The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

University College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.No Experiment Name

1. Introduction to Circuit Analysis Lab
2. Measurement Methods for Finding the Resistance
3. To Investigate the Ohm’s Law
4. To Verify Experimentally Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
5. To Investigate the Characteristics of Dc Series Circuit
6. To Verify Experimentally Kirchhoff’s Current Law
7. To Investigate the Characteristics of DC Parallel Circuit
8. Introduction to Multisim (Electronic Workbench)
9. Introduction to Energy Storage Elements
10. Introduction to AC Circuit Analysis
11. Understanding the Diode Characteristics
12. Implementation of Diode Configurations
13. Understanding Half Wave and Full Wave Rectification
14. Understanding Characteristics of Bipolar Junction Transistor
15. Implementing Fixed and Voltage- Divider Bias of BJTs

Engr. Muhammad Shoaib Rabbani

 Basic Electrical Engineering (ELEN 03104)

Instructions for Students

1. Attendance is mandatory for students in all the labs. If a student is absent from a lab due to any
reason, he/she will have to get written permission of the Dean to perform that lab.

2. Students should bring their text books to the lab, so that they can refer to theory and diagrams
whenever required.

3. The assessment sheet at the end of every lab looks like this:

Student Name: ______________________ Roll #: _________________

PLOs Excellent Good Satisfactory Poor Score

5.0-4.0 3.0-2.0 1.0 0
Apparatus PLO-5 Can independently Can setup and Can setup and Cannot setup or
Usage setup, operate and handle the handle the handle the
handle the apparatus apparatus with apparatus with apparatus
minimal help some help
Data PLO-5 All required data is Data recorded Data recorded Unable to
Acquisition recorded and and presented is and presented is record data and
presented accurately complete but partially present it in
and completely in the accuracy is not as complete. The required format
required format per requirement. required format
The required is followed but
format is with few
followed deficiencies
Data PLO-4 Analyzes and Analyzes and Analyzes data Unable to
Interpretation interprets data interprets data correctly analyze and
correctly for all correctly for few however unable interpret data
tasks/ experiments in
tasks/ to interpret it for any tasks/
the lab
experiments in for tasks/ experiments in
the lab experiments in the lab
the lab
VIva PLO-9 Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates Unable to
extensive knowledge fair knowledge of some demonstrate
of the topic by the topic by knowledge of knowledge of
responding precisely
responding to all the topic by the topic
to all questions
questions responding to
some questions
Total Score in Lab /20

Instructor Signature: _________________

Date: ________________

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB 2

Basic Electrical Engineering (ELEN 03104)

LAB SESSION: 1

INTRODUCTION TO CIRCUIT ANALYSIS LAB

OBJECTIVE:

 To learn the simple rules of safety.

 To learn how to use the DC power supply
 To get familiarize with basic Circuit Lab Equipment and Components

REQUIRED:

 Digital Multimeter
 DC Power Supply
 Bread Board
 Function Generator/Oscilloscope

THEORY:

 We know the location of the first AID supply in your shop or lab. Insist that every cut or
bruise receives immediate attention. Regardless of how miner it seems to be. Notify your
instructor about every accident. He will know what to do.
 If students follows the instruction with a degree of accuracy. These are no serious hazards of
dangers in electro mechanical system of learning. Many people receive fatal shocks every year
from the ordinary 220 volts electricity found in the home.
 A thorough safety program is a “must” for any one working with electricity. Electricity can
be and even final to those who do not understand and practice the simple rules of SAFETY
.the first rule of personal safety is always.
 “”THINK FIRST “”
 This rule applies to all industrial work as well as electrical workers. Develop good habits of
workmanship. Learn to use tools correctly and safely. Always study the job at hand and think
through your procedures. Your methods and the applications of tools, instruments and
machines before acting.
 Never permit yourself to be distracted from your work and never distract another worker
engaged in hazardous work. Don’t be clown! Jokes are fun as so is “horsing around” but never
moving machinery or electricity. There are generally three kinds of accidents which appear all
too frequently among electrical students and technicians. You’re knowing and studying about
them and observing simple rules will make you a safe person to work with. You could
personally be saved from painful and expensive experiences you might be saved to live a
rewarding retirement age.
What about electric shocks? Are they fatal? The physiological effects of electric currents can
generally be predicted by the chart shown in fig.

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB 3

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Fig.1
Notes that it is the currents that do the damages. Currents about 100 mill amperes or only one tenth of
an ampere or fatal. Work man who has contacted currents above 200 mill amperes may live to see
another day if given rapid treatment. Currents bellow 100 mill amperes can be serious and painful. A
safe rule: don’t place yourself in a position to get any kind of shocks.
What about VOLTAGE?
Current depends upon voltage and resistance. Let’s measure your resistance. Using your ohmmeter,
measure your body resistance between these points:
1. From left to right hand………………… ohms (resistance).
2. From hand to foot………………………ohms (resistance) .
Now wet your fingers and repeat the measurements:
1. From right to left hand …………………..ohms (resistance).
2. From hand to foot…………………….ohms (resistance).
The actual resistance varies of course, depending upon the points of contact and, as you have
discovered, the conditions of your skin, the contact area. Notice how your resistance varies as you
squeeze the probes more or less tightly. Skin resistance may vary between 250 ohms for wet skin and

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB 4

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large contact area, to 500.000 ohms for dry skin. Considering the resistance of your body previously
measured 100 mill amperes as a fatal current. What voltage might prove fatal for you to contact.
Use the formula: volts =0.1*ohms
Contact between two hands (dry) volts
Contacts between one hand and foot (wet) volts

DO NOT ATTEMPT TO PROVE THIS!

Nine rules for safe practice and to avoid electric shocks:
1. Be sure of the conditions of the equipment and the dangers present BEFORE working on a piece of
equipment. Many sportsmen are killed by supposedly unloaded guns; many technicians are killed by
supposedly “dead”. Circuits,
2. NEVER rely on safety devices such as fuses, relays and interlock; systems to protect you. They
may not be working and may fail to protect when most needed.
3. NEVER remove the grounding prong of a three wire input plug .this eliminates the grounding
feature of the equipment making it a potential shock hazard.
4. Disorganized mess of connecting leads .component and tools only leads to careless thinking
circuits, shocks and accident s .developed habit synthesis and organized procedure of work
5. Do not work on wet floor .You connect resistance to ground is substances “produced”. work on a
rubber mate are an insulate floor.
6. Do not Work Alone. It’s Just Good To Have Someone Around To Shot Off The Power Give
Artificial Respiration And To Call A Doctor
7. Work With One Hand Behind Are In Your Pocket. A Current In Between A Hand’s Crosses Your
Heart And Can Be More Let Than A Current From Hand To Foot .A Wise Technician Always Work
With One Hand .Watch Your Service Man
8. Never Talk To Anyone While Working .Do Not Let Yourself Distracted. Also Do Not Talk To
Anyone, If He Is Working On Dangerous Equipment .Do Not Be The Cause Of An Accident.
9. Always Move Slowly When Work around Electrical Circuit’s .Violent And Rapid Movements
Leads To Accidental Shock And Shot Circuits.
“BURNS”
Accidents caused by burns although usual not fatal, can be painfully serious. the displacement of
energy produces heat.
Four rules for safe practice and to avoids burns
1. Resistors get very hot especially those who carry high current. Watch those five and ten work
resistors. they will burn the skin of your finger. stay away from them until they cool off.
2. Be on ground for all capacitor which retain a charge. Not only can you get a dangerous and fatal
shot. you may also burn from electrical discharge. if the rate voltage of electrolytic capacitor is
exceeded their polarities reversed they may get very hot may actually burst.
3. Watch that hot soldering iron organ .do not place it on the bench where your arm might accidently
hit it .never store it away while still .some innocent unsuspecting student may pick up.
HOT SOLDER:
HOT SOLDER can be particularly uncomfortable contact with your skin. Wait for soldered joints to
cool. When disordering joints, don’t take hot solder of so that you or your neighbor might get hit in
the eyes on his clothes or body.
MECHNICAL INJURIES:

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB 5

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This third class of safety rolls applies to all students whose work with tools and machinery. It is major
concern of technician and safety lesson or found in correct of the use of tools. Five rolls for safe
practice and to avoid mechanical injury.
1. Metal corners and sharp edges on chassis and panels can cut and scratch.
2. Improper selection of tool for the job can result in equipment damage and personal injury.
3. Use proper eye protection when grinding chipping or working with hot metals.
4. Protect your hand and clothes while working with battery acids and finish fluids.
5. If u don’t know ask your instructor.

Lab Task:

Q1. Investigate the models of Power Supply. Function Generator, Oscilloscope and Digital
Multimeter in the lab.

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

Q2. Briefly describe the specification of above mentioned lab equipment’s. You can take the help
from the manuals of these equipment as well.

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB 6

Basic Electrical Engineering (ELEN 03104)

LAB SESSION: 02

Measurement Methods for finding the Resistance

OBJECTIVE:

Introduction to the Measuring Methods of Resistance

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

 Different Valued Resistors

 DMM (Digital Multimeter)
 Bread Board

THEORY & PROCEDURE:

Method 1: Resistance Measurement using DMM:

1. Resistance is never measured by an ohm-meter in a live network, due to the possibility of

damaging the meter with excessively high currents and obtaining readings that have no
meaning.

2. Always start with the highest range of the instrument and switch down to the proper range
successively.

3. Whenever measuring the resistance of a resistor in a circuit, note whether there are any other
resistive elements that could cause an error in the reading. It may be necessary to disconnect
one side of the resistor before measuring.

4. Check the zero and ohms adjustments each time the range is changed.

5. When making measurements, grip the test probes by the handles as close to the lead end as
possible. Do not allow the fingers to touch the probes tips while measuring.

6. Keep the instruments away from the edge of the workbench, and away from heat and
dangerous fumes.

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7. There is no zero adjustment on a DMM, but make sure that R=0 ohm when the leads are
touching or an adjustment internal to the meter may have to be made. Any resistance above
the maximum for a chosen scale will result in an O.L. indication.

8. The ranges are usually marked as multiples of R. For example,

Rx1 R x 10 R x 100 Rx1k

9. The value of the resistor can be found by multiplying the reading by the range
setting.
For example, a reading of 11 on the R x 1 k Range is 11 x 1 k = 11 k or 11, 000 .

Method 2: Resistance Measuring Using Color Coding:

The resistance of many resistors can be determined by reading a series of colored bands imprinted
on the resistor body. In this scheme called “Resistor Color Code” each colour represents a different
decimal digit, as shown in Table 2 and figure 1

Table 2. Resistor Color Code Chart

The first three bands of the color code are used to specify nominal value of the resistance, and the
fourth, or tolerance band, gives the percent deviation from the nominal value that the actual
resistor may have. Due to manufacturing variations, the actual resistance may be anywhere in
a range equal to the nominal value plus or minus a certain percentage of that value.

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB

Basic Electrical Engineering (ELEN 03104)

Fig 1: Resistors

Calculations:

Resistance Percent Error

S.No. Tolerance
Coded Measured |CR-MR|/CR x 100
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

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9.
10.

Answer the following:

Q1) Is there any difference in measured and calculated value of resistance? If yes then what
could be the reason?

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB

 LAB SESSION: 03

TO INVESTIGAGE THE OHM’S LAW

OBJECTIVE:

 To perform an experimental check of Ohm's Law

 To practice constructing electric circuits
 To practice using an ammeter and a voltmeter

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

 Different Valued Resistors

 DMM (Digital Multimeter), DC Power Supply
 Bread Board and connecting wires

THEORY & PROCEDURE:

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance one
arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage measured across the
conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More
specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in 1827,
described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits containing
various lengths of wire. Ohm explained his experimental results by a slightly more complex equation
than the modern form above.
 Construct a data table like the sample data table shown above.

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  Apply the voltage connect the circuit as shown in the figure below. Measure the current in the
circuit using DMM. (Remember to set the probe of the DMM at current option while
measuring), after that find the voltage across the resistor.
 Find the power across the resistor and note the readings in the table.
 Carefully read the voltage across the resistor, R, and the current through the resistor, I, and
record them in your data table. Draw the graph between voltage and current on the graph
attached in the end. Find the resistance from the values of voltage and current and verify your
answer with the resistance value selected during the experiment.

BREADBOARD:
A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No soldering is
required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will not be damaged, so
they will be available to re-use afterwards. Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life on a
breadboard to check that the circuit worked as intended.

CONNECTIONS ON BREADBOARD
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most
components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their
notch or dot to the left. Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm

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diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a
hole and it may damage the board if strands break off.

The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are

connected:
The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the
way across as shown by the red and black lines on the
diagram. The power supply is connected to these rows, +
at the top and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom. The other
holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link
across the centre as shown by the blue lines on the
diagram. Notice how there are separate blocks of
connections to each pin of ICs.

Resistance Value R = ____________ Ω

Current Current Voltage
DC Source Current Voltage
S.No. Measured Calculated Across P= VI
Voltage (V) Error Error
Im (mA) Ic (mA) Resistor (V)
1. `

2.

3.

4.

5.

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 6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Q1. If I vs. V is plotted, what value is obtained from the slope?

Q2. Make a graph of your data for the known resistance, with voltage on the x-axis and current on
the y-axis. Draw a best fit line. Are you able to conclude that the amount of current is proportional to
the applied voltage? Why or why not?

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Q3. When Ohm’s Law is valid, the definition of resistance is the ratio of applied voltage to the
amount of current produced by that voltage, in units of volts/amperes or Ohms (Ω). What is your
measured value of resistance based upon your graph from question 1? Calculate the percent error
between your measured value and the given value of your known resistance and show that calculation

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB 14

 Calculations

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB 15

Basic Electrical Engineering (ELEN 03104)

LAB SESSION: 04

TO VERIFY EXPERIMENTALLY KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

OBJECTIVE:
 To find the voltage across each resistor
 To verify the KVL measured and calculated.

REQUIRED:

 DC Power Supply.
 DMM, Breadboard, Connecting Wires
 Resistors

INTRODUCTION:
Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of
electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). It states that

"The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero"

V 0

If this were not the case, then when we travel around a closed loop, the voltages would be indefinite.
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 1. The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the
terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any branch and go around
the loop either clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with the voltage source and go
clockwise around the loop as shown; then voltages would be −v1,+v2,+v3,−v4, and +v5, in that order.
For example, as we reach branch 3, the positive terminal is met first; hence we have+v3. For branch
4, we reach the negative terminal first; hence, −v4. Thus, KVL yields

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Figure 1

−v1 + v2 + v3 − v4 + v5 = 0

Rearranging terms gives

v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4, which may be interpreted as

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

Consider the simple series circuit Fig. 2. Here we have numbered the points in the circuit for
voltage reference.

Figure 2

As we are dealing with dc circuits, therefore we should carefully connect the voltmeter while
measuring voltage across supply or any of the resistances as shown in fig. above, keeping in mind
the similarity of polarities of voltage across the element and that of the connected probes of meter.

Procedure:

Task 1:

 Draw the circuit as shown in the figure 3 below.

 Measure the resistance and values of voltage across each resistor and record in table 1
 Verify that input voltage is equal to the sum of the voltages across the resistors
 Then verify the results using ohms law and record in table 2.

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R1 R2 R3

V1 R4

Figure 3

Applied Voltage Across each Total

Measured Resistance
Voltage Resistor (Measured) V Voltage
V1 R1 R2 R3 R4 VR1 VR2 VR3 VR4 V

Table 1. Measured Values

Q1. Compare the applied voltage with the voltage across each resistor from the able above. Is the
KVL verified? Comment

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Calculations:

Applied Voltage Across each Total

Voltage Resistor (Calculated) V Voltage
V1 VR1 VR2 VR3 VR4

Table 2. Calculated Values

Dept. of Civil Engineering, IUB 19

Basic Electrical Engineering (ELEN 03104)

LAB SESSION: 05

TO INVESTIGATE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SERIES CIRCUIT

OBJECTIVE:

 To find the voltages, Current and power across each resistor

 To verify Equivalent Series Resistance
 To verify Voltage Divider Rule
REQUIRED:

 DC Power Supply.
 DMM, Breadboard, Connecting Wires
 Resistors

THEORY:
Series Resistors and Voltage Division
The need to combine resistors in series or in parallel occurs so frequently that it warrants special
attention. The process of combining the resistors is facilitated by combining two of them at a time.
Consider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 1. The two resistors are in series, since the same current i
flows in both. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain:

Figure 1
If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have

Thus, Fig. 1 can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2. The two circuits in Figs. 1 and 2 are
equivalent because they exhibit the same voltage-current relationships at the terminals a-b. An

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equivalent circuit such as the one in Fig. 2. is useful in simplifying the analysis of a circuit. In
general,

Figure 2.

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the individual
resistances.

Voltage Divider Rule:

The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their resistances; the larger
the resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division, and the
circuit in Fig. 1 is called a voltage divider. In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors in series
with the source voltage v, the nth resistors (R1, R2, . . . , RN) will have a voltage drop of

Procedure:
1. Draw the circuit as shown in the figure 1, take three resistances in series.
2. Note the value of the resistance in the table below.
3. Find the values of circuit current, power and voltage across each resistor.
4. Now remove the source and find the equivalent series resistance by placing the DMM at the
ab terminals of the circuit in figure 1. Verify the results by doing theoretical calculations and
note in table.
5. Now verify VDR by finding the voltage across each resistor using DMM and then applying the VDR formula.
Input Resistance Measured Calculate Voltage across Circuit Power Across across
Voltag values Req d Req Each R (V) Curren Each R (W)
e Measured t (mA)
P(R1 P(R2 P(R3)
V R1 R2 R3 Req Req VR1 VR2 VR3 I
) )

6. Change the input voltage and resistance value and note the values in the table below.

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LAB SESSION: 06

TO VERIFY EXPERIMENTALLY KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

OBJECTIVE:

 To verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law.

REQUIRED:

 DC Power Supply.
 DMM, Breadboard, Connecting Wires
 Resistors

THEORY:
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the
algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change. It states that:

"Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering
a node (or a closed boundary) is zero."

Mathematically, KCL implies that

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while
currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.

To prove KCL, assume a set of currents ik(t ), k = 1, 2, . . . , flow into a node. The algebraic sum
of currents at the node is

iT (t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t)+· · ·

qT (t) = q1(t) + q2(t) + q3(t)+· · ·

But the law of conservation of electric charge requires that the algebraic sum of electric charges at
the node must not change; that is, the node stores no net charge. Thus qT (t) = 0 → iT (t) = 0,
confirming the validity of KCL.

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Figure 1

Consider the node in Fig 1. Applying KCL gives

i1 + (−i2) + i3 + i4 + (−i5) = 0

Since currents i1, i3, and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it. By
rearranging the terms, we get

i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.
Note that KCL also applies to a closed boundary. This may be regarded as a generalized case,
because a node may be regarded as a closed surface shrunk to a point. In two dimensions, a closed
boundary is the same as a closed path. As typically illustrated in the circuit of Fig 2, the total
current entering the closed surface is equal to the total current leaving the surface.

Figure 2

A simple application of KCL is combining current sources in parallel. The combined current is the
algebraic sum of the current supplied by the individual sources. For example, the current sources
shown in Fig 3. can be combined as in Fig 4. The combined or equivalent current source can be
found by applying KCL to node a.

IT + I2 = I1 + I3
IT = I1 − I2 + I3

A circuit cannot contain two different currents, I1 and I2, in series, unless I1 = I2; otherwise KCL
will be violated.

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Figure 3

Figure 4

Task:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 5. Below. Use any values of Resistors
(R1,R2,R3) available.
 Apply appropriate input voltage at the input
 Measure the value of current flowing in each branch with DMM, and record in the table
 Measure the voltages across each resistor
 Verify KCL after finding the currents in the above step

Diagram:

Figure 5.

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Current though each Total Voltage Across Each

Input
Resistance R R (mA) Curren R (V)
Voltage
t
V R1 R2 R3 IR1 IR2 IR3 I VR1 VR2 VR3

Q1. Compare the total current supplied and the current across each resister. Does the KCL is
verified?

Q2 Reverse the DMM probes and measure the current across each resistor. Comment on the
change in current, is KCL Still verified?
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__

Calulation:

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LAB SESSION: 07

TO INVETIGATGE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DC PARALLEL CIRCUIT

OBJECTIVE:

 To verify Equivalent Parallel Resistance

 To verify Current Divider Rule
REQUIRED:

 DC Power Supply.
 DMM, Breadboard, Connecting Wires
 Resistors

THEORY:
Consider the circuit in Fig. 1, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the
same voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,

Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as

Figure 1

Substituting we get

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The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their resistances divided
by their sum. We can extend the result in above equation to the general case of a circuit with N
resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance is

Current Divider Rule:

Given the total current i entering node a in Fig. 1, We know that the equivalent resistor has the same
voltage, or

Combining the above equations, we get:

Procedure:
1. Draw the circuit as shown in the figure 1, take three resistances in parallel.
2. Note the value of the resistance in the table below.
3. Find the values of circuit current, power and voltage across each resistor.
4. Now remove the source and find the equivalent series resistance by placing the DMM at the
terminals of the circuit in figure 1. Verify the results by doing theoretical calculations and
note in table.
5. Now verify CDR by finding the Current flowing in each resistor using DMM and then applying the CDR
formula.
Input Resistance Measured Calculate Current though Circuit Power Across across
Voltag values Req d Req each R (mA) Voltage Each R (W)
e Measured (V)
P P P
V R1 R2 R3 Req Req IR1 IR2 IR3 V
(R1) (R2) (R3)

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6. Change the input voltage and resistance value and note the values in the table below.

Q: From the table above does the power supplied and power dissipated across each resister is same?
Comment
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Calculations

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LAB SESSION: 8

INTRODUCTION TO MULTISIM (ELECTRONIC WORKBENCH)

OBJECTIVE:

 To get familiarize with the working of Electronic Workbench

 To learn, capture and develop network circuits and investigate the Current/Voltage across
network Elements.

REQUIRED:

 MULTISIM Software
 DC Power Supply.
 DMM, Breadboard, Connecting Wires
 Resistors

THEORY

NI Multisim (formerly MultiSIM) is an electronic schematic capture and simulation program which is
part of a suite of circuit design programs, along with NI Ultiboard. Multisim is one of the few circuit
design programs to employ the original Berkeley SPICE based software simulation. Multisim was
originally created by a company named Electronics Workbench, which is now a division of National
Instruments. Multisim includes microcontroller simulation (formerly known as MultiMCU), as well
as integrated import and export features to the Printed Circuit Board layout software in the suite, NI
Ultiboard.
Multisim is widely used in academia and industry for circuits education, electronic schematic design
and SPICE simulation. Multisim was originally called Electronics Workbench and created by a
company called Interactive Image Technologies. At the time, it was mainly used as an educational
tool to teach electronics technician and electronics engineering programs in colleges and universities.
National Instruments has maintained this educational legacy, with a specific version of Multisim with
features developed for teaching electronics. In 1999, Multisim was integrated with Ultiboard after the
original company merged with Ultimate Technology, a PCB layout software company.

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Following is the interface of the MULTISIM.

 The Menu Bar is where you find commands for all functions.
 The Design Toolbox is where you navigate through the different types of files in a project
(schematics, PCBs, reports), view a schematic’s hierarchy and show or hide different layers.
 The Component toolbar contains buttons that you use to select components from the Multisim
databases for placement in your schematic.
 The Standard toolbar contains buttons for commonly-performed functions such as Save, Print,
Cut, and Paste.
 The View toolbar contains buttons for modifying the way the screen is displayed.
 The Simulation toolbar contains buttons for starting, stopping, and other simulation functions.
 The Main toolbar contains buttons for common Multisim functions.
 The In Use List contains a list of all components used in the design.

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 The Instruments toolbar contains buttons for each instrument.

 The Circuit Window (or workspace) is where you build your circuit designs.
 The Spreadsheet View allows fast advanced viewing and editing of parameters including
component details such as footprints, RefDes, attributes and design constraints. You can
change parameters for some or all components in one step and perform a number of other
functions

Opening and Saving the File

Complete the following step to launch Multisim: 11.

Select Start»All Programs»National Instruments»Circuit Design Suite 11.0»Multisim 11.0.

A blank file opens on the workspace called Design1.
Complete the following steps to save the file with a new name:
1. Select File»Save As to display a standard Windows Save dialog.
2. Navigate to the location where you wish the file to reside, enter MyGettingStarted as the filename,
and click the Save button.

Placing the Components:

Complete the following steps to start placing components:

1. Open MyGettingStarted.ms11 as described above.
2. Select Place»Component to display the Select a Component dialog box, navigate to the resistor and
click OK. The component appears as a “ghost” on the cursor.
3. Move the cursor to the bottom-right of the workspace and left-click to place the component.
When placing resistors, inductors, or capacitors (RLC components), the Select a Component dialog
box has slightly different fields than for other components. When placing these components, you can
choose any combination of: the component’s value (for example, the resistance value); type (for
example, carbon film); tolerance; footprint and manufacturer. If you are placing a component that will
be ultimately exported to PCB layout, and become part of a Bill of Materials, you must be careful that
the combination of values that you select in the Select a Component dialog box are available in a real-

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world, purchasable component.

1. Open/Create Schematic

A blank schematic Circuit 1 is automatically created. To create a new schematic click on File –
New – Schematic Capture. To save the schematic click on File /Save As. To open an existing file
click on File/ Open in the toolbar.

2. Place Components
To Place Components click on Place/Components. On the Select Component Window click on Group to
select the components needed for the circuit. Click OK to
place the component on the schematic.

Figure 1: Select Resistor Figure 2: Select DC voltage

For example to select resistors and the DC source shown in Figure 3 click on Place/ Components. In
Group select Basic scroll down to Resistors and select the value of the resistor needed to construct the
circuit, for this example select 1k. To place DC source click on Sources in Group and select DC Source. As
shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively.

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Figure 3: DC Source &

Resistors
Virtual Components
Components can also be
place on the circuit using
Virtual
components . Click on
View – Toolbars and
select the toolbar
needed for the circuit.

Figure 4: Virtual Components

4. Rotate Components
To rotate the components right click on the
Resistor to flip the component on 90 Clockwise (Ctrl
+R) and 90 Counter Clockwise (Ctrl+Shift+R).

Figure 5: Rotate Components

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5. Place Wire/Connect Components

To connect resistors click on Place/Wire drag and place the wire. Components can also be connected by
clicking the mouse over the terminal edge of one component and dragging to the edge of another
component. Reference Figure 6.

Figure 6:
Place/ Wire
6.
Change

Component Values
To change component values double click on the component this brings up a window that display the
properties of the component. Reference Figure 7. Change R1 from 1k Ohm to 10 Ohms, R2 to 20 Ohms,
R3 to 30 Ohms, and R4 to 40 Ohms. Also change the DV source from 0 V to 20 V. Figure 8 shows the
completed circuit

Figure
7: Change

Component Values

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Figure 8: Completed
Circuits

7. Grounding:
All circuits must be grounded before the circuit can be simulated. Click on Ground in the toolbar to
ground the circuit. If the circuit is not grounded Multisim will not run the simulation.

Ground

Figure 9: Grounding

8. Simulation:

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To simulate the completed circuit Click on Simulate/Run or F5. This feature can also be accessed
from the toolbar as shown in the Figure 10 below.

RU STOP
PAUS

Figure 10: Simulation

Analyzing Components

Multisim offers multiple ways to analyze the circuit using virtual instruments. Some of the basic
instruments needed for this lab are described below.

1) Multimeter
Use the Multimeter to measure AC or DC voltage or current, and resistance or decibel loss between
two nodes in a circuit. To use the Multimeter click on the Multimeter button in the Instruments
toolbar and click to place its icon on the workspace. Double-click on the icon to open the instrument
face, which is used to enter settings and view measurements.

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Figure 11: Multimeter

To measure Voltage place multimeter in Parallel with the component (Resistor, Voltage etc). To
measure Current place the multimeter in series with the component. Reference the Figure 12 and 13.

Figure 12: Measure Voltage Figure 13: Measure Current

2) Wattmeter
The wattmeter measures power. It is used to measure the magnitude of the active power, that is, the
product of the voltage difference and the current flowing through the current terminals in a circuit.

Insert in series with the Load

Connect in Parallel with the

Load

Figure 14: Wattmeter

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To use the instrument, click on the Wattmeter button in the Instruments toolbar and click to place its
icon on the workspace. The icon is used to wire the Wattmeter to the circuit. Double-click on the icon
to open the instrument face, which is used to enter settings and view measurements. Reference Figure
15 for more details.

Figure 15: Wattmeter Connection

3) Ammeter:
The ammeter offers advantages over the multimeter for measuring current in a circuit. It takes up less
space in a circuit and you can rotate its terminals to suit your layout. Always connect the ammeter in
series with the load. To place Ammeter click on View--- Toolbar --- Select Measurement
Components. See Figure 16 on how to use the Ammeter.

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Figure 16: Ammeter

4) Voltmeter
The Voltmeter offers advantages over the multimeter for measuring voltage in a circuit. Always
connect the voltmeter in parallel with the load. The voltmeter can be found in the measurement
toolbar.

Ammete

Figure 17: Voltmeter

Q1. Connect the circuit as shown in the
figure below. Find the unknown current,
voltage and power across each resistive element.

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R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
Resistance
VR
IR
PR

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LAB SESSION: 9

INTRODUCTION TO ENERY STORAGE ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE:

1. To acquire basic knowledge of Capacitors and Inductors

2. To measure the Current/Voltage and Energy in Passive elements.

REQUIRED:

 MULTISIM Software
 DC Power Supply.
 DMM, Breadboard, Connecting Wires
 Resistors

THEORY

A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field.
The unit of capacitance is the farad (coulomb/volt). Practical capacitor values usually lie in the
picofarad (1 pF = 10-12 F) to microfarad (1 µF = 10-6 F) range. Recall that a current is a flow of
charges. When current flows into one plate of a capacitor, the charges don't pass through (although to
maintain local charge balance, an equal number of the same polarity charges leave the other plate of
the device) but instead accumulate on that plate, increasing the voltage across the capacitor. The
voltage V across the capacitor (capacitance C) is directly proportional to the charge Q stored on the
plates:

The diagram below shows the charge storage in capacitor.

Figure 1

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Since Q is the integration of current over time, we can write:

Differentiating this equation, we obtain the I-V characteristic equation for a capacitor:

The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many capacitor types are
in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of
metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film,
sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper,
mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. The picture below
shows different types of capacitor.

Figure 2.

The energy stored on a capacitor can be expressed in terms of the work done by the battery. Voltage
represents energy per unit charge, so the work to move a charge element dq from the negative plate to
the positive plate is equal to V dq, where V is the voltage on the capacitor. The voltage V is
proportional to the amount of charge which is already on the capacitor. If Q is the amount of charge
stored when the whole battery voltage appears across the capacitor, then the stored energy is obtained
from the integral:
W = ½ CV2
Inductors:

An inductor is a passive electronic device that stores energy in a magnetic field. The unit of
inductance is the henry (volt-second/ampere). Practical values of inductance range from one
microhenry (1µH = 1 x 10-6 H) to one henry (1 H). Inductors are usually made by highly coiled

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wires, in which changing current generate a magnetic field. By Lenz’s Law, the changing magnetic
flux produces a back-EMF (electromotive force), or a potential in the opposite direction of current
flow and magnetic flux. While capacitors act to oppose changes in voltage, inductors oppose changes
in current. The voltage v(t) across an inductor (with inductance L) is equal to the inductance
multiplied by the change in current, di(t)/dt through the inductor:

Figure below shows the basic working principle of inductor.

Figure 3. Basic Inductor

When the current flowing through an change, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor, described by Faraday's law of induction. According to Lenz's law, the direction of induced
electromotive force (e.m.f.) opposes the change in current that created it. As a result, inductors
oppose any changes in current through them.

Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio
equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this
purpose are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different
frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV
receivers. Figure 4 below shows various type of inductors.

The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor can be expressed as

W = ½ LI2

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Figure 4. Inductors.

Lab Task:

1. Construct the circuit as shown in the figure 4. Below, on breadboard

2. Take appropriate values of inductor/ capacitor available in the lab.
3. Find the voltage, current and energy in each passive element and record in the table.

Applied voltage: _______ V

VR1 VR2 VR3 VC VL I Ic IL

Q1. Comment on the current through the capacitor if it is zero state why?

_________________________________________________________________________________

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Q2. What is the value of circuit current and inductor current, are they equal? If yes tell the reason.

_________________________________________________________________________________

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LAB SESSION: 10
4
AC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVE:

1. To acquire basic knowledge of AC Circuits.

2. To measure the Current/Voltage across the Network Elements.

REQUIRED:

 MULTISIM Software
 DC Power Supply.
 DMM, Breadboard, Connecting Wires
 Resistors

THEORY

A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a current reverse at regular
time intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current
or voltage sources are called ac circuits. We are interested in sinusoids for many reasons. First, nature
itself is characteristically sinusoidal. We experience sinusoidal variation in the motion of a pendulum,
the vibration of a string, the ripples on the ocean surface, and the natural response of underdamped
second order systems, to mention but a few. Second, a sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and
transmit. It is the form of voltage generated throughout the world and supplied to homes, factories,
laboratories, and so on. It is the dominant form of signal in the communications and electric power
industries. Third, through Fourier analysis, any practical periodic signal can be represented by a sum
of sinusoids. Sinusoids, therefore, play an important role in the analysis of periodic signals. Lastly, a
sinusoid is easy to handle mathematically. The derivative and integral of a sinusoid are themselves
sinusoids. For these and other reasons, the sinusoid is an extremely important function in circuit
analysis.
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

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Consider the sinusoidal voltage

Where

The sinusoid is shown in figure 1. as a function of its argument and in Figure 2. as a function of time.
It is evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds; thus, T is called the period of the
sinusoid. From the two plots, we observe that

Figure 1. Figure 2.

Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements:

The table below shows the phasor relationships of network elements.

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Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in the figure below in Multisim

2. . The AC source can be found in the following option. Go to the tab PLACE 
COMPONENT then select Signal voltage source

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3. Double click the ac_voltage tab, the following menu will appear. Insert the values as shown in
the figure. For the frequency as w =4 rad/s. convert to f=w/(2pi) = 0.63 Hz.

Now to find the magnitude and phase of the voltage across the inductor. First click the simulat tab 
Analyses and simulation.

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Click the Single frequency AC. In the frequency tab click auto detect. Now go to output tab and select
V(2) as it indicates the voltage across the inductor.

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Now after clicking the V(2) click the add button in the middle and then click the run button.

This window shows the magnitude and phase value of the voltage across the inductor v(2) and the
v(1) that is the applied voltage.

Qs. Construct the circuit as shown in the figure below. Find the phase voltages and current across
each element present. Attach the snapshots of your work. Assume vs(t) = 20cos(100t-40o)

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LAB SESSION: 11
4

Understanding the Diode Characteristics

Objective
To calculate, compare, draw, and measure the characteristics of silicon and germanium diodes.
Equipment Required
Instruments DMM

Resistors: 1k,
1m
Components
Diodes: Si, Ge
Supplies : DC Power Supply
Résumé of Theory
Most modern day digital multimeters can be used to determine the operating condition of a
diode. They have a scale denoted by a diode symbol that indicates the condition of a diode in
the forward- and reverse-bias regions. If connected to establish a forward-bias condition, the
meter will display the forward voltage across the diode at a current level typically in the
neighborhood of 2 mA. If connected to establish a reverse-bias condition, an“OL” should appear
on the display to support the open-circuit approximation frequently applied to this region. If
the meter does not have the diode checking capability, the condition of the diode can also be
checked by obtaining some measure of the resistance level in the forwardand reverse bias
regions. Both techniques for checking a diode will be introduced in the first part of the
experiment.

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Figure 1-1: Silicon and Germanium Diode Characteristics

The current–volt characteristics of a silicon or germanium diode have the general shape shown
in Fig. 1.1. Note the change in scale for both the vertical and horizontal axes. In the reverse-
biased region the reverse saturation currents are fairly constant from 0 V to the Zener potential.
In the forward-bias region the current increases quite rapidly with increasing diode voltage.
Note that the curves are rising almost vertically at a forward-biased voltage of less than 1 V. The
forward-biased diode current will be limited solely by the network in which the diode is
connected or by the maximum current or power rating of the diode.

The firing or thr

eshold voltage is determined by extending a straight line tangent to thecurves until it hits the
horizontal axis. The intersection with theVDaxis will determine the threshold voltage VTat which
the current begins to rise rapidly.

Figure 1-2: AC resistance

The DC or static resistance of a diode at any point on the characteristics is determined by the
ratio of the diode voltage at that point, divided by the diode current. That is,

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The AC resistance at a particular diode current or voltage can be determined using a tangent
line drawn as shown in Fig. 1.2. The resulting voltage (V) and current (I) deviations can then
be used to find AC resistance as follows:

The application of differential calculus shows that the AC resistance of a diode in the vertical-
rise section of the characteristics is given by

For levels of current at and below the knee of the curve, the AC resistance of a silicon diode is
better approximated by

Part 1 – Diode Test

a) The diode-testing scale of a DMM can be used to determine operating condition of a diode.
With one polarity, DMM should provide the “firing potential” of diode, while the reverse
connection should result in an “OL” response to support open-circuit approximation.
b) Using the connections shown in Fig. 1.3, the constant-current source of about 2 mA internal
to the meter will forward bias the junction, and a voltage of about 0.7 V will be obtained for
silicon and 0.3 V (300 mV) for germanium. If leads are reversed, you’ll see OL.

Figure 1-3: Diode Testing: Forward Bias

c) If a low reading (less than 1 V) is obtained in both directions, the junction is shorted internally. If
an OL indication is obtained in both directions, the junction is open. Perform the tests for silicon
and germanium diodes and record your readings below:
Test Si Ge
Forward
Reverse
d) Based on the results, are both diodes in good condition?

Resistance Scales
As indicated in the theory section of this experiment, the condition of a diode can also be checked
using the resistance scales of a volt ohm meter (VOM) or digital meter. Using the appropriate scales

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of the VOM or DMM, determine the resistance levels of the forward and reverse biasregions of the Si
and Ge diodes. Enter the results in following table:
Test Si Ge Meter
Forward VOM
Reverse DMM
Although the firing potential is not revealed using the resistance scales, a “good” diode will
result in a lower resistance level in the forward bias state and a much higher resistance level
when reverse-biased. Based on the results, are both diodes in good condition?

Part 2 – Forward Bias Diode Characteristics

a) In this part of the experiment we will obtain sufficient data to plot the forward-bias
characteristics of the silicon and germanium diodes.Construct the network of Fig 1. 4 with
the supply (E) set at 0 V. Record the measured value of the resistor.

+ VR -

+
R = 1 kΩ
Supply (E)
DC Power

VD
Si
ID

Figure 1-4: Forward bias diode characteristics

b) Increase the supply voltage E until VR (not E) reads 0.1 V. Then measure VD and insert its
voltage in following table. Calculate the value of corresponding current ID:

VR (V) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VD (V)
(mA)

c) Replace the silicon diode by a germanium diode and complete the table below:

VR (V) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VD (V)
(mA)

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d) On Fig. 1.5, plot ID versus VD for the silicon and germanium diodes. Complete the curves by
extending the lower region of each curve to the intersection of the axis at and
.Label each curve and clearly indicate data points. Be neat!

Figure 1-5: Plot diode characteristics

e) How do the two curves differ? What are their similarities?

Part 3 – Reverse Bias Diode Characteristics

a) In Fig. 1.6 a reverse-bias condition has been established. Since the reverse saturation
current will be relatively small, a large resistance of 1 Mis required if the voltage across R
is to be of measurable amplitude. Construct the circuit of Fig. 1.6 and record the measured
value of R .
- VR +

R = 1 MΩ
- VD +

Si
E 20 V
IS
Figure 1-6: Reverse bias diode characteristics
b) Measure the voltage VR. Calculate the reverse saturation current from

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The internal resistance (Rm) of the DMM is included because of the large magnitude of the
resistanceR. Your instructor will provide the internal resistance of the DMM for your
calculations. If unavailable, use a typical value of 10 M.
RM =_____________
VR (measured) =_____________
IS (calculated) =_____________

c) Repeat Part 3(b) for the germanium diode.

VR (measured) =_____________
IS (calculated) =_____________
d) How do the resulting levels of IS for silicon and germanium compare?

e) Determine the DC resistance levels for the silicon and germanium diodes using the equation
given below:

RDC (calculated) (Si) =____________

RDC (calculated) (Ge) =____________

f) Are the resistance levels sufficiently high to be considered open circuitequivalents if

appearing in series with resistors in the low kΩ range?

Part 4 – DC Resistance
a) Using the Si curve of Fig. 1.5, determine the diode voltage at the diode current levels
indicated in the table below. Then determine the DC resistance at each current level. Show
all calculations.

ID (mA) VD (V) RDC (Ω)

0.2
1
5
10

b) Repeat Part (a) for germanium and complete the following table

ID (mA) VD (V) RDC (Ω)

0.2
1
5
10

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c) Does the resistance (for Si and Ge) change as the diode current increases and we move up
the vertical-rise section of the characteristics?

Part 5 – Firing Potential

Graphically determine the firing potential (threshold voltage) of each diode from its
characteristics as defined in theory. Show the straight-line approximations on Fig. 1.5.
VT (silicon) =___________
VT (germanium) =___________

Questions
a) Compare the characteristics of silicon and germanium in the forward- and reverse-bias
regions. In particular, which diode is closer to the short-circuit approximation in the
forward-bias region and which is closer to the open-circuit approximation in the reverse-
bias region? How are they similar and what are their mostnoticeable differences?

b) Research the effect of heat on the terminal resistance of semiconductor materials and briefly
review why the terminal resistance will decrease with the application of heat.

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LAB SESSION: 12
4
Implementation of Diode Configuration
Objective
 To analyze networks with diodes in a series or parallel configuration
 To calculate and measure the circuit voltages of various diode circuits
Equipment Required
Instruments DMM

Resistors: 1k, 2.2

k
Components
Diodes: Si, Ge
Supplies : DC Power Supply
Résumé of Theory
The analysis of circuits with diodes and a DC input requires that the state of the diodes first be
determined. For silicon diodes (with a transition voltage or “firing potential” of 0.7 V), the
voltage across the diode must be at least 0.7 V with the polarity appearing in Fig. 2.1a for the
diode to be in the “on” state. Once the voltage across the diode reaches 0.7 V the diode will turn
“on” and have the electrical equivalent of Fig. 2.1b. For VD< 0.7 V or for voltages with the
opposite polarity of Fig. 2.1a, the diode can be approximated as an open circuit. For germanium
diodes, replace the transition voltage by the germanium value of 0.3 V.

In most networks where the applied DC voltage exceeds the transition voltage of the diodes, the
state of the diode can usually be determined simply by mentally replacing the diode by a
resistor and determining the directionof current through the resistor. If the direction matches
the arrowhead of the diode symbol, the diode is in the “on” state, and if the opposite, it is in the
“off” state. Once the state is determined, simply replace the diode by thetransition voltage or
open circuit and analyze the rest of the network.
ID

0.7 V
+ VD > 0.7 -

0 0.7
VD
(a) (b)
Figure 2-7 Forward-biased silicon diodes

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Be alert to the location of the output voltage V O = VR = IRR. This is particularly helpful in
situations where a diode is in an open-circuit condition and the current is zero. For I R = 0, VO =
VR = IRR = 0(R) = 0 V. In addition, an open circuit can have a voltage across it, but the current is
zero. Further, a short circuit has a zero-volt drop across it, but the current I limited only by the
external network or limitations of the diode.

The analysis of logic gates requires that one make an assumption about the state of the diodes,
determine the various voltage levels, and then determine whether the results violate any basic
laws, such as that a point ina network (such as V O) can have only one voltage level. It is usually
helpful to keep in mind that there must be a forward-bias voltage across a diode equal to the
transition voltage to turn it “on.” Once V O is determined and no lawsare violated with the diodes
in their assumed state, a solution to the configuration can be assumed.

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Part 1 – Threshold Voltage

For both the silicon and the germanium diode, determine the threshold using the diode-
checking capability of the DMM or a curve tracer. For this experiment the “firing voltages”
obtained will establish the equivalent characteristics for each diode appearing in Fig. 2.2.
Record the value of VT obtained for each diode in Fig. 2.2. If the diode-checking capability or
curve tracer is unavailable, assume VT = 0.7 V for silicon and VT = 0.3 V for germanium.
ID ID
Si Ge

VD VD
0 0
VT = ---------- VT = ----------
Figure 2-8: Firing voltage for silicon and germanium.
Part 2 – Series Configuration
a) Construct the circuit of Fig. 2.3. Record the measured value of R.
+ VD -
ID

+
Si

VO
R 2.2 kΩ
E 5V -

Rmeas = --------
Figure 2-9: Series configuration
b) Using the firing voltages of the Si and Ge diodes as measured in Part 1 and the measured
resistance for R, calculate the theoretical values of VO and ID. Insert the level of VT for VD.
VD=________________________
VO (calculated) =___________________
ID (calculated) =____________________

c) Measure the voltages VD and VO, using the DMM. Calculate the current ID from measured
values. Compare with the results of Part (B).
VD (measured)=________________________
VO (measured) =___________________
ID (from measured)= VO/R = ____________________

d) Construct the circuit of Fig. 2.4. Record the measured values for each resistor.

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R1 + VD -
ID

+
2.2 kΩ Si

VO
R2 1 kΩ
E 5V

-
R1 meas = -------- R2 meas = --------
Figure 2-10: Series configuration

e) Using the measured values of VD and VO from Part 1 and the measured resistance values for
R1 and R2, calculate the theoretical values of VO and ID. Insert the level of VT for VD.
VD=________________________
VO (calculated) =___________________
ID (calculated) =____________________

f) Measure the voltages VD and VO, using the DMM. Calculate the current ID from measured
values. Compare with the results of step 2(e).
VD (measured)=________________________
VO (measured) =___________________
ID (from measured)= VO/R2 = ____________________

g) Reverse the silicon diode in Fig. 2.4 and calculate theoretical values of VD, VO, and ID.
VD=________________________
VO (calculated) =___________________
ID (calculated) =____________________

h) Measure VD and VO for the conditions of Part 2(g). Calculate the current I D from measured
values. Compare with the results of Part 2(g).
VD (measured)=________________________
VO (measured) =___________________
ID (from measured)= VO/R2 = ____________________

i) Construct the network of Fig. 2.5. Record the measured value of R.

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+ V1 -
VO
ID
Si Ge
R 2.2 kΩ
E 5V

Rmeas = --------

Figure 2-11: Series combination of Si and Ge diodes

j) Using the firing voltages of the silicon and germanium diodes as measured in Part 1,
calculate the theoretical values of V1 (across both diodes), Vo, and ID.
V1=________________________
VO (calculated) =___________________
ID (calculated) =____________________

k) Measure V1 and Vo, and compare to the results of Part 2(j).Calculate the current I D from
measured values and compare to thelevel of Part 2(j).
V1 (measured)=________________________
VO (measured) =___________________
ID (from measured)= VO/R2 = ____________________

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Part 3 – Parallel Configuration

a) Construct the network of Fig. 2.6. Record the measured value of R.
+ VR - Rmeas = --------

+
R = 2.2 kΩ

VO
Si Ge
E 5V

-
Figure 2-12: Parallel Configuration
b) Using the firing voltages of the silicon and germanium diodes as measured in Part 1,
calculate the theoretical values of VO and VR.
VO (calculated) =_________________
VR (calculated) =_________________
c) Measure VO and VR and compare with the results of Part 3(b).
VO (measured) =_________________
VR (measured) =_________________
d) Construct the network of Fig.2. 7. Record the measured value of each resistor.
+ VR1 -

+
R1 = 2.2 kΩ
VO
Si R2 1 kΩ
E 5V
-

R1 meas = -------- R2 meas = --------

Figure 2-13: Parallel Configuration
e) Using the firing voltages of the silicon diode as measured in Part 1, calculate the theoretical
values of VO, VR1, and ID.
VO(calculated) =__________
VR1 (calculated) =__________
ID (calculated) =__________
f) Measure VO and VR1. Using the measured values of V O and VR1,calculate IR2 and IR1 and
determine ID. Compare to the results ofPart 3(e).
VO (measured) =__________
VR1 (measured) =__________
ID (from measured) =__________
g) Construct the network of Fig. 2.8. Record the measured value of the resistor.

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+ VR - Rmeas = --------

+
R = 2.2 kΩ

VO
Si Ge
E 5V

-
Figure 2-14: Parallel Configuration

h) Using the firing voltages of the silicon and germanium diodes as measured in Part 1,
calculate the theoretical values of VO and VR.
VO (calculated) =_________________
VR (calculated) =_________________

i) Measure VO and VR and compare with the results of Part 3(h).

VO (measured) =_________________
VR (measured) =_________________

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LAB SESSION: 13
4
Basic Electrical Engineering (ELEN 03104)

Understanding Half Wave and Full Wave Rectification

Objective
To calculate, draw, and measure DC output voltages of half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuits.
Equipment Required
Instruments Oscilloscope, DMM

Resistors: 2.2 k, 3.3 k

Components Diodes: Si
Supplies : Function Generator
Miscellaneous : 12.6-V center-tapped
transformer with fused line cord
Résumé of Theory
The primary function of half-wave and full-wave rectification systems is to establish a DC level
from a sinusoidal input signal that has zero average (DC) level.The half-wave voltage signal of
Fig. 3.1, normally established by a network with a single diode, has an average or equivalent DC
voltage level equal to 31.8% of the peak voltage Vm.That is,

The full-wave rectified signal of Fig. 3.1 has twice the average or DC level of the half-wave
signal, or 63.6% of the peak value Vm.That is,

For large sinusoidal inputs (Vm>>V T) the forward-biased transition voltage V T of a diode can be
ignored. However, for situations when the peak value of the sinusoidal signal is not that much
greater than VT, VT can havea noticeable effect on VDC.

Figure 3-15Half-wave and Full-wave rectified signal

In rectification systems the peak inverse voltage (PIV) must be considered carefully. The PIV
voltage is the maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can handle before entering the Zener
breakdown region. For typical single-diode half-wave rectification systems, the required PIV
level is equal to the peak value of the applied sinusoidal signal. For the four-diode full wave

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bridge rectification system, the required PIV level is again the peakvalue, but for a two-diode
center-tapped configuration, it is twice the peak value of the applied signal.

Part 1 – Threshold Voltage

Choose one of the four silicon diodes and determine the threshold voltage, V T, using the diode-
checking capability of the DMM or a curve tracer.
VT =______________

Part 2 – Half-Wave Rectification

a) Construct the circuit of Fig. 3.2 using Si diode. Record the measured value of the resistance
R. Set the function generator to a 1000-Hz 8-Vp-p sinusoidal voltage using the oscilloscope.
+ Vd -

+
Si
+

VO
e = 4 sin(wt)
R 2.2 kΩ
f = 1000 Hz
-

-
Rmeas = --------
Figure 3-16 Half-wave rectifiers
b) The sinusoidal input (e) of Fig. 3.2 has been plotted on the screen of Fig. 3.3 Determine the
chosen vertical and horizontal sensitivities.Note that the horizontal axis is the 0 V line.

Figure 3-17: Sinusiodal Input (e)

Vertical sensitivity =___________ Horizontal sensitivity =__________

c) Using the threshold voltage VTfrom previous section, determine the theoretical output
voltage VO for the circuit of Fig. 3.2 and sketch thewaveform on Fig. 3.3 for one full cycle
using the same sensitivitiesemployed in Part (B). Indicate the maximum and
minimumvalues on the output waveform.

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d) Using the oscilloscope with AC-GND-DC coupling switch in DC position, obtain the voltage V O
and sketch the waveform onFig. 3.4. Before viewing V O be sure to set the V O = 0 V line using
theGND position of the coupling switch. Use the same sensitivities asin Part (B).

Figure 3-18: Sketch waveform

e) Calculate the DC level of the half-wave rectified signal of Part 2(d)using Eq. 1.
VDC (calculated) =______________

f) Measure DC level of VO using DC scale of the DMM andfind the percent difference between
the measured value and thecalculated value of Part 2(e) using the following equation:

VDC (measured) =_______________

% Difference =_______________

g) Reverse the diode of Fig. 3.2 and sketch the output waveform obtainedusing the oscilloscope
on Fig. 3.5. Be sure the coupling switchis in the DC position and the V O = 0 V line is preset
using the GNDposition. Include the maximum and minimum voltage levels on theplot as
determined using the chosen vertical sensitivity.

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Figure 3-19: Sketch waveform

h) Calculate and measure the DC level of the resulting waveform ofFig. 3.5. Insert the proper
sign for the polarity of VDC as defined by Fig. 3.2 using Eq.1.
VDC (calculated) =___________
VDC (measured) =___________

Part 3 – Half-Wave Rectification (continued)

a) Construct the network of Fig. 3.9. Record the measured value ofeach resistor.

R1

+
2.2 kΩ
+
R2 2.2 kΩ

VO
e = 4 sin(wt)
f = 1000 Hz Si
-

-
R1 meas = --------
R2 meas = --------
Figure 3-20: Half-wave rectification (continued)
b) Using the measured resistor values and V T from Part 1, forecastthe appearance of the output
waveform VO and sketch the result onFig. 3.10. Use the same sensitivities employed in Part
2(b) andinsert the maximum and minimum values of the waveform.

Figure 3-21: Sketch waveform

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c) Using the oscilloscope with the coupling switch in the DC position,obtain the waveform for
VO and record on Fig. 3.11. Again, be sure topreset the V O = 0 V line using the GND position of
the couplingswitch before viewing the waveform. Using the chosen sensitivities,determine the
maximum and minimum values and placeon the sketch of Fig. 3.11.

Figure 3-22: Sketch waveform

d) Are the waveforms of Figs. 3.10 and 3.11 relatively close inappearance and magnitude?

e) Reverse the direction of the diode and record the resultingwaveform on Fig. 3.12 as
obtained using the oscilloscope.

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Figure 3-23: Sketch waveform

f) Compare the results of Figs. 3.11 and 3.12. What are the majordifferences and why?

LAB SESSION: 14
4
Understanding the Characteristics of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Objectives
 To determine transistor type (npn, pnp), terminals, and materialusing a DMM.
 To graph the collector characteristics of a transistor usingexperimental methods and a
curve tracer.
 To determine the value of the alpha and beta ratios of a transistor.
Equipment Required

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Instruments DMM, Curve tracer (if available)

Resistors: 330k, 1k

Components Potentiometers: 1 M , 5k

Transistors: 2N3904 (or equivalent)
Transistor without terminal identification
Supplies : DC power supply
Résumé of Theory
Bipolar transistors are made of either silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge). Theirstructure consists of
two layers of n-type material separated by a layer of ptypematerial (npn), or of two layers of p-
material separated by a layer of nmaterial (pnp). In either case, the center layer forms the base
of thetransistor, while the external layers form the collector and the emitter of thetransistor. It
is this structure that determines the polarities of any voltagesapplied and the direction of the
electron or conventional current flow. Withregard to the latter, the arrow at the emitter
terminal of the transistorsymbol for either type of transistor points in the direction of
conventionalcurrent flow and thus provides a useful reference (Fig. 72). One part of
thisexperiment will demonstrate how you can determine the type of transistorand its material,
and identify its three terminals.The relationships between the voltages and the currents
associatedwith a bipolar junction transistor under various operating conditionsdetermine its
performance. These relationships are collectively known as thecharacteristics of the transistor.
As such, they are published by the manufacturerof a given transistor in a specification sheet. It
is one of the objectivesof this laboratory experiment to experimentally measure these
characteristicsand to compare them to their published values.
Part 1 – Determination of the Transistor’s Type, Terminals, and Material
The following procedure will determine the type, terminals, and material of atransistor. The
procedure will utilize the diode testing scale found on manymodern multimeters. If no such
scale is available, the resistance scales of themeter may be used.

Figure 7-24Determination of the identities of BJT leads

a) Label the transistor terminals of Fig. 7.1 as 1, 2, and 3. Use the transistor without terminal
identification for this part of the experiment.

b) Set the selector switch of the multimeter to the diode scale (or tothe 2 krange if the diode
scale is unavailable).

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c) Connect the positive lead of the meter to terminal 1 and thenegative lead to terminal 2.
Record your reading in the table below.

Meter leads connected to BJT Diode check reading

Step
Positive Negative (or highest resistance range)
C 1 2
D 2 1
E 1 3
F 3 1
G 2 3
H 3 2
Table 7-1
d) Reverse the leads and record your reading.

e) Connect positive lead to terminal 1 and the negative lead toterminal 3. Record your reading.

f) Reverse the leads and record your reading.

g) Connect positive lead to terminal 2 and the negative lead toterminal 3.

h) Reverse the leads and record your reading.

i) The meter readings between two of the terminals will read high(O.L. or higher resistance)
regardless of the polarity of the meterleads connected. Neither of these two terminals will
be the base.Based on the above, record the number of the base terminal in

Part 1 (i) Base Terminal

Part 1 (j) Transistor Type
Part 1 (k) Collector Terminal
Part 1 (k) Emitter Terminal
Part 1 (l) Transistor Material
Table 7-2
j) Connect the negative lead to the base terminal and the positivelead to either of the other
terminals. If the meter reading is low(approximately 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge or lower
resistance),the transistor type is pnp; go to step k(1). If the reading is high,the transistor
type is npn; go to step k(2).

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k) (1) For pnp type, connect the negative lead to the base terminaland the positive lead
alternately to either of the other twoterminals. The lower of the two readings obtained
indicates thatthe base and collector are connected; thus the other terminal is theemitter.
Record the terminals in Table 2.

(2) For npn type, connect the positive lead to the base terminal andthe negative lead
alternately to either of the other two terminals.The lower of the two readings obtained
indicates that the base andcollector are connected; thus the other terminal is the emitter.

l) If the readings in either (1) or (2) of Part 1(k) were approximately700 mV, the transistor
material is silicon. If the readings wereapproximately 300 mV, the material is germanium. If
the meterdoes not have a diode testing scale, the material cannot bedetermined directly.
Record the type of material in Table 2.
Part 2 – The Collector Characteristics
a) Construct the network of Fig.7.2.
20V

- VRC +
RC
20V 5kΩ
2
1kΩ
+ VRB - C
RB
1MΩ B 2N3904
1 330kΩ
E

RC meas = --------

Figure 7-25: Circuit to determine the characteristics of a BJT.

b) Set the voltage VRBto 3.3 V by varying the 1-Mpotentiometer.This adjustment will set IB =
VRB/ RB to 10 μA as indicated inTable 3.
c) Then set VCE to 2 V by varying the 5-kΩ potentiometer as requiredby the first line of Table 3.
d) Record the voltages VRCand VBE in Table 3.

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e) Vary the 5-kpotentiometer to increase VCE from 2 V to thevalues appearing in Table 3. Note
that IB is maintained at 10 μAfor the range of VCE levels.
f) For each value of VCE measure and record VRCand VBE. Use themV scale forVBE.
g) Repeat Parts 2(b) through 2(f) for all values of V RBindicated inTable 3. Each value of VRBwill
establish a different level of IB forthe sequence of VCE values as shown.
h) After all data have been obtained, compute the values of IC fromI C = VRC/RC and IE from IE = IC
+ IB. Use the measured resistorvalue for RC.
i) Using the data of Table 3, plot the collector characteristics of thetransistor on the graph of
Fig. 7.3. That is, plot I C versus VCE for thevarious values of I B. Choose an appropriate scale for
IC and labeleach IB curve.

Figure 7-26Characteristic curves from the experimental data of Part 2.

Part 3 – Variation ofand 

a) For each line of Table 3 calculate corresponding levels of andusing = IC/IE and = IC/ IB
and complete the table.
b) Is there a significant variation in and  from one region of thecharacteristics to another? In
which region are the largest values of  found? Specify using the relative levels of V CE and IC.
In which region are the smallest values of  found? Specify using the relative levels of V CE
and IC.

c) Find the largest and smallest levels of and mark their locations on the plot of Fig. 7.3 using
the notations max and min.

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Table 7-3: Data for Construction of Transistor Collector Curve and Calculations of TransistorParameters

d) In general, did increase or decrease with increase in IC?

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e) In general, did increase or decrease with increase in V CE? Wasthe effect of VCE on greater
or less than the effect of IC?

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LAB SESSION: 15

Implementing Fixed and Voltage- Divider Bias of BJTs

Objective
To determine the quiescent operating conditions of the fixed- and voltage divider bias BJT
configurations.
Equipment Required
InstrumentsDMM
Resistors: 680, 2.7k, 1.8k, 6.8k, 33k, 1M
Transistors: 2N3904 (or equivalent),
Components
2N4401 or equivalent
Supplies : DC power supply
Résumé of Theory
Bipolar transistors operate in three modes: cutoff, saturation, and linear. Ineach of these modes,
the physical characteristics of the transistor and theexternal circuit connected to it uniquely
specify the operating point of thetransistor. In the cutoff mode, there is only a small amount of
reversecurrent from emitter to collector, making the transistor akin to an openswitch. In the
saturation mode, there is a maximum current flow fromcollector to emitter. The amount of that
current is limited primarily by theexternal network connected to the transistor; its operation is
analogous tothat of a closed switch. Both of these operating modes are used in digitalcircuits.

For amplification with a minimum of distortion the linear region of thetransistor characteristics
is employed. A DC voltage is applied to thetransistor, forward-biasing the base-emitter junction
and reverse-biasing thebase-collector junction, typically establishing a quiescent point near or
at thecenter of the linear region.

In this experiment, we will investigate two biasing networks: the fixedbiasand the voltage-
divider bias configuration. The former has the seriousdrawback that the location of the Q-point
is very sensitive to the forwardcurrent transfer ratio () of the transistor and temperature.
Because therecan be wide variations in beta and the temperature of the device, it can bedifficult
to predict the exact location of the Q-point on the load line of a fixedbiasconfiguration.

The voltage-divider bias network employs a feedback arrangement thatmakes the base-emitter
and collector-emitter voltages primarily dependenton the external circuit elements and not the
beta of the transistor. Thus,even though the beta of individual transistors may vary

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considerably, thelocation of the Q-point on the load line will remain essentially fixed. Thephrase
“beta-independent biasing” is often used for such an arrangement.
Part 1 – Determining 
a) Construct the networkof Fig. 8.1 usingthe 2N3904 transistor.Record themeasured
resistance values.

b) Measure the voltages VBE and VRC.

VBE (measured) =__________
VRC (measured) =__________

Vcc = 20V

Rc 2.7kΩ RB meas = --------

RB 1MΩ RC meas = --------
IC

VC +
IB

VB
2N3904 VCE
+
VBE VE
-
-
IE

Figure 8-27: Determining 

c) Using the measured resistor values, calculate the resulting basecurrent using the equation

and the collector current using the equation:

The voltage VRBwas not measured directly for determining I Bbecause of the loading effects of
the meter across the highresistance RB.
Insert the resulting values of IB and IC in Table 1.

d) Using the results of Part 1(c), calculate the value of and recordin Table 1. This value of
beta will be used for the 2N3904transistor throughout this experiment.
=_________
Part 2 – Fixed-Bias Configuration
a) Using the determined in Part 1, calculate the currents I B and ICfor the network of Fig. 8.1
using the measured resistor values, thesupply voltage, and the above measured value for

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VBE. That is,determine the theoretical values of I B and IC using the networkparameters and
the value of beta.
IB (calculated) =___________
IC (calculated) =___________
How do the calculated levels of I B and IC compare to thosedetermined from measured
voltage levels in Part 1(c)?

b) Using the results of Part 2(a), calculate the levels of VB, VC, VE,and VCE.
VB (calculated) =__________
VC (calculated) =__________
VE (calculated) =__________
VCE (calculated) =__________
c) Energize the network of Fig. 8.1 and measure VB, VC, VE, and VCE.
VB (measured) =__________
VC (measured) =__________
VE (measured) =__________
VCE (measured) =_________
How do the measured values compare to the calculated levels ofPart 2(b)?
Record the measured value of VCE in Table 1.
d) The next part of the experiment will essentially be a repeat of anumber of the steps above
for a transistor with a higher beta. Ourgoal is to show the effects of different beta levels on
the resultinglevels of the important quantities of the network. First the betalevel for the
other transistor, specifically a 2N4401 transistor,must be determined. Remove the 2N3904
transistor from Fig. 8.1and insert the 2N4401 transistor, leaving all the resistors andvoltage
VCC as in Part 1. Then measure the voltages V BE and VRC using same equations with measured
resistor values. Calculatethe levels of IB and IC. andfor 2N4401.
VBE (measured) =__________
VRC(measured) =__________
IB (from measured) =__________
IC (from measured) =__________
(Calculated) =__________
Record the levels of IB, IC, VCEand beta in Table 1.
Transistor Type VCE (V) IC(mA) IB (μA)
2N3904
2N4401
Table 8-4
e) Using the following equations, calculate the magnitude (ignore thesign) of the percent
change in each quantity due to a change intransistors. The fixed-bias configuration has a
high sensitivity tochanges in beta, as will be reflected by the results. Place theresults of your
calculations in Table 2.

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Table 8-5
Part 3 – Voltage-Divider Configuration
Construct the network of Fig. 8.2 using the 2N3904 transistor.Insert the measured value of each resistor.
Vcc = 20V

Rc 1.8kΩ
R1 33kΩ
IC
+ R1 meas = --------
VC
I1

R2 meas = --------
VB
2N3904 VCE RC meas = --------
+
VE RE meas = --------
VBE -
R2 6.8kΩ -
IE

RE 680Ω
I2

Figure 0-28: Voltage divider configuration

a) Using the beta determined in Part 1 for the 2N3904 transistor,calculate the theoretical
levels of VB, VE, IE, IC, VC, VCE, and IBfor the network of Fig. 8.2. Record the results in Table 3.

2N3904 VB(V) VE(V) VC(V) VCE(V) IE(mA) IB (μA) IC(mA)

Calculated [part3(b)]
Calculated [part3(c)]
Table 8-6
b) Energize the network of Fig. 8.2 and measure V B, VE, VC, and VCE.Record their values in Table
3. In addition, measure the voltagesV R1and VR2. Try to measure the quantities to the
hundredths orthousandths place. Calculate the currents I E and IC and thecurrents I1 and I2
(using I1 = VR1/R1 and I2 = VR2/R2) from thevoltage readings and measured resistor values.
Using the resultsfor I1 and I2, calculate the current I B using Kirchhoff’s currentlaw. Record
the calculated current levels for I E, IC, and IB inTable 3.How do the calculated and measured
values of Table 3 compare?Are there any significant differences that need to be explained?

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c) Record the measured value of VCE and calculated values of IC andIB from Part 3(c) in Table 4
along with the magnitude of beta fromPart 1.

d) Replace the 2N3904 transistor of Fig. 8.2 with the 2N4401transistor. Then measure the
voltages VCE, VRC, VR1, and VR2.Again, be sure to read V R1and VR2to the hundredths or
thousandths place to ensure an accurate determination of I B. Thencalculate IC, I1, and I2, and
determine IB. Complete Table 4 withthe levels of VCE, IC, IB, and beta for this transistor.
Transistor Type VCE (V) IC(mA) IB (μA)
2N3904
2N4401
Table 8-7
e) Calculate the percent change in , IC, VCE, and IB from the data of Table 4. Use the formulas
appearing in Part 2(e), Eq. 1, and recordyour results in Table 5.

Table 8-8

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