Elementary

Flight
Dynamics
with an

Introduction
to Bifurcation and
Continuation Methods

Nandan K. Sinha *
N. Ananthkrishnan

>C)J CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Croup
Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprintof the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Contents

Preface xiii
Authors xvii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 What, Why and How? 1
1.2 Aircraft as a Rigid Body 2

1.3 Six Degrees of Freedom 7

1.4 Position, Velocity and Angles 10
1.5 Aircraft Motion in Wind 14
1.6 Longitudinal Flight Dynamics 17
1.7 Longitudinal Dynamics Equations 21
1.8 A Question of Timescales 22
1.9 Longitudinal Trim 25
1.10 Aerodynamic Coefficients CD, CL, C, 28
1.10.1 Aerodynamic Coefficients with Angle of Attack (a) 30
1.10.2 Aerodynamic Coefficients with Mach Number {Ma) 32
1.11 Wing-Body Trim 34
Exercise Problems 40
References 42

2 Stability Concept 43
2.1 Linear First-Order
System 43
2.2 Linear Second-Order System 46
2.3 Nonlinear Second-Order System 55
2.4 Pitch Dynamics about Level Flight Trim 57
2.5 Modelling Small-Perturbation Aerodynamics 58
2.6 Pitch Dynamics about Level Flight Trim (Contd.) 62
2.6.1 Numerical
Example 63
2.7 Short-Period Frequency and Damping 68
2.8 Forced Response 69
2.8.1 First-Order System 70
2.8.2 Second-Order System 72
2.9 Response to Pitch Control 77
2.9.1 Pitch Dynamics about Level Flight Trim
with Elevator Control 79
Exercise Problems 80

3 Longitudinal Trim and Stability 83

3.1 Wing-Body Trim and Stability 83
3.2 Wing-Body Plus Tail: Physical Arguments 87

vii
viii Contents

3.3 Wing-Body Plus Tail: Math Model 88

Lift 93
3.3.1 Airplane
3.3.2 Airplane Pitching Moment 95
3.4 Role of Downwash 101
3.5 Neutral Point 101

3.5.1 Static 104

Margin
3.5.2 Aerodynamic Centre of Entire Airplane
NP as 104
3.6 Replacing VH with V/, 106

3.6.1 Revised Expressions for NP 108

3.6.2 NP as Aerodynamic Centre of the Entire Airplane 109

3.6.3 Trim and Stability, Again! Ill

3.7 Effect of CG Movement Ill

3.8 Rear CG Limit due to Airplane Loading and

at Take-Off 115
Configuration
3.9 CurvesNon-Linearities 116
C Q
Exercise Problems 117
3.1 122
Appendix

4 Longitudinal Control 123

4.1 Tail 123
All-Moving
4.2 Elevator 125

4.3 Tail Lift with Elevator 126

130
4.4 Airplane Lift Coefficient with Elevator
4.5 Airplane Pitching Moment Coefficient with Elevator 134
4.6 Elevator Influence on Trim and Stability 137
138
4.6.1 Change in Trim Lift Coefficient
4.6.2 Another Viewpoint of Stability 140
Manoeuvres with the Elevator 141
4.7 Longitudinal
4.8 Most Forward CG Limit 147
4.8.1 Using Elevator to
Compensate for CG Shift 148
149
4.8.2 Typical Elevator Deflection Limits
4.8.3 Forward-Most CG Limit due to Elevator
151
Up-Deflection Limit

4.9 NP Determination from Flight Tests 152

4.10 Effect of NP Shift with Mach Number 154

Exercise Problems 157

References 159

161
5 Long-Period (Phugoid) Dynamics
5.1 Phugoid Mode Equations 161
5.2 162
Energy
5.2.1 Normal Acceleration 164

5.3 Phugoid Mode Physics 165

166
5.4 Phugoid Small-Perturbation Equations
5.5 Aerodynamic Modelling with Mach Number 168
Contents *x

5.6 Phugoid Dynamics 170

5.7 Phugoid Mode Frequency and Damping 172
5.8 Accurate Short-Period and Phugoid Approximations 175
5.8.1 Short-Period Mode Dynamics 176
5.8.2 Phugoid Mode Dynamics 177
5.9 Derivative C|M 178
5.10 Derivative
Cmql in Pitching Motion 179
5.11 Derivative
Cmql in Phugoid Motion 181
5.12 Flow Curvature Effects 182
Exercise Problems 184
References 186

6 Lateral-Directional Motion 187

6.1 Review 187
6.2 Directional Disturbance Angles 188
6.3 Directional versus Longitudinal Flight 190
6.4 Lateral Disturbance Angles 191
6.5 Lateral-Directional Rate Variables 194
6.6 Small-Perturbation Lateral-Directional Equations 195
6.7 Lateral-Directional Timescales 198
6.8 Lateral-Directional Aerodynamic Derivatives 200
6.9 Lateral-Directional Small-Perturbation Equations (Contd.) 202
6.10 Lateral-Directional Dynamic Modes 207
6.10.1 Roll (Rate) Mode 207
6.10.2 Dutch Roll Mode 208
6.10.3 Spiral Mode 212
Exercise Problems 214
Reference 214

7 Lateral-Directional Dynamic Modes 215

7.1 Roll (Rate) Mode 215
7.2 Roll Damping Derivative C,p2 216
7.2.1 Special Case of Trapezoidal Wing 218
7.2.2 Owing to Vertical Tail 219
7.3 Roll Control 221
7.4 Aileron Control Derivative, CIS 225
7.4.1 Other Roll Control Devices 228
7.4.1.1 Roll Control with Spoilers 229
7.4.1.2 Roll Control by Differential Tail 230
7.4.1.3 Roll Control by Rudder 230
7.5 Yaw due to Roll Control 232
7.5.1 Yaw due to Aileron 232
7.5.2 Yaw due to Spoilers 233
7.5.3 Yaw due to Differential Tail 234
7.5.4 Yaw due to Rudder 235
X Contents

7.6 Aileron Input for a Bank Angle 235

7.7 Dutch Roll Mode 236
7.8 Directional Derivatives Cy/S and Cp 241
7.8.1 Other Contributors to Yaw Stiffness 245
7.8.2 Loss of Vertical Tail Effectiveness 247
7.9 Lateral Derivative: Cip 249
7.9.1 Wing Dihedral 249
7.9.2 Other Sources of Cip 253

7.9.2.1 Wing Sweep 253

7.9.2.2 Wing Vertical Position on Fuselage 255
7.9.2.3 Vertical Tail 256
7.10 Damping Derivatives: Crl and C/rl 258
7.10.1 Wing Contribution to Crl and C,rl 259
7.10.2 Vertical Tail Contribution to Cr, and C,rl 260
7.11 Rudder Control 263
7.11.1 Crosswind Landing 265
7.11.2 Other Rudder Trim Cases 266
7.12 Spiral Mode 267
7.12.1 Cr2 andCir2 Derivatives 269
7.12.2 Spiral Mode Stability 271
7.13 Real-Life Airplane Data 272

Exercise Problems 273

References 277

8 Computational Flight Dynamics 279

8.1 Aircraft Equations of Motion 279
8.2 Derivation of Aircraft Equations of Motion 279
8.2.1 Equations for the Translational Motion 281
8.3 3-2-1 Rule 284

8.3.1 Euler Angles and Transformation 284

8.3.2 Kinematic Equations (Attitude and Position

Dynamics) 288
8.3.2.1 Relation between Body Rates (p, q, r) and
Euler Rates (0, 6, iff) 288

8.3.2.2 Relation between Inertial Velocity and

Body-Axis Velocity Components 290

8.3.2.3 Relation between Body and Wind-Fixed

Coordinates (Rotation Triplet (-/3) a 0) 291
-
-
8.3.2.4 Relation between the Body-Axis and Wind-
Axis Euler Angles 293
8.3.2.5 Relation between the Body-Axis and Wind-
Axis
Angular Rates 294
8.3.3 Force Equations Summed Up 295

8.3.3.1 Derivation of Force Equations in Wind-

Fixed Axis System 296
Contents xi

8.4 Derivation of Aircraft Equations of Motion (Contd.) 300

8.4.1 Equations for the Rotational Motion 300

8.4.2 Symmetry of Aircraft 301
8.4.3 Sources of Nonlinearity 303

8.5 Numerical Analysis of Aircraft Motions 306

8.5.1 Generalized Airplane Trim and Stability Analysis 307

8.5.1.1 Local Dynamic Behaviour: Trim and

Stability Analysis 307

8.6 Standard Bifurcation Analysis 309

8.6.1 Application of SBA to F-18/HARV Dynamics 313

8.6.1.1 Stall and Post-Stall Solutions 313
8.6.1.2 Roll Manoeuvres 317

8.7 Extended Bifurcation Analysis (EBA) 319

8.7.1 Straight and Level Flight Trim 320
8.7.2 Coordinated (Zero Sideslip) Level Turn Trim 325

8.7.3 Performance and Stability Analysis 328

8.7.3.1 Straight and Level Flight Trim 328
8.7.3.2 Level Turn Manoeuvre 331

8.7.3.3 Maximum Roll Rate in a Roll Manoeuvre 334

Exercise Problems 335

Appendix 8.1: Small-Perturbation Equations 336

Appendix 8.2: F-18Data 338

Appendix 8.3: Equations and Aircraft Data Used for Roll
Manoeuvre 340

References 340

Index 343