SCIENCE REVIEWER

A. Phase Change in Matter

All matter is made from atoms. Every substance (oxygen, lead, silver, neon ...) has a unique
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Oxygen, for example, has 8 protons, 8 neutrons, and 8
electrons. Hydrogen has 1 proton and 1 electron. Individual atoms can combine with other atoms to
form molecules. Matter normally exists as either a solid, a liquid, or a gas. We call this property
of matter the phase of the matter. The three normal phases of matter have unique characteristics which
are listed on the slide

Solid
- In the solid phase the molecules are closely bound to one another by molecular forces. A
solid holds its shape and the volume of a solid is fixed by the shape of the solid.
Liquid
- In the liquid phase the molecular forces are weaker than in a solid. A liquid will take the
shape of its container with a free surface in a gravitational field. In microgravity, a liquid
forms a ball inside a free surface. Regardless of gravity, a liquid has a fixed volume.
Gas
- In the gas phase the molecular forces are very weak. A gas fills its container, taking both the
shape and the volume of the container.

 Fluids (Liquids and Gases)

Liquids and gases are called fluids because they can be made to flow, or move. In any fluid,
the molecules themselves are in constant, random motion, colliding with each other and
with the walls of any container

Plasma - the "fourth phase"

- The atoms themselves begin to break down; electrons are stripped from their orbit around
the nucleus leaving a positively charged ion behind. The resulting mixture of neutral atoms,
free electrons, and charged ions is called a plasma.

B. Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Physical Properties

Physical properties are properties that can be measured or observed without changing the chemical
nature of the substance. Physical properties Matter has mass and volume, as demonstrated by this
concrete block. You can observe its mass by feeling how heavy it is when you try to pick it up; you can
observe its volume by looking at it and noticing its size. Mass and volume are both examples of
extensive physical properties. Some examples of physical properties are:
  color (intensive)
 density (intensive)
 volume (extensive)
 mass (extensive)
 boiling point (intensive): the temperature at which a substance boils
 melting point (intensive): the temperature at which a substance melts

Chemical Properties
Remember, the definition of a chemical property is that measuring that property must lead to a
change in the substance’s chemical structure. Here are several examples of chemical properties:
 Heat of combustion is the energy released when a compound undergoes complete
combustion (burning) with oxygen. The symbol for the heat of combustion is ΔHc.
 Chemical stability refers to whether a compound will react with water or air (chemically stable
substances will not react). Hydrolysis and oxidation are two such reactions and are both
chemical changes.
 Flammability refers to whether a compound will burn when exposed to flame. Again, burning
is a chemical reaction—commonly a high-temperature reaction in the presence of oxygen.
 The preferred oxidation state is the lowest-energy oxidation state that a metal will undergo
reactions in order to achieve (if another element is present to accept or donate electrons).

C. Physical and Chemical Change in Matter

Physical Changes
Another way to think about this is that a physical change does not cause a substance to become
a fundamentally different substance but a chemical change causes a substance to change into
something chemically new.
Phase changes are changes that occur when substances are melted, frozen, boiled,
condensed, sublimated, or deposited. They are also physical changes because they do not change
the nature of the substance.

Chemical Changes
Chemical changes are also known as chemical reactions. The “ingredients” of a reaction are
called the reactants, and the end results are called the products. The change from reactants to products
is signified by an arrow:
Reactants → Products
The formation of gas bubbles is often the result of a chemical change (except in the case of
boiling, which is a physical change). A chemical change might also result in the formation of a
precipitate, such as the appearance of a cloudy material when dissolved substances are mixed.
 D. Chemical Mixture

Chemical Mixtures
A mixture is a material system made up of two or more different substances, which are mixed
but not combined chemically. A mixture refers to the physical combination of two or more substances in
which the identities of the individual substances are retained. Mixtures take the form of alloys,
solutions, suspensions, and colloids.
Naturally occurring sulfur crystals Sulfur occurs naturally as elemental sulfur, sulfide, and
sulfate minerals and in hydrogen sulfide. This mineral deposit is composed of a mixture of substances.

2 Types of Mixture
1. Heterogeneous Mixtures
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture of two or more chemical substances (elements or
compounds), where the different components can be visually distinguished and easily separated by
physical means.
Examples include:
 mixtures of sand and water
 mixtures of sand and iron filings
 a conglomerate rock
 water and oil
 a salad
 trail mix
 mixtures of gold powder and silver powder
 Interactive: Oil and Water
 Explore the interactions that cause water and oil to separate from a mixture.
2. Homogenous Mixtures
A homogeneous mixture is a mixture of two or more chemical substances (elements or
compounds), where the different components cannot be visually distinguished. The composition of
homogeneous mixtures is constant. Often separating the components of a homogeneous mixture is
more challenging than separating the components of a heterogeneous mixture.
A mixture’s physical properties, such as its melting point, may differ from those of its individual
components. Some mixtures can be separated into their components by physical (mechanical or
thermal) means.

Characteristic of Chemical/Pure Substance

Chemical Substances
 In chemistry, a chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical
composition and characteristic properties.
 Chemical substances can be solids, liquids, gases, or plasma. Changes in
temperature or pressure can cause substances to shift between the different phases
of matter.
 An element is a chemical substance that is made up of a particular kind of atom and
hence cannot be broken down or transformed by a chemical reaction into a
different element
  A pure chemical compound is a chemical substance that is composed of a particular
set of molecules or ions that are chemically bonded.
 A chemical compound can be either atoms bonded together in molecules or crystals
in which atoms, molecules or ions form a crystalline lattice.
 Chemical substances are often called ‘pure’ to set them apart from mixtures.
 A common example of a chemical substance is pure water; it always has the same
properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a
river or made in a laboratory.
Pure Substance
- When a mixture is completely separated using different techniques.

Note that a mixture:

 consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled,
 can be separated into its components by physical means, and
 often retains many of the properties of its components.

E. Kinds of Mixture
SOLUTIONS, SUSPENSIONS AND COLLOIDS -- SUMMARY TABLES
Solutions Suspensions Colloids

Cloudy, heterogeneous,
Clear, transparent and Cloudy but uniform
Appearance at least two substances
homogeneous and homogeneous
visible

larger than 10,000

Particle Size molecule in size 10-1000 Angstroms
Angstroms

none -- light passes

Effect of Light light is dispersed by
through, particles do variable
(Tyndall Effect) colloidal particles
not reflect light

Effect of particles will eventually

none none
Sedimentation settle out

A solution is always transparent, light passes through with no scattering from solute particles
which are molecule in size. The solution is homogeneous and does not settle out. A solution cannot be
filtered but can be separated using the process of distillation.

A suspension is cloudy and heterogeneous. The particles are larger than 10,000 Angstroms
which allows them to be filtered. If a suspension is allowed to stand the particles will separate out.

A colloid is intermediate between a solution and a suspension. While a suspension will

separate out a colloid will not. Colloids can be distinguished from solutions using the Tyndall effect. Light
passing through a colloidal dispersion, such as smoky or foggy air, will be reflected by the larger particles
and the light beam will be visible.

A hydrocolloid can simply be defined as a substance that forms a gel when it comes in
contact with water. Such substances include both polysaccharides and proteins .

F. Elements
Elements of the periodic table are grouped as metals, metalloids or semimetals, and nonmetals.
The metalloids separate the metals and nonmetals on a periodic table.

Properties of Metals
Most elements are metals. Examples of metals include iron, tin, sodium, and plutonium. Metals exhibit
the following properties:
 usually solid at room temperature (mercury is an exception)
 high luster (shiny)
 metallic appearance
 good conductors of heat and electricity
 malleable (can be bent and pounded into thin sheets)
 ductile (can be drawn into wire)
 corrode or oxidize in air and sea water
 usually dense (exceptions include lithium, potassium, and sodium)
 may have a very high melting point
 readily lose electrons

Properties of Nonmetals
Nonmetals exhibit very different properties from metals. Examples of nonmetals include oxygen,
chlorine, and argon. Nonmetals display some or all of the following characteristics:
 dull appearance
 usually brittle
 poor conductors of heat and electricity
 usually less dense, compared to metals
 usually low melting point of solids, compared with metals
 tend to gain electrons in chemical reactions

Properties of Metalloids or Semimetals

Examples of metalloids include boron, silicon, and arsenic. Metalloids have some of the properties of
metals and some nonmetallic characteristic.
 dull or shiny
 usually conduct heat and electricity, though not as well as metals
 often make good semiconductors
 often exist in several forms
 often ductile
 often malleable
 may gain or lose electrons in reactions
Note that an element:
 consists of only one kind of atom,
  cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical means, and
 can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).

G. Compound
A compound is a chemical species that is formed when two or more atoms join together
chemically, with covalent or ionic bonds.
Compounds may be categorized according to the type of chemical bonds holding the atoms
together:
 Molecules are held together by covalent bonds.
 Ionic compounds are held together by ionic bonds.
 Intermetallic compounds are held together by metallic bonds.
 Complexes are often held together by coordinate covalent bond
Examples of Compounds
- Examples of compounds include table salt or sodium chloride (NaCl, an ionic compound),
 sucrose (a molecule),
 nitrogen gas (N2, a covalent molecule),
 a sample of copper (intermetallic),
 water (H2O, a covalent molecule).
- Examples of chemical species not considered compounds include the hydrogen ion H+ and
the noble gas elements (e.g., argon, neon, helium), which do not readily form chemical
bonds.

Note that a compound:

 consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,
 can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means (but not by
physical means),
 has properties that are different from its component elements, and
 always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.