Deformable Bodies which deals with relations between externally applied loads
and their internal effects on bodies.

Simple Stress is the condition under which the stress is constant or uniform. The condition is
that the resultant load must pass through the centroid of the resisting area and that there should
not be abrupt changes in section.

Stress is the unit strength of a material is expressed symbolically as

𝑃
Where: σ = Stress σ=
𝐴

P = Applied Force

A = Resisting Area
A more precise definition of stress is obtained by dividing the differential load dP by the
differential area over which it ads.

𝑑𝑃
Where: σ = Stress σ =
𝑑𝐴

dP = Differential Load

dA = Differential Area

Axial Stress this resistance to pulling (or pushing) action perpendicular to the section. The pull
represents tensile stress tends to elongate the member, whereas a push is a compressive force
that tends to shorten the member. Tensile and compressive stresses are frequently called
normal stresses because they are caused by forces perpendicular to the areas on which they
act and they are symbolically expressed as

𝑃𝑇
Where: σ𝜏 = Tensile Stress σ𝜏 =
𝐴𝑇

𝑃𝐶
σC = Compressive Stress σC =
𝐴𝐶

P𝜏 = Tensile Force

PC = Compressive Force

A𝜏 = Area resisting the Tensile Force

AC = Area resisting the Compressive Force

Shearing Stress this is the resistance to sliding the portion to one side of the exploratory
section past the other. The shearing stress may be called a tangential stress and is symbolically
expressed as

𝑉
Where: τ = Shearing Stress τ=
𝐴𝑠

V = Shearing Force

As = Area resisting the Shearing Force

Bearing Stress is the contact pressure between separate bodies. A good example is the soil
pressure beneath piers or the forces on bearing plates. Bearing stress is any symbolically
expressed as
 𝑃𝑏
σ = 𝐴𝑏

Where: σ = Bearing Stress

Pb = Bearing Force

Ab = Area Resisting the Bearing Force

Activities / Assesements

1. A cast iron column supports an axial compressive load of 250kN. Determine the inside
diameter of the column if its outside diameter is zoom and the limiting compressive
stress is 50 mPa.

Given: Solution:

𝜋
Pc = 250 kN Ac = ( Do² - D²i )
4

𝜋
Do = 200 mm Ac = [ 200² - D²i ]
4

σc = 50 mPa But Pc = Ac σc

𝜋
Required: (Di) 250x10³ = 4 (40,000 - Di²) (50)

Di = 183.4 mm ans.

2. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100mm must carry a tensible load of 400
kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m².

Given: Solution:

𝜋
PT = 400 kN AT = 4 ( Do² - D²i )

𝜋
Di = 100 mm AT = 4 [ Do² - 100² ]

σT = 120MPa But PT = AT σT

𝜋
Required: 400x10³ = 4 [D²o - 100²] (120)

Outside diameter (Do) Do = 119.3 mm

3. What force is required to punch a 20 – mm – diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm
thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m².

Given: Solution:

d = 20 mm V = τ As

t = 25 mm V = (350) (π x 20) (25)

τ = 350 MN/m² But Pc = V

Required: Pc = (350) (20π) (25)

Punching force (Pc) = 549.8 kN ans

4. Determine the outside diameter of a hollow steel tube that will carry a tensile load of 500
kN at a stress of 140 MN/m². Assume the wall thickness to be one – tenth of the outside
diameter.

Given: Solution:

PT =

σT =

Required:

Outside diameter (Do)

5. The lap joint shown in Fig. is fastened by three – 20 – mm diameter rivets. Assuming
that P = 50 kN, determine (a) the shearing stress in each rivet, (b) the bearing stress in
each plate, and (c) the maximum average tensile stress in each plate. Assume that the
applied load P is distributed equally among the three rivets.

Figure:

P 30 mm O O O P

25 mm 25 mm

P P
 Given:

P=

d=

t=

w=

Required:

a. Shearing stress in the rivet. (𝜏)

b. Bearing stress in each plate. (σ)
c. Max. ave. tensile stress. (σ τ)

Module 2 : Thin – Walled Pressure Vessels

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lessons, the student is expected to:

 Distinguish tangential stress from longitudinal stress.

 Derive the formulas for the two stresses.
 Apply the formulas in solving problems in thin – walled cylindels.

Tangential Stress is the stress in longitudinal section that resists the bursting force. It is usually
called tangential stress because it acts tangent to the surface of the cylinder, other common
names are circumferential stress, hoop stress and girth stress. Tangential stress is symbolically
expressed as

𝑝𝐷
σ L=
4𝑡

Where:

σ L = Longitudinal Stress

P = Internal Pressure

D = Diameter of Cylinder

t = Thickness of the Wall

Longitudinal Stress is the stress in the transverse section that resists the bursting force acting
over the end of the cylinder. It is called longitudinal stress because it acts parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the cylinder and is symbolically expressed as

𝑝𝐷
𝜎L =
4𝑡

Where:

σL = Longitudinal Stress

P = Internal Pressure

D = Diameter of the Shaft

t = Thickness of the Wall

Stress in a thin – walled spherical pressure vessel. Using analysis similar to that for cylinders,
the resistance exerted by the area of the transverse section is symbolically expressed as

𝑝𝐷
σ=
4𝑡

Where:

σ = Stress in the Wall

P = Internal Pressure

D = Diameter

t = Thickness

Activities / Assessments

1. Show that the stress in a thin – walled spherical shell of diameter D and wall thickness t
𝑝𝐷
subjected to internal pressure p is given by σ =
4𝑡

Given: Solution:

D = Diameter F = pA

𝜋𝐷²
t = Wall Thickness =p
4
 P = Internal Pressure P = σA²

Required: = σ (πD) t

𝑝𝐷
Show σ = But F = P
4𝑡

𝜋𝐷²
P = 𝜎 (𝜋𝐷)𝑡
4

𝑝𝐷
σ ans
4𝑡

A2

2. A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plates which have a thickness of 20
mm. The diameter of the pressure vessel is 500 mm and its length is 3 m. Determine the
maximum internal pressure which can be applied if the steel is limited to 140 MPa.

Given: Required:

t = 20 mm Maximum Internal Pressure ( p )

D = 500 mm

L=3m

σ ≤ 140 MPa

Solution:
F = pDL But F = P

= P (500)(3000) 2P = 1.5 x 106 p

= 1.5 x 10 pN P = 7.5 x 105 p

𝑃
σ=
𝐴

7.5 𝑥 10 𝑝
140 =
(20)(3000)

P = 11.2 MPa ans

3. A water tank is 8m in diameter and 12m high. If the tank is to be completely filled.
Determine the minimum thickness of the tank plating if the stress is limited to 40 MPa.

Given: Solution:

D = 8 mm F = whA

h = 12 mm = 9,810 (12) (8) (.001)

σ = 40 MPa But F = 2P

9,810 (12)(8)(.001)
Required: P=
2

Thickness (t) = 470.88 N

𝑃
σ=
𝐴

470.88
40 = t = 11.77 mm
(𝑡)(1)

4. Find the limiting peripheral velocity of a rotating steel ring if the available stress is 140
MN/m² and the mass density of steel is 7850 kg/m³. At what angular velocity will the
stress reach 200 MN/m² if the mean radius is 250 mm?

Given: Solution:

σ ≤ 140 MPa a. σ = pV²

P = 7850 kg/m³ 140x10 = 7850 V²

 σ = 200 MPa v = 133.35 m/sec. ans.

√𝑐 = 250 mm b. σ¹ = pV²

a. Peripheral Velocity (V) 200x10 = 7850 V²

b. Angular Velocity (W) v = 1596.62 m/sec.

But v = √𝑐𝑊

𝑣
w=
√𝑐

15.962 (1000)
=
250

= 638.47 rad./sec ans.

5. The tank shown in figure is fabricated from 10 mm steel plate. Determine the maximum
longitudinal and circumferential stresses caused by an internal pressure of 1.2 MPa.

400 mm

600 mm

Given: Solution:

t=

P=

Required:

a. Maximum Longitudinal Stress (σL)

b. Maximum Circumferential Stress (σT)
 MODULE 3: SIMPLE STRAIN

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

 Understand the change in shape that accompany a loading.

 Determine the stiffness of a material
 Compute the strain of a material.
 Solve problems pertaining to deformations.
 Explain the meaning of stress-strain diagram.

Course Materials:

Stess-Strain Diagram aside from strength of a material stiffness of a specimen is gripped

between the jaws of a testing machine. Values of the load and the elongation in a specified
length, called the gage length are observed simultaneously. These data are plotted on a graph
with the ordinate representing unit load stress and the abscissa repressing unit elongation or
strain. Actual Rupture Strength

Stress

𝑃
σ= Yield Point Rupture Strength
𝐴

Elastic Limit

Proportional Limit

𝛿
Strain ∈ =
𝐿

Strain or unit deformation is obtained by dividing the elongation by the original length L in
which it was measured. This is the average value.

𝛿
∈=
𝐿
Where:

∈ = Strain

𝛿 = Deformation

L = Original Length

The correct expression for strain at any position is

𝑑𝛿
∈=
𝑑𝐿

Where:

d𝛿 = The Differential Elongation

dL = The Differential Length

Proportional Limit is the end point of a straight line portion of the stress-strain diagram.

The Elastic Limit is the stress beyond which the material will not return to its original shape
when unloaded but will retain a permanent deformation called permanent set.

Yield Point is the point at which there is an appreciable elongation or yielding of the material
without any corresponding increase of loads.

Yield Strength is closely associated with the yield point and can be determined by the effect
method.

Ultimate Strength is the highest ordinate on the stress-strain curve.

Rupture Strength is the stress at failure.

Allowable Stress is the maximum safe stress a material may carry.

Working Stress is the actual stress the material has when under load.

Modulus of Elasticity is the slope of the straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram and is
expressed symbolically as

𝜎
∈=
∈
Where:

σ = Stress

E = Modulus of Elasticity

∈ = Strain

Axial and Shearing Deformations

Shearing forces cause shearing deformation, just as axial forces cause elongations. Axial
deformation is expressed symbolically as

𝑃𝐿 𝜎𝐿
𝛿= =
𝐴𝐸 𝐸

Where:

𝛿 = Deformation

P = Applied Force

A = Area

σ = Stress

E = Modulus of Elasticity

L = Length

The average shearing strain is expressed symbolically as

𝛿𝑠
𝛾=
𝐿

Where:

𝛾 = Shearing Strain

𝛿s = Shearing Deformation

L = Length

The relation between shearing stress and shearing strain, assuming Hooke’s law to apply to
shear, is expressed symbolically as
 𝜏 = Gr

Where:

𝜏 = Shearing Stress

G = Modulus Rigidity

𝛾 = Shearing Strain

The relation between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing forces is expressed
symbolically as

𝑉𝐿
𝛿s =
𝐴𝑠𝐺

Where:

𝛿s = Shearing Stress

V = Shearing Force

As = Area Resisting the Shearing Force

L = Length

G = Modulus of Rigidity

Activities / Assessements

1. During a stress-strain test, the unit deformation at a stress of 35 MN/m² was observed to
be 167x10 m/m and at a stress of 140 MN/m² it was 667x10 m/m. If the proportion/limit
as 200 MN/m², what is the modulus of elasticity? What is the strain corresponding to a
stress of 80 MN/m²? Would these results be valid if the proportional limit were 150
MN/m²? Explain.

Given: Solution:

σ1 = 35 MPa E = Slope of Line

∈1 = 167x10-6 m/m

σ2 = 140 MPa
 140−35
∈2 = 667x10 m/m =
(667−167) 𝑥 10

Required: E = 210 GPa ans.

E=? ∈3 at 80 MPa

140−80
σ (10) E= ∈ = 3.81x10-4 m/m
(667−∈)𝑥 10

140

35

167 667 ∈ (10) If the proportional limit is 150 MPa,

the results were not valid.

2. A uniform bar of length L, cross-sectional area A, and a unit mass P is suspended

vertically from one end. Show that its total elongation is 𝛿 = p g L² / 2E. If the total mass
of the bar is M , show also that 𝛿 = MgL / 2AE.

Given:

Length = L

Cross-Sectional Area = A

Unit Mass = P

Total Mass = M
 Required:

1. Show that 𝛿 = p g L² / 2E
2. Show also that 𝛿 = MgL / 2AE

dx

W = 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑥

Solution:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑥𝑑𝑥
d𝛿 =
𝐴𝐸

𝜌𝑔 𝐿
𝛿=
𝐸
∫𝑜 𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝜌𝑔 𝑥2
𝛿= [ ]
𝐸 2

𝜌𝑔𝐿²
𝛿= ans.
2𝐸

M = ρAL

𝑔𝐿² 𝑀
𝛿= 𝑥
2𝐸 𝐴𝐿

𝑀𝑔𝐿
𝛿= ans.
2𝐴𝐸

3. A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm² and a length of 150 m is
suspended vertically from one end. If supports a load of 20 KN at the lower end. If the
 unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m³ and E is 200 GPa, find the total elongationof the rod.
(Hint: Use the results in Prob. 2).

Given:

Area = 300 mm² dx

L = 150 m
L = 150
P = 20 kN 𝜌 = 7850 kg m/m³

𝐸 = 200 GPa w

Required:

Total Elongation, ( 𝛿T )

P = 20 kN

Solution:

𝛿T = 𝛿 + 𝛿

𝑃𝐿 𝜌𝑔𝐿²
= +
𝐴𝐸 2𝐸

(20000)(150) (7850)(9,81)(150)²
𝛿T = +
(300𝑥10)(200𝑥10) 2(200𝑥10)

= 54.33 mm ans.

4. A steel wire 10 m long hanging vertically supports a tensile load of 200 N. Neglecting the
weight of the wire, determine the required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 140
MPa and the total elongation is not to exceed 5 mm. Assume E = 200 GPa.

Given: Solution:

L = 10 m From Stress

P = 2000 N P = σA

𝜋
σ ≤ 140 MPa 2000 = (140) ( 𝑥 𝑑²)
4

𝛿 ≤ 5 mm d = 4.26 mm
 E = 200 GPa From Elongation

𝑃𝐿
Required: 𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

(2000)(10000)
Diameter (d) 5= 𝜋
( 4 𝑥𝑑 2 )200,000

Use d = 5.05 mm ans. D = 5.05 mm

5. An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 160 mm carries the axial loads at the
positions shown in the fugure. If E = 70 GPa, compute the total deformation of the bar.
Assume that the bar is suitably braced to prevent buckling.

Given:

A = 160 mm 15 kN 30 kN

E = 70 GPa 35 kN 10 kN

Required:

Total Deformation, (𝛿T) 0.8 m 1.0 m 0.6 m

Solution:

6. A rigid bar AB, attatched to two vertical rods as shown in the figure, is horizontal before
the load is applied. If the load P = 50 kN, determine its vertical movement.

Given:

P = 50 kN

Ls = 3m

As = 300m Aluminum

Es = 200 GPa Steel A = 300 mm L=4m

LA = 4m L = 3 m E = 200 GPa A = 500 mm

AA = 500 mm 2m 3m E = 70 GPa

EA = 70 GPa

Required:
 Load Vertical Movement P = 50 kN

7. A rigid bars shown in figure are separated by a roller at C ad pinned at A and D. A steel
rod at B helps support the load of 50 kN. Compute the vertical displacement of the roller
at C.

Given: 50 kN

1.5 cm 2m 2m

A 3m

B C

Required:

MODULE 4: Poisson’s Ratio : Biaxial and Triaxial Deformations

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to

 Understand the concepts of Biaxial Deformations

 Understand the concepts of Triaxial Deformations
 Solve problems in Biaxial Deformations
 Solve problems in Triaxial Deformations
 Extend his knowledge from uniaxial stress to the case of Biaxial and Triaxial Stresses.

Course Materials:

Change in dimensions accompanying axial tension or comprehension, is another type of elastic

deformation. Simeon D. Poisson showed in 1811 that the ratio of the strains in these directions
is constant for stresses within the proportional limit. This ration, named after him, is expressed
symbolically as

∈𝑦 ∈𝑧
V= = −
∈𝑥 ∈𝑥

Where:

∈ 𝑥 = Is the strain due only to stress in the x direction.

 ∈ 𝑦 = Is the strain induced in the perpendicular direction y.

∈ 𝑧 = Is the strain induced in the perpendicular direction z.

The minus sign indicates a decrease in transverse dimensions when ∈ 𝑥 is positive, as in the
case of tensile elongation. Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s Law of uniaxial stress to
the case of biaxial stress and triaxial stress.

For an element subjected to simultaneous tensile stresses in the x and y directions, the
resultant in the x direction will be

𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦
∈𝑥= −𝑉
𝐸 𝐸

Where:

∈ 𝑥 = Strain in the x direction.

𝜎𝑥 = Stress in the x direction.

𝜎𝑦 = Stress in the y direction.

V = Poisson’s Ratio

E = Modulus of Elasticity

Similarly, the total strain in the y direction is

𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥
∈𝑦= −𝑉
𝐸 𝐸

Where:

∈ 𝑦 = Strain in the y direction.

𝜎𝑦 = Sress in the y direction.

𝜎𝑥 = Stress in the x direction.

V = Poisson’s Ratio

E = Modulus of Elasticity

The strain induced in the z direction because of the simultaneous tensile stresses in the x and y
direction will be
 𝑉
∈𝑧=- (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦)
𝐸

Where:

∈ 𝑧 = Strain in the z direction.

The expression of stresses in terms of the strains are:

(∈ 𝑥 + 𝑉 ∈ 𝑦)𝐸
𝜎𝑥 =
1−𝑉

(∈ 𝑦 + 𝑉 ∈ 𝑥)𝐸
𝜎𝑦 =
1−𝑉

The expression for triaxial tensile stresses are:

1
∈𝑥= [𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣 (𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎2)]
𝐸

1
∈𝑦= [𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣 (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧)]
𝐸

1
∈𝑧= [ 𝜎𝑧 − 𝑣 (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦)]
𝐸

Activities / Assesements

1. A solid cylinder of diameter d carries an axial load P. Show that its change in diameter is
4PV / 𝜋𝐸𝑑.

Given: Solution:

Axial Load = P d

Diamter = d P P

Poisson’s Ratio = V

Required:

4𝑃𝑈
Show that ∆d =
𝜋𝐸𝑑

2. A rectangular aluminum block is 100 mm long in the x direction, 75 mm wide in the y

direction and 50 mm thick in the z direction. It is subjected to a triaxial loading consisting
of a uniformly distributed tensile force of 200 kN in the x direction and uniformly
 distributed compressive forces of 160 kN in the y direction and 220 kN in the z direction.
1
If V = and E = 70 GPa, determine a single distributed loading in the x direction that
3
would produce the same Z deformation as the original loading.

Given: Solution:

Required:

3. For thye block loaded triaxially as described in Prob. 2, find the uniformly distributed load
that must be added in the z direction to produce no deformation in the z direction.

Given: Solution:

Required:

4. A welded steel cylindrical drum made of a 10 – mm plate has an internal diameter of

1.20 m. Compute the change in the diameter that would be caused by an internal
pressure of 1.5 MPa. Assume that Poisson’s ratio is 0.30 and E = 200 GPa.

Given: Solution:

Required:

5. A 150 - mm – long bronze tube, close at its ends, is 80 mm in diameter and has a wall
thickness of 3 mm. If fits without clearance in an 80 - mm hole in a rigid block. The tube
 1
is then subjected to an internal pressure of 4.0 MPa. Assuming V = and E = 83 GPa,
3
determine the tangential stress in the tube.

Module 5: Statistically Indeterminate Members and Thermal Stress

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to

 Understand the concept of Statistically Indeterminate Members.

 Understand the concept of Thermal Stress.
 Solve problems in Statistically Indeterminate Members.
 Understand the concept of Thermal Stress.

Course Materials:

In this case, Statistically Indeterminate Members the reactive forces exceed the number of
independent equations of equilibrium and require the use of additional relations that depend on
the elastic deformations in the members.

Changes in temperature causes bodies to expand or contract, the amount of the linear
deformation 𝛿𝜏, being expressed by the relation

𝛿𝜏 = ∝ 𝐿 (∆𝑇)

Where:

𝛿𝜏 = Thermal Deformation

∝ = Coefficient of Linear Expansion

L = Length

∆𝑇 = Change in temperature

Activities / Assesements

1. A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded byb a shell of cast iron 5 mm
thick. Compute the load that will compress the combined bar a total of 1 mm in the
length of 2 m. For steel, Es = 200 GPa, and for cast iron Eci = 100 GPa.

Given: Solution:
 Required:

2. A reinforced concrete column 250 mm in diameter is designed to carry an axial

compressive load of 400 kN. Using allowable stresses of 𝜎𝑐 = 6 MPa and 𝜎𝑠 = 120 MPa,
determine the required area of reinforcing steel. Assume that Ec = 14 GPa and Es = 200
GPa.

Given: Solution:

Required:

3. A rigid block of mass M is supported by three symmetrically spaced rods as shown in the
figure. Each copper rod has an area of 900 mm ; Ecop = 120 GPa ; and the allowable
stress is 70 MPa. The steel rod has an area of 1200 mm ; Es = 200 GPa ; allowable
stress is 140 MPa. Determine the largest mass M which can be supported.

Given:

Ecop. = 120 GPa Copper Steel Copper

Acop. = 900 m 160 mm 240 mm 160 mm

𝜎cop. = 70 MPa

Es = 200 GPa

As = 1200 mm

𝜎s = 140 MPa
 Required: Solution:

Largest Mass M 𝛿𝑠 = 𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑝

𝜎𝑠 𝐿𝑠 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑝 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑝
W = Mg =
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑝

𝜎𝑠(240) 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑝 (160)

=
200 120

𝜎𝑠 = 1.111 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑝

when 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑝. = 70 MPa

Pc Ps Pc 𝜎𝑠 = 77.778 𝑀𝑃𝑎 < 140

W = Ps + 2 Pcop.

= As𝜎𝑠 + 2Acop𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑝

Mg = (1200)(77.778) + 2 (900)(70)

M (9.81) = 219,333 N

M = 22,358 kg ans.

4. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 150 mm is stretched between two fixied points.
The tensile load at 20ºc? At what temperature will the stress be zero? Assume ∝ = 11.7
m/(m°C) and E = 200 GPa.

Given: Solution:

Required:
 5. A steel rod is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a tensile load of 5000 N at
20ºc. If the allowable stress is not to exceed 130 MPa at - 20ºc, what is the minimum
diameter of the rod? Assume ∝ = 11.7 m/(mºC) and E = 200 GPa.

Given: Solution:

Required:

Module 6: Torsion

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to

 Understand the concepts of torsion in connection with circular shafts of closed thin-
walled tubes.
 Understand the application of forumulas to torsion problems.
 Solve problems in torsion.

Course Materials:

The general technique is outlined in these steps:

1. Determine the relations between stresses that are compatible with the deformations,
from a study of the elastic deformations produced by a specified load, plus the
application of Hooke’s law. This known as equations of compatibility.
2. Obtain additional relations between the stresses, by applying the conditions of
equilibirium to a free-body diagram of a portion of the body. This is known as equations
of equilibirium.
3. Be sure that the solution of the equations in the step 1 and 2 is consistent with the
loading conditions at the surface of the body. This is known as the satisfying trhe
boundary conditions.
Torsion Formula:

Tρ
τ=
J

Where:

Τ = Torsional Shearing Stress

𝜌 = Radial Distance

T = Applied Torque

J = Polar Moment of Inertia

Maximum Shearing Stress:

𝑇𝑟
Max. 𝜏 =
𝐽

Where:

𝜏 = Maximum Shearing Stress

T = Applied Torque

r = Radius

J = Polar Moment of Inertia

Shearing Stress for solid Shaft:

16𝑇
Max. 𝜏 =
𝜋𝑑³

Where:

𝜏 = max. shearing stress

T = applied torque

d = diameter of the shaft

Power Formula:

P=T2 πf

Where:

P = Power in Watts

T = Applied Torque in N·m

F = Frequency in Revolutions per seamd

Activities / Assessments

1. What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shafgt that will not twist through move
than 3° in a 6-m length when sudjected to a torque of 14kN m? what maximum
shearing stress is developed? Use G= 83 GPa.

Given:

Θ = 3°

L = 6m

T = 14 kN·m

G = 83 GPa

Required:

Minimum diameter, (d)

Maximum shearing stress, (𝜏max)

Solutions:

𝑇𝐿
Θ=
𝐽𝐺

𝜋 (14000)(6𝑚)
3° ( = 𝜋
180 (𝑑4)(83𝑥10)
32

d = 0.118m = 118mm ans.

 16𝑇
Max. 𝜏 =
𝜋𝑑³

(16)(14,000)
=
𝜋(0.1183 )

Max. 𝜏 = 43.4 MPa ans.

2. A solid shaft 5m long is stressed to 60 MPa when twisted through 4°. Using G = 83 GPa,
compute the shaft diameter. What power can be transmitted by the shaft at 20 r/s?

Given: Solutions:

Required:

3. Determine the length if the shortest 2mm diameter bronze wire which can be twisted
through two complete turns without exceeding a shearing stress of 70 MPa. Use = 35
GPa.

Given:

d = 2mm

𝜏 = 70 MPa

G = 35 GPa

𝜃 = 2 (360°)

Required:

Length of Bronze Wire (L)

Solution:

16𝑇
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑³
 16𝑇
70x106 =
𝜋(0.002)³

T = 0.10996 N·m

(0.10996)𝐿
4π = 𝜋
(0.002)(35𝑥10)
32

L = 6.283 m ans.

4. Show that a hollow circular shaft whose inner diameter is half the outer diameter has a
torsional strength equal to 15/16 of that of a solid shaft of the same outside diameter.

Given: Solution:

Required:

Flanged Bolt Couplings

This is the commonly use connection between shafts. It consists of flanges rigidly attached to
the ends of the shafts and bolted together.

The torque capoacity fir any number of bolts at a single bolt circle is

𝜋𝑑²
T = PRn = 𝜏 𝑅𝑛
4

Where:

T = Torque Capacity

P = Shearing Force in the Bolt

R = Radius of the Bolt Circle

d = Diameter of Bolt
n = No. of Bolts

𝜏 = shearing stress

The torque capacity of the capacity coupling with inner and outer bolt circles is

T = P1R1n1 + P2R2n2

Where:

T = Torque Capacity

P1= Load of any Bolt

R1 = Radius of Outer Bolt Circle

N1 = No. of Bolts in the Outer Bolt Circle

P2 = Load of any Bolt in the Inner Bolt Circle

R2 = Radius of Inner Bolt Circle

N2 = No. of Bolts in the Inner Bolt Circle

Torsion of thin-walled tubes; Shear Flow

The relation between shear flow and the applied torque is given by,

T=2Aq

Where:

T = Applied Torque

A = Area Enclosed by the Wall

q = Shear Flow

The average shearing stress across any thickness t is given by

9 𝑇
𝜏= =
𝑇 2𝐴𝑡

𝜏 = Ave. Shearing Stress

q = Shear Flow
t = Thickness of Wall

A = Area Enclosed by the Wall

T = Applied Torque

Activities / Assessments

1. A tube 3mm thick has the elliptical shape shown in fig. What torque will cause a shearing
stress of 60 MPa?

Given: t 3mm

𝜏 = 60 MPa

Required: 75 mm

Torque, (T)

Solution: 150 mm

T = 2 At 𝜏

= 2 (π) (0.075) (0.035) (60x106) (0.003)

= 3.18 kN m ans.

2. A torque of 600 N m is applied to the rectangular section shown in figure. Determine

the wall thickenss t so fast as not to exceed a stress of 80MPa. What is the stress in the
short sides? Neglect stress concentration at the corners.

Given:

T = 600 N·m t

𝜏 = 80 MPa

Required: 30 mm

Thickness, (t)

Solutions: 80 mm

𝑇
t=
2𝐴𝜏
 600
=
2(0.80𝑥0.030)(80𝑥10)

= 0.00156 m

= 1.56 mm ans.

3. A tube 3mm thick has the shape shown in the figure. Find the shearing stress caused
by a torque of 700 N m. If the dimension a = 75mm.

Given:

T = 700 N·m

a = 75 mm
10 mm 10 mm
t = 3 mm + +

Required: 80 mm

Shearing stress, (τ)

Solution:

Helical Springs

The close-coiled helical spring is elongated by an axial load P. the spring is composed of a wire
or round rod of diameter d wound into helix of mean radius R. The helix ang is small, so that any
coil of the spring may be considered as lying approximately in a plane perpendicular to the axis
of the spring.

The resultant shearing stress may be expressed as

16 𝑃𝑅 𝑑
𝜏= (1 + )
𝜋𝑑³ 4𝑅
When taking into account. The initial curvature of the spring, it may be expressed as

16𝑃𝑅 4 𝑚−1 0.615

Max. 𝜏 = ( + )
𝜋𝑑³ 4 𝑚−4 𝑚

Where:

P = Axial Load

R = Radius of the Spring

d = Diameter of the Spring Wire

2𝑅
m=
𝑑

Spring Deflections

Practically all the spring elongation, measured along its axis, is caused by torsional deformation
of the sptring wire, and is expressed by

64𝑃𝑅³𝑛
𝛿=
𝐺𝑑4

Where:

𝛿 = Spring Deflection

P = Axial Load

R = Radius of the Spring

n = No. of Tums

d = Diameter of Spring Wire

G = Modulus of Rigidity

Activities / Assessments

1. Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in helical steel spring composed
of 20 turns of 20mm-diameter wire ojn a mean radius of 80mm when the spring is
supporting a load of 2kN. Use

Eq. (3-10) and G = 83 GPa.

Given:

n = 20 turns

d = 20 mm

R = 80mm

P = 2kN

G = 83 GPa

Required:

Max. shearing stress, (𝜏max.)

Elongation, (𝛿)

Solutions:

Eq. 3-10

16𝑃𝑅 4𝑚−1 0.615

Max. 𝜏 = ( + )
𝜋𝑑³ 4𝑚−4 𝑚

2𝑅 2 (80)
m= = = 𝛿
𝑑 20

16(2,000)(0.080) 4𝑥8−1 0.615

Max. 𝜏 = ( + )
𝜋(0.0203 ) 4𝑥8−4 8

= 120. MPa ans.

64𝑃𝑅³𝑛
𝛿=
𝐺𝑑4

(64)(2000)(0,080)³(20)
=
(83𝑥10)(0.020)

= 98.7mm ans.

2. What is the maximum elongation of the spring in Problem 1 if the spring is made of
phosphor bronze for which G = 42 GPa and is stressed to 140 MPa. Use Eq. (3-10)
Given: Solutions:

Required:

3. A helical spring is made by wrapping steel wire 20mm in diameter around a forming
cylinder 150mm in diameter. Compute the number of turns required to permit an
elongation of 100mm without exceeding a shearing stress of 140 MPa. Use Eq. (3-9)
and G = 83 GPa.

Given:

d = 20mm

R = 75mm

𝜏 = 140 MPa

G = 83 GPa

Required:

Solutions:

Eq. (3-9):

16𝑃𝑅 𝑑
𝜏= (1 +
𝜋𝑑3 4𝑅
 4. Compute the maximum shearing stress developed in a phosphor bronze spring having a
mean diameter of 200mm and consisting of 24 turns of 20-mm-diameter wire when the
spring is stretched 100mm. Use Eq (3-10) and G = 42 GPa.

Given:

8 = 100mm

d = 20mm

R = 100mm

n = 24 turns

G = 42 GPa

Required:

Maximum shearing stress, (τ )

Module 7: Shear and Moment in Beams

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the studebnts is sexpected to

 Understand the loading effects of bending loads on the different sections of the
beams.
 Understand the bending stress, which varies directly with the bending moment.
 Understand the shearing stress, which varies directly with the shear.
 Draw the shear and moment diagrams of the entire beam.
 Solve problems about the shear and moment in beams.

Course Materials:

Methods of supporting statistically determinate beams.

Simple Beam – is supported by a hinged reaction at one end and a roller support at the other,
but not otherwise restrained.

Cantilever Beam – is supported at one end only, with a suitable restraint to prevent rotation of
that end.
Overhanging Beam – is supported by a hinge and a roller reaction, with either both ends
extending beyond the supports.

Methods of supporting statistically indeterminate beams.

Propped beam, fixed-ended or restrained beam, and the continues beams, all have at least one
more reactive element than is absolutely necessary to support them.

Different kinds of Beam Loads:

Concentrated load is one that acts over so small a distance that it can be assumed to act at a
point.

Distributed load acts over a considerable length of the beam.

Uniformly varying or triangular load, the intensity of loading increases or decreases at a

constant rate.

Trapezoid loading is a combination of a uniform and a uniformly varying load.

Shear and Moment

The definition of shearing force may be expressed mathematically as

V = ( Fy) L

This is the vertical summation of all the forces to the left (L) of the section on being considered.
Upward acting forces or loads are considered as positive. Positive shearing force tends to move
the left segment upward with respect to the right, and vice versa.

Bending moment is defined as the summation of moments about the centroidal axis of any
selected section of all loads acting either to the left or to to the right side of the section, and is
expected mathematically as

M = (ΣM)L = (ΣM)R

The subscript L indicating that the bending moment is computed in terms of the loads acting to
the left of the section, and the subscript R referring to the loads to the right of the section.

Positive bending moment produces bending of the beam concave upward, or upward acting
external forces cause positive bending moments with respect to any section; downward forces
cause negative bending moments.
Shear and Moment Diagrams are merely the graphical visualization of the shear and moment
equations plotted on v – x axes, usually located below the loading diagrams.

Activities / Assessments

1. Write shear and moment equations for the beam shown also draw shear and moment
diagrams, specifying values at all change of loading positions and at all points of zero
shear.

Solution: 30 kN 50 kN

V = (ΣFy)L VAB = -30 kN A B C D

M = (ΣM)L MAB = (-30x)kN 1m 3m 2m

V = (ΣFy)L VBC = -30 + 56 R = 56 kN R2 = 24 kN

= 26 kN 26 -24 Shear D.

M = (ΣM)L MBC = -30x + 56 (x-1) - 30

=(26x – 56) KN·m

V = (ΣFy)L VCD = -30 + 56 – 50 48

+ - 24 kN Magnet D.

M = (ΣM)L MCD = -30x + 56 (x-1) = 50 (x-4) - 30

= (-24x + 144) kN·m Elastic Curve

Part of Inflection
 2. Beam loaded as shown in Figure. 30 kN 20 kN

Solution: A 2m B D (Load D.)

V = (ΣFy)L VAB = - 30 kN

M = (ΣM)L MAB = (-30 x) kN·m R1 = 30 6m C 1m

V = (ΣFy)L VBC = - 30 + 56

= 26 kN 30 20 (Shear D.)

M = (ΣM)L MBC = - 30 x + 56 (x-1)

= (26 x – 56) kN·m - 20

V = (ΣFy)L VCD = - 30 + 56 60

= - 24 kN

M = (ΣM)L MCD = - 30 x + 56 (x-1) – 50 (x-4) Moment D.

= (-24x + 144) kN·m - 20

Elastic C.

Part of Inflection

3. Beam loaded as shown in figure.

Solution:

2m 3m C 2m

B R1 D R2
 4. Beam loaded as shown in figure.

Solution:

30 kN

2m B

10 kN/m
A C

R1 10 m R2

5. Beam loaded as shown in figure.

2m B
30 kN/m
15 kN/m

A C

6m

R2 R2

Relations Among Load, Shear, and Moment

These relations provide a method of constructing shear and moment diagrams without writing
shear and moment equations. This is the semi-graphical method using the following formulas:

V1 – V2 = ∆𝑉 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)Load

The change in shear (∆𝑉) is equal to the area of the load diagram.

M2 – M1 = ∆𝑀 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)Shear

The change in moment (∆𝑀) is equal the area of the shear diagram.

𝑑𝑉
W= = Slope of Shear Diagram
𝑑𝑋
The intensity of load ordinate equals the slope of the shear diagram.

𝑑𝑀
V= = Slope of Moment Diagram
𝑑𝑋

Procedure for construction of shear and moment diagrams by semi-graphical method.

1. Compute the reactions.

2. Compute values of shear at the change of load points, using either
V = (ΣFy)L or ∆V – (Area)Load
𝑑𝑉
3. Sketch the shear diagram, determining the shape from w = ; that is the intensity of
𝑑𝑋
the load ordinate equals the slope at corresponding ordinate of the shear diagram.
4. Locate the point of zero shear.
5. Compute values of bending moment at the change of load points and at the points of
zero shear, using either M = (ΣM)L = (ΣM)R or ∆M = (Area)Shear whichever is more
convenient.
6. Sketch the moment diagram through ordinates of the bending moment computed in Step
𝑑𝑀
5. The shape of the diagram is determined from V = ; that is, the intensity of the
𝑑𝑋
shear ordinate equals the slope at the corresponding ordinate of the moment diagram.

Activities / Assesements

Without writing shear and moment equations, draw shear and moment diagrams for the
beams specified below. Use the semi-graphical approach.

1. Beam loaded as shown in figure.

Solution:

30 kN 24 kN

2m B 3m C 1m

A D

R1 R2
2. Beam loaded as shown in figure.

Solution:

10 kN 2m

1m 1m 10 kN/m 2m

A B C D E

R1 R2

3. Beam loaded as shown in figure.

Solution:

60 kN 30 kN

1m B C D
5 kN/m

A 4m 2m

R1 R2

4. Beam loaded as shown in figure.

Solution:

50 kN

200 kN·m

2m B 3m C 2m

R1 R2
In the following problems, draw moment and load diagram corresponding to the given shear
diagrams. Specify values at all charge of load points and at all points zero shear.

1. Shear diagram as shown in figure.

2m 2m 1m 1m

15 15

-5

-35

2. Shear diagram as shown in figure.

10

1m 2m

-5 2m -10

3. Shear diagram as shown on figure.

4m 2m 2m 2m 4m

10 40

-80
4. Shear diagram as shown in figure.

2º curve

-2
-8

3m 1m 1m 2m
Moving Loads
The bending under a particular load is maximum when the center of the beam is midway
between that load and the resultant of all loads then on the span.

The maximum shearing force occurs at, and is equal to, the maximum reaction.

The reaction is the reaction to which the resultant load is nearest.

Activities / Assesements

1. A truck with axle loads of 40 kN and 60 kN on a wheel base of 5m rolls across a 10 m

span. Compute the maximum bending moment and the maximum shearing force.

2. Repeat Problem 1 using axle loads of 30 kN and 50 kN on a wheel base 0of 4m crossing
an 8m span.

3. A tractor with axle loads of 4 kN and 8 kN has a wheel base of 3m. Compute the
maximum moment and maximum shearing force when crossing a 6m span.
Module 7: Stresses in Beams

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to

 Understand the relations between the bending moment and the flexure stresses it
causes, and the vertical shear and the shearing stresses.
 Be able to apply flexure formula in solving problems.
 Be able to solve problems in flexure stress and shear stress.

Course Materials:

The flexure Formula is

𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼
𝑀𝑐
Max. 𝜎 =
𝐼

𝑀 𝑀
Max. 𝜎 = =
𝐼/𝑐 𝑆

Where:

𝜎 = Flexure Stress

M = Moment

I = Moment of Inertia

y = The distance from N.A to the element where the stress is being computed.

C = The distance from the neutral axis to the remotest element.

S = Selection Modulus

Flexure Formula for Rectangular Section

6𝑀
𝜎=
𝑏ℎ²

Where:
𝜎 = Flexure Stress
M = Moment
b = Width Section
h = Height of Section
Maximum Shearing Stress for rectangular section is expressed symbolically as
3𝑉
Max. 𝜏 =
2𝐴
Where:
𝜏 = Shearing Stress
V = Vertical Shear
A = Cross-Sectional Area
Horizontal Shearing Stressed is expressed symbolically as
𝑉
𝜏= 𝑄
𝐼𝑏
Where:
𝜏 = Horizontal Shear
V = Vertical Shear
b = Width
I = Moments of Inertia
Q = Partial Moment of Area
Activities / Assessments
1. A simply supported beam, 60mm wide by 100mm high and 4m long is subjected to a
concentrated load of 800 N at a point 1m from one of the supports. Determine the
maximum fiber stress and the stress in a fiber located 10mm from the top of the beam at
the midspan
 2. A high-strength steel band saw, 20mm wide by 0.80mm thick, runs over pulleys 600mm
in a diameter. What maximum flexure stress is developed? What minimum diameter
pulleys can be used without exceeding a flexural stress of 400 MPa? Assume E = 200
GPa.

Given:

D = 600mm

E = 200GP

σ = 400MPa

w = 20mm

t = 0.80mm

Required:

a. Max. Flexural Stress

b. Min. Diameter

Solution:

𝐸 𝜎
a. =
𝑟 𝑦
𝐸𝑦
𝜎=
𝑟
(200𝑥10)(4𝑥10)
=
0.30
= 266.67 MPa ans
𝐸 𝜎
b. =
𝑟 𝑦
𝐸𝑦
r= 𝜎
(200𝑥10)(4𝑥10)
=
(400𝑥10)

= 0.2 m

d = 2(0.2)
 d = 400 mm. ans.

3. A rectangular beam of width b meters and height h meters carries a central concentrated load P
on a simply supported span of length L meters. Express the maximum τ in therms of maximum
σ.

4. Find the cross-sectional dimensions of the smallest square beam which can be loaded
as shown in figure if τ≤ 900 kPa and σ ≤ 8 MPa.

Given: 4 kN

τ = 900 kPa M = 5 kN·m 1m 1m

σ = 8 MPa 1m

Required: R1 R2

Cross-sectional dimension

5. The wide flange beam shown supports the concentrated load W and a total uniformly
distributed load of 2W. Determine the maximum safe value of W if σ = 10 MPa and τ =
1.4 MPa.

200 mm 20 mm 2m W

2W 1m 2m

20 mm 180 mm

20 mm R1 R2

6. A simply supported beam L meters long carries a uniformly distirubted load of 16kN⁄m
over its entire length and has the cross section shown in figure. Find L to cause a
maximum flexure stress of 40 MPa. What maximum shearing stress is then developed?

Given:

σ = 40 MPa

w = 16 kn/m
Required:

a. Length of beam, (L) 16 kN/m

b. Maximum 𝜏

R1 R2

140 mm 20 mm

160 mm

20 mm