AERODYNAMICS

1
 Kutta-Joukowski Lift Theorem and Conditions
Kutta (German), Joukowski (Russia)
• It is a fundamental theorem in aerodynamics, that can be used for the
calculation of the lift of an airfoil on the 2D body including circular cylinder.
• It state that, “ lift per unit depth or span of any cylinder or airfoil immersed in
uniform flow stream is equal to ”
positive clockwise
: total net circulation contained
i.e. within the body shape

• An airfoil is any section of the

wing of airplane cut by a plane
normal to y -axis

2
 AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

• Mean Chamber Line: Set of points halfway between upper and lower surfaces
– Measured perpendicular to mean chamber line itself
• Leading Edge: Most forward point of mean chamber line
• Trailing Edge: Most reward point of mean chamber line
• Chord Line: Straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges
• Chord, c: Distance along the chord line from leading to trailing edge
• Camber: Maximum distance between mean chamber line and chord line
– Measured perpendicular to chord line
3
 NACA FOUR-DIGIT SERIES
• First digit specifies maximum camber in percentage of chord
• Second digit indicates position of maximum camber in tenths of chord
• Last two digits provide maximum thickness of airfoil in percentage of chord

NACA 2415
Example: NACA 2415
• Airfoil has maximum thickness of 15%
of chord (0.15c)
• Camber of 2% (0.02c) located 40%
back from airfoil leading edge (0.4c)

4
Kutta–Joukowski condition/hypothesis …cont’d
Statement of Kutta conditions:

a) If the value of too little circulation,

stagnation point on rear upper surface;

b) If the value of is too much, stagnation

point at rear lower surface;

c) Just the right Kutta condition, smooth flow

at TE.

5
 …cont’d
• Different possible shape of the trailing edge and their relation
to the Kutta condition.
 If the TE angle is finite then the TE is stagnation point

 If the trailing edge is cusped, the velocity leaving the top and
bottom surface at the TE are finite and equal;

6
 …cont’d

 If the value of around the airfoil is such that the flow leaves the
trailing edge smoothly.

7
Force and Moments of immersed body …cont’d

 Any body of any shape when immersed in a fluid stream (uniform flow)
will experience forces and moments from the flow.
 If the body has arbitrary shape and orientation, the flow will exert forces
and moments about all three coordinate axes, as shown in Fig.

8
 …cont’d

 The force on the body along this axis is called drag, and the moment about
that axis the rolling moment.
o The drag is essentially a flow loss and must be overcome if the body is to
move against the stream.
 A second and very important force is perpendicular to the drag and usually
performs a useful job, such as bearing the weight of the body. It is called the
lift.
o The moment about the lift axis is called yaw.
 The third component, neither a loss nor a gain, is the side force, and
about this axis is the pitching moment.

9
 Lift and Drag Concept
 When any body moves through a fluid, an interaction between the body and
the fluid occurs; this effect can be given in terms of the forces at the fluid–
body interface.
 These forces Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow comes from only two
sources:
1. Pressure, p, distribution on surface
• Acts normal to surface
2. Shear stress, τw, (friction) on surface
• Acts tangentially to surface

 Pressure and shear are in units of force per unit area (N/m 2)
 Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic force
10
 …cont’d

 “No matter how complex the flow field, and no matter how complex the shape of
the body, the only way nature has of communicating an aerodynamic force to a
solid object or surface is through the pressure and shear stress distributions that
exist on the surface.”
 “But, generally in the case of blunt bodies, the force will neither be parallel nor
perpendicular to the surface. The force can be resolved into two components one
parallel to the flow and the other perpendicular to the flow. The former may be
called shear force and the other, the pressure force.

11
Resolving the Aerodynamic Force
 Relative Wind: Direction of V∞
 We use subscript ∞ to indicate far upstream conditions
 Angle of Attack, α: Angle between relative wind (V∞) and chord line
 Center of pressure: The point on the body about which the aerodynamic
moment is zero.
 Total aerodynamic force, R, can be resolved into two force components
– Lift, L: Component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to relative wind
– Drag, D: Component of aerodynamic force parallel to relative wind

V∞ 12
 …cont’d
•  

13
 …cont’d
•  

14
 …cont’d
 Defining coefficient of drag, as the ratio of dynamic pressure it is seen that:

𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔
𝐶 𝐷= 2
1/ 2 𝜌 𝐴 𝑈
 Lift coefficient,
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡
𝐶 𝐿= 2
1/2 𝜌 𝐴𝑈
Where. A is characteristics area which may differ depend up on the body shape.

 Frontal area, the body as seen from the stream; suitable for thick, stubby
bodies, such as spheres, cylinders, cars, missiles, projectiles, and
torpedoes.
 Planform area, the body area as seen from above; suitable for wide, flat
bodies such as wings and hydrofoils.
 Wetted area, customary for surface ships and barges. 15
 …cont’d
• Table below, gives a few data on drag, based on frontal area, of two

dimensional bodies of various cross section, at Re ≥ 104.

16
 …cont’d

17
 …cont’d
• The drag of some representative wide-span (nearly two-dimensional) bodies is
shown versus the Reynolds number in Fig.

18
 Aerodynamic Forces on Road Vehicles …cont’d
• The historical trend for drag coefficients for automobiles and trucks.

19
TRUCK SPOILER EXAMPLE
• Note ‘messy’ or
turbulent flow pattern
• High drag
• Lower fuel efficiency

• Spoiler angle
increased by + 5°
• Flow behavior more
closely resembles a
laminar flow
• Tremendous savings
(< $10,000/yr)

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 FLOW SEPARATION
• Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer
• Separation then creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to
separation

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 Friction (Viscous) Effects on Drag
• Friction has two effects:
1. Skin friction due to shear stress at wall
2. Pressure drag due to flow separation

D  D friction  D pressure
Total drag due to Drag due to Drag due to
= +
viscous effects skin friction separation
Called Profile Drag

Less for laminar More for laminar

More for turbulent Less for turbulent

22
 AIRFOIL STALL
• Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer
1. B.L. either laminar or turbulent
2. All laminar B.L. → turbulent B.L.
3. Turbulent B.L. ‘fuller’ than laminar B.L., more resistant to separation
• Separation creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to separation
– Dramatic loss of lift and increase in drag

23
 SAMPLE DATA
• Lift coefficient (or lift) linear
variation with angle of attack, a
– Cambered airfoils have
Lift (for now)

positive lift when a = 0

– Symmetric airfoils have
zero lift when a = 0
• At high enough angle of attack,
the performance of the airfoil
rapidly degrades → stall

Cambered airfoil has

lift at a=0
At negative a airfoil
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will have zero lift
Lift (for now) SAMPLE DATA: STALL BEHAVIOR

What is really going on here

What is stall?

Can we predict it?

Can we design for it?

25
… cont’d

26
 HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
• Lift due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top and bottom surfaces of
airfoil (or wing)
– If pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated
– Why is pressure lower on top surface?

• We can understand answer from basic physics:

– Continuity (Mass Conservation)
– Newton’s 2nd law (Euler or Bernoulli Equation)

Lift = PA

27
HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

Drag is the resistance an airplane experiences in moving

forward through the air.
Or, it is the force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in
the flow direction. 28
 HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
1. Flow velocity over top of airfoil is faster than over bottom surface
– Stream tube A senses upper portion of airfoil as an obstruction
– Stream tube A is squashed to smaller cross-sectional area
– Mass continuity rAV=constant: IF A↓ THEN V↑

Streamtube A is squashed
most in nose region
(ahead of maximum thickness)

A
B

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 HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
2. As V ↑ p↓ 1
– Incompressible: Bernoulli’s Equation p  V 2  constant
2
– Compressible: Euler’s Equation
– Called Bernoulli Effect
dp   VdV
3. With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom surface,
airfoil feels a net force in upward direction → Lift
Most of lift is produced
in first 20-30% of wing
(just downstream of leading edge)

30
 MORE DEFINITIONS
• Total aerodynamic force on airfoil is summation of F1 and F2
• Lift is obtained when F2 > F1
• Misalignment of F1 and F2 creates Moments, M, which tend to rotate airfoil/wing
– A moment (torque) is a force times a distance
– Pressure distribution in aerodynamic literature often given as Cp
p  p p  p
Cp  
q 1
 V2
2

Pressure Distribution

31
 … cont’d
 An airfoil produce lift when moves in relative to air, that makes an airplane fly.
 How does this lift produced?
 the airfoil produces a downwash as shown. This cause the pressure
difference b/n the top and bottom of an airfoil and hence produce lift.

 The higher the angle of attack the greater will be the down wash the airfoil
lift force.
 A greater air speed also increase the lift force significantly.

32
 … cont’d
 COANDA EFFECT: the tendency of a fluid particles to get attached to a
convex Surface or top airfoil section as shown.

 The particles approaches the airfoil and takes

the curve as shown above. But, after the curve
why doesn’t move straight as shown.
 Examine this curve motion is more
closely,
 In order to take the curve the
particles have high pressure at the
top and low pressure at bottom
 This supply the centrifugal force
 The higher the pressure push the
particles downward – the effect is
known as the Coanda effect.
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Techniques to increase lift … cont’d
 High speed
 High angle of attack: to be the greater downwash
 Use (altering) of flap and slat – which increase downwash & wing area

Some functions of airfoils:

– Create lift
– Create thrust
– Attachment point for the
control surfaces (including
flaps, slots, slats, etc)
– House fuel tanks and
instrument components
– Stability

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EXAMPLE: BOEING 727 FLAPS/SLATS

35
Summary on lift

36
 Summary on lift …..cont’d
 Basically the introduction of aerodynamics is about the flow curve.
 This curvature generate pressure difference and the lift .

- This means more curvature generate more lift.

 But, why not airfoil shape like this?

o The reason is to give

structural support &
space to accommodate
the fuel takes 37
 Summary on lift …..cont’d
 What about this airfoil shaped?

38
Finite Wing Theory

39
 Finite Wing Theory
Lift for a Finite Wing
 All real wings are finite in span (airfoils are considered as infinite in the
span)
 And, all real wings have tips and are therefore :Taper
of finite span
ratio = or finite aspect
ratio AR, defined by:

Planform area S

40
 AIRFOILS VERSUS WINGS

Why do airfoils have such a shape?

How are lift and drag produced?

NACA airfoil performance data

41
INFINITE VERSUS FINITE WINGS

High AR

Aspect Ratio
b: wingspan
S: wing area
2
b Low AR
AR 
S
b
 …cont’d

Low Pressure
Low Pressure
High Pre r es s ure
ssure High P

• Upper surface (upper side of wing): low pressure

• Lower surface (underside of wing): high pressure
• Flow always desires to go from high pressure to low pressure
• Flow ‘wraps’ around wing tips

• Effect of Finite Wings:

– Less Lift (than the equivalent airfoil)
– More Drag (than the equivalent airfoil)

43
 Finite Wing Downwash …cont’d
 Wing tip vortices induce a small downward component of air velocity near
wing by dragging surrounding air with them.
 Downward component of velocity is called downwash, w
Chord line

Local relative wind

• Two Consequences:
1. Increase in drag, called induced drag (drag due to lift)
2. Angle of attack is effectively reduced, aeff as compared with V∞

44
Wing Tip Vortices …cont’d

• Over the top of the wing the airflow goes inward

Due to the
• Under the bottom of the wing the airflow moves pressure changes
outward

This creates a swirling motion off the wing tip called a vortex
45
 Angle of Attack Definitions
Cho
rd line
Relative Wind, V∞ ageometric

 ageometric: what you see, what you would see in a wind tunnel

o Simply look at angle between incoming relative wind and chord line

 This is a case of no wing-tips (infinite wing)

Cho
rd l
in
aeffective e
Local Rel
at ive Wind,
 aeffective: what the airfoil ‘sees’ locally V
∞

Angle between local flow direction and chord line

Small than ageometric because of downwash
 The wing-tips have caused this local relative wind to be angled downward
 ANGLE OF ATTACK DEFINITIONS

 geometric   effective   induced

ageometric: what you see, what you would see in a wind tunnel
Simply look at angle between incoming relative wind and chord line

aeffective: what the airfoil ‘sees’ locally

Angle between local flow direction and chord line
Small than ageometric because of downwash

ainduced: difference between these two angles

Downwash has ‘induced’ this change in angle of attack
 INFINITE WING DESCRIPTION
LIFT

Relative Wind, V∞

• LIFT is always perpendicular to the RELATIVE WIND

• All lift is balancing weight

 FINITE WING DESCRIPTION
Finite Wing Case  geometric   effective   induced

• Relative wind gets tilted downward under the airfoil

• LIFT is still always perpendicular to the RELATIVE WIND
 FINITE WING DESCRIPTION
Finite Wing Case  geometric   effective   induced

Induced Drag, Di

 Induced Drag : Caused by those

Lift Drag
parts of an airplane which are
active in producing lift
 Cannot be eliminated
 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATIONS

 geometric   effective   induced

1. Local relative wind is canted downward, lift vector is tilted back so a

component of L acts in direction normal to incoming relative wind
2. Wing tip vortices alter surface pressure distributions in direction of
increased drag
3. Vortices contain rotational energy put into flow by propulsion system to
overcome induced drag
INDUCED DRAG: IMPLICATIONS FOR WINGS

V∞
 eff  

Infinite Wing
Finite Wing
(Appendix D)

C L  cl
C D  cd
 HOW TO ESTIMATE INDUCED DRAG

Di  L sin  i
Di  L i

• Local flow velocity in vicinity of wing is inclined downward

• Lift vector remains perpendicular to local relative wind and is tiled back
through an angle ai
• Drag is still parallel to freestream
• Tilted lift vector contributes a drag component
 HOW TO ESTIMATE INDUCED DRAG
• Calculation of angle ai is not trivial (MAE 3241)
• Value of ai depends on distribution of downwash along span of wing
• Downwash is governed by distribution of lift over span of wing
 HOW TO ESTIMATE INDUCED DRAG
• Special Case: Elliptical Lift Distribution (produced by elliptical wing)
• Lift/unit span varies elliptically along span
• This special case produces a uniform downwash

CL
i 
AR
CL C L2
Di  L i  L  q S
AR AR
Key Results:
Di C L2
Elliptical Lift Distribution 
q S AR
C L2
C D ,i 
AR
 ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION
• For a wing with same airfoil shape across span and no twist, an elliptical lift
distribution is characteristic of an elliptical wing plan form
• Example: Supermarine Spitfire

Key Results:
Elliptical Lift Distribution
CL
i 
AR
C L2
C D ,i 
AR
 HOW TO ESTIMATE INDUCED DRAG
• For all wings in general
• Define a span efficiency factor, e (also called span efficiency factor)
• Elliptical planforms, e = 1
– The word planform means shape as view by looking down on the wing
• For all other planforms, e < 1
• 0.85 < e < 0.99

2
C
C D ,i  L Goes with square of CL
Inversely related to AR
eAR Drag due to lift

Span Efficiency Factor

 To reduce induced drag
 Induced drag can be reduced with a high aspect ratio
 Streamlining:

• The less drag you have…

– Flying a glider: the further you can fly
– Flying an airplane: the less fuel you
use
• Therefore streamlining is important
– A design device by which a body is
shaped to minimize drag
 DRAG POLAR EXAMPLE
2
C
C D  cd  L
eAR
Total Drag = Profile Drag + Induced Drag

cd {
 EXAMPLE: U2 VS. F-15
1 2 C L2
L  W   V SC L C D  cd 
2 eAR

U2 F-15
• Cruise at 70,000 ft • Flies at high speed (and lower
– Air density highly reduced altitudes), so high q∞ → low
• Flies at slow speeds, low q∞ → angle of attack, low CL
high angle of attack, high CL • F-15 AR ~ 3 (WHY?)
• U2 AR ~ 14.3 (WHY?)
 EXAMPLE: U2 SPYPLANE
C L2
C D  cd 
eAR
• Cruise at 70,000 ft
– Out of USSR missile range
– Air density, r∞, highly
reduced
• In steady-level flight, L = W
1 2
L  W   V SC L
2
• As r∞ reduced, CL must
increase (angle of attack must
increase)
• AR ↑ CD ↓
• U2 AR ~ 14.3
U2 stall speed at altitude is only ten knots (18 km/h) less than its maximum speed
EXAMPLE: F-15 EAGLE
2
C
C D  cd  L
eAR
• Flies at high speed at low
angle of attack → low CL
• Induced drag < Profile Drag
• Low AR, Low S

1 2
L  W   V SC L
2
FINITE WING CHANGE IN LIFT SLOPE
Infinite Wing • In a wind tunnel, the easiest thing to
measure is the geometric angle of attack

• For infinite wings, there is no induced

angle of attack
– The angle you see = the angle the
infinite wing ‘sees’

ageom= aeff + ai = aeff

• With finite wings, there is an induced
angle of attack
Finite Wing – The angle you see ≠ the angle the
finite wing ‘sees’
 geom   eff   i

ageom= aeff + ai
 Summary: Infinite Vs. Finite Wings
 Properties of a finite wing differ in two major respects from infinite wings:
1) Addition of induced drag
2) Lift curve for a finite wing has smaller slope than corresponding lift curve
for infinite wing with same airfoil cross section
 Induced drag is price you pay for generation of lift
 CD,i proportional to CL2
– Airplane on take-off or landing, induced drag major component
– Significant at cruise (15-25% of total drag)
 CD,i inversely proportional to AR
– Desire high AR to reduce induced drag
– Compromise between structures and aerodynamics
– AR important tool as designer (more control than span efficiency, e)
 For an elliptic lift distribution, chord must vary elliptically along span
– Wing planform is elliptical
– Elliptical lift distribution gives good approximation for arbitrary finite wing
through use of span efficiency factor, e
 SUMMARY
• Induced drag is price you pay for generation of lift

• CD,i proportional to CL2

– Airplane on take-off or landing, induced drag major component
– Significant at cruise (15-25% of total drag)

• CD,i inversely proportional to AR

– Desire high AR to reduce induced drag
– Compromise between structures and aerodynamics
– AR important tool as designer (more control than span efficiency, e)

• For an elliptic lift distribution, chord must vary elliptically along span
– Wing planform is elliptical
– Elliptical lift distribution gives good approximation for arbitrary finite wing
through use of span efficiency factor, e
 End of Chapter

Thank you!