Wind Energy Systems - Unit 3

“Wind Energy Systems”
Elchin Targuluyev
[email protected]
Unit 3
Wind Turbine Generators
2
Wind Turbine Generators
Introduction to WT Aerodynamics
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
Momentum Theory and Betz Limit
Wind Turbine Efficiency
Wind Turbine Wakes
Coefficient of Power
BEM Theory
Blade number effects
Performance of HAWT
3
Mechanical and Civil Aspects of Wind Turbines

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)
Blade Element Theory
Influence of blade number
Rotor Design 4
Aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and the forces acting on bodies in
motion relative to the air
5
6
7
Lift and Drag Forces
8
9
𝐿/ 𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h Where ρ is the air density (1.25 kg/m3),
𝐶𝑙= =
1 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h
𝜌 𝑈 2 𝐴𝑐 U is the undisturbed air velocity
2
c is the airfoil chord length
l is the airfoil span
𝐷 /𝑙 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h A is the projected airfoil area (chord x span)
𝐶𝑑= =
𝜌 𝑈2𝑐
2 10
Lift and Drag Coefficients
11
Lift and Drag Coefficients
12
Drag Coefficient (Automobile)
13
Drag Reduction in the Nature
14
Lift Force
15
Wing Airfoil Nomenclature
16
Wing Airfoil Nomenclature
• If the chord line between the leading and trailing

edge is not a line of symmetry, the airfoil is said to
be cambered. The camber line is the line midway
between the upper and lower surface of the vane.
• The angle between the free stream and the chord

line is called the angle of attack. The lift L and the
drag D vary with this angle.
• The rounded leading edge prevents flow separation there, but sharp
trailing edge causes a separation which generates the lift. 17
Wing Airfoils
• Symmetrical airfoils need a positive angle of

attack to produce lift
• Cambered airfoils can produce lift if α = 0⁰
18
Wing Airfoils
19
Wing Airfoils
20
Wing Airfoils
21
Stall
22
Wing Airfoils
23
Drag Machine Model - VAWT
24
Lift Machine Model - HAWT
25
26
27
Darrieus wind turbines of the former H-rotor wind turbine (rotor

American Flowind company (rotor diameter 35 m, 300 kW rated
diameter 19 m, power output 170 power) (Heidelberg)
kW) 28
29
For More information please refer to the sources below:
1. Wind Energy Explained – Chapter 3.4, Section 3.4.6 – Lift versus Drag Machines
2. Wind Turbine Technology – Chapter 5 – Wind Turbine Aerodynamics Part (A) – Section: Aerodynamic
Analysis of Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines
3. Wind Turbines – Chapter 3 – Basic Concepts of Wind Energy Converters – Section 3.1 – Rotors with Vertical
Axis of Rotation
30
31
(a) Two-bladed teetered-hub upwind rotor
(b) Two-bladed rigid-hub downwind rotor.
32
Other HAWT Concepts
33
WAVT and HAWT in 30 rpm
34
Midterm Grades
Midterm Grade Breakdown

7
Maximum: 6
Fidan Gadimaliyeva – 101%

5
Ismayil Eyvazzade – 100%
4
Mean: 83% 3
Median: 86% 2
0
Not Attended Less than 70 70-80 80-90 90-100
35
Momentum Theory and
Betz Limit
36
𝜌 𝐴∞ 𝑈 ∞ =𝜌 𝐴𝑑 𝑈 𝑑=𝜌 𝐴𝑤 𝑈 𝑤
Where,
∞ subscript refers to conditions far upstream, 37
d subscript refers to conditions at disc and
w subscript refers to conditions in the far wake
Assumptions:
1. Homogeneous, incompressible, steady-state flow

2. No frictional Drag due to rotor
3. Infinite number of blades
4. Uniform thrust over disc/rotor area
5. Non-rotating wake
6. Static Pressure far upstream/downstream is equal to undisturbed ambient
pressure 38
1 2
Kinetic Energy: 𝐸= 𝑚 𝑣 ( 𝑁𝑚)
2
Considering a cross sectional area A, through which the air passes at the velocity v, the Volume V flowing
through during a certain time unit, the “volume flow” is equal to:
And the mass flow with the air density ρ is equal to:
𝑘𝑔
˙
𝑚= 𝜌 𝑣𝐴 ( )
𝑠
39
The equations expressing the kinetic energy of the moving air and the mass flow yield the amount of
energy passing through cross-section A per unit time, which is identical to the power P:
1 3
𝑃= 𝜌 𝑣 𝐴 (𝑊 )
2
This is the amount of energy present in the flowing air.
However, we need to find the amount of energy that can be
extracted from it.
As mechanical energy can only be extracted at the cost of the

kinetic energy contained in the wind stream, this means that,
with an unchanged mass flow, the flow velocity behind the
wind energy converter must decrease. Reduced velocity,
however, means at the same time a widening of the cross-
section, as the same mass flow must pass through it. It is
thus necessary to consider the conditions in front of and
behind the converter 40
Here, v1 is the undelayed free-stream velocity, the wind velocity, before it reaches the converter, whereas v2 is
the flow velocity behind the converter.
We need to maintain mass flow rate, which means:

𝜌 𝐴1 𝑣 1=𝜌 𝐴2 𝑣 2
Thus,
1 2 2
𝑃= 𝜌 𝐴 1 𝑣 1( 𝑣 1 − 𝑣 2)
2
Or
)
41
We need to use another equation to derive the ratio v1/v2 that gives us the maximum power.
Using the law of conservation of Momentum, the force which the air exerts on the converter can be
expressed as:
𝐹 =𝑚 ˙ ( 𝑣1 − 𝑣 2 ) ( 𝑁 )
Using Newton’s third law of Motion (Action equals reaction), this force, thrust, must be counteracted by
an equal force exerted by the converter on the airflow. The thrust pushes the air mass at velocity v’,
present in the plane of flow of the converter. The Power required for this is equal to:
′
˙ ( 𝑣1 − 𝑣 2 ) 𝑣 ′ (𝑊 )
𝑃 = 𝐹 𝑣 =𝑚
42
Now we have two different equations for Power. On one hand, we can have power in the airflow before
and after entering the converter, on the other hand, from the thrust and the flow velocity. We equate these
two to get the relationship for the flow velocity v’
1
𝑃= ˙
𝑚 ¿
2
1 𝑚
𝑣′= ( 𝑣 1+ 𝑣 2 ) ( )
2 𝑠
The mass flow thus becomes:
′ 1 𝑘𝑔
˙
𝑚= 𝜌 𝐴𝑣 = 𝜌 𝐴 ( 𝑣 1 +𝑣 2 ) ( )
2 𝑠 43
Substituting the mass flow equation in the Power equation, we get:

1 2 2
𝑃= 𝜌 𝐴 ( 𝑣 1 − 𝑣 2 ) ( 𝑣 1 +𝑣 2 )
4
For reference with use the available power in a free stream of the wind:
44
The ratio between the mechanical Power extracted by the converter and
that of the undisturbed air stream is called the “power coefficient”,
1
𝜌 𝐴( 𝑣 21 − 𝑣 22)( 𝑣1 + 𝑣 2)
𝑃 4
𝑐𝑃 = =
𝑃0 1
𝜌 𝐴 𝑣13
2
With some rearrangement, we can show the power coefficient directly as a function of the
velocity ratio v2/v1
[ ( ) ][ ]
2
𝑃 1 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑐𝑃 = = 1− 2 1+
𝑃0 2 𝑣1 𝑣1
45
We successfully represented power coefficient , i.e. ratio of the extractable mechanical power
to the power contained in the air stream, with only variable of the ratio of air velocities
[ ( ) ][ ]
2
𝑃 1 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑐𝑃 = = 1− 2 1+
𝑃0 2 𝑣1 𝑣1
Now in order to find the maximum , we first replace with a variable α
Thus,
)
46
The maximum point of the is when equals to zero.
Taking the derivative, we get
𝑑𝑐 𝑃 1 α
= ( − 3 α 2 −2 α +1 ) =0 2
3 α + 2 α −1=0
𝑑𝑎 2
We know that the ratio of the wind speeds cannot be zero, therefore is the ratio where the is at
Maximum
47
[ ( ) ][ ]
2
𝑃 1 𝑣2 𝑣2 1
= [ 1− α ] ( 1+α )
2
𝑐𝑃 = = 1− 1+
𝑃0 2 𝑣1 𝑣1 2
In this equation, we substitute , which results in the maximum power coefficient to be:
𝟏𝟔
(𝒄 𝑷 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = =𝟎 .𝟓𝟗𝟑
𝟐𝟕
This is called the Betz Limit and it is the MAXIMUM Power Coefficient any theoretical wind turbine can achieve
48
Power coefficient versus the flow velocity ratio of the flow Flow conditions of the stream through an ideal disk-
before and after the energy converter shaped energy converter with the maximum possible
extraction of mechanical power
49
Real Power Coefficient of WTGs
50
BETZ Limit
Factors that Affect Betz Limit
Rotation of the
Finite number
wake behind Frictional Drag
of Blades
the rotor
51
Thrust Coefficient
Axial thrust on the disk can be found in the given formula
1 2
𝑇 = 𝜌 𝐴 2 𝑣 [ 4 𝑎 ( 1− 𝑎 ) ]
2
Here, a is called the Axial Induction factor and can be found using the formula
𝑣1 −𝑣2
𝑎=
2
And thrust coefficient can be calculated as
𝑇 Thrust Force
𝐶𝑇 =
1
𝜌 𝐴 𝑣2 Dynamic Force
2
52
“BETZ Turbine” Operating Parameters
53
Wind Turbine Efficiency
The overall efficiency of a wind turbine is a function of both the rotor power coefficient
and the mechanical (including electrical) efficiency of the wind turbine
𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = =𝜂 𝑀𝐸𝐶𝐻 𝑐 𝑃
1 3
𝜌 𝐴𝑣
2
()
54
Wind Turbine Wakes
55
Ideal HAWT with Wake Rotation
56
Ideal HAWT with Wake Rotation
57
Stream tube model of flow behind
rotating WT Blade
58
Wake Rotation
• If it is assumed that the angular velocity imparted to the

flowstream, ω, is small compared to the angular velocity, Ω, of the
wind turbine rotor, then it can also be assumed that the pressure in
the far wake is equal to the pressure in the free stream
• The analysis that follows is based on the use of an annular stream
tube with a radius r and a thickness dr, resulting in a cross-
sectional area equal to 2πrdr
• The pressure, wake rotation, and induction factors are all assumed
to be functions of radius
1 2 Pressure difference of air before and
𝑝 2 − 𝑝 3=𝜌 (Ω + 𝜔) 𝜔 𝑟
2 after going through the disk
Thrust on annular element, dT is
[(
𝑑𝑇 =( 𝑝 2 −𝑝 3 ) 𝑑𝐴= 𝜌 Ω+
1
2 ) ]
𝜔 𝜔 𝑟 2 2 𝜋 𝑟𝑑𝑟
59
Wake Rotation
An angular induction factor, a’, can be defined as:
′
𝑎 =𝜔/ 2 Ω
The thrust of annular element then becomes:
1
𝑑𝑇 =4 𝑎 ( 1+ 𝑎 )
′ ′ 2 2
𝜌 Ω 𝑟 2 𝜋 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2
Earlier we calculated the Thrust to be:
Where U is the free stream velocity
60
Wake Rotation
Combining Thrust expressions for wake rotation and linear momentum:
𝒂 ( 𝟏− 𝒂 ) 𝜴 𝟐 𝒓 𝟐 𝟐
= =𝝀𝒓
𝒂 ′ (𝟏+ 𝒂) 𝑼
𝟐
Defining the Tip-Speed Ratio: 𝜴𝑹

𝝀=
𝑼
𝒖 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒑

𝑻𝒊𝒑 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝝀= =
𝒗𝒘 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
61
Wake Rotation
Assuming is the local λ (at a given radius)
𝜴 𝒓 𝝀𝒓
𝝀𝒓= =
𝑼 𝑹
Now we derive an expression for torque on the rotor by applying conservation of angular
momentum:
′ 𝟏 𝟐
𝒅𝑸=𝟒 𝒂 (𝟏 − 𝒂 ) 𝝆 𝑼 𝜴 𝒓 𝟐 𝝅 𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝟐
62
Wake Rotation
The power generated at each element dP is:
𝑑𝑃=Ω 𝑑𝑄
Using the previous two equations and using the expression for
1
𝑑𝑃= 𝜌 𝐴𝑈
2
3 8
𝜆
2 [
𝑎
′
( 1 −𝑎 ) 𝜆
3
𝑟 𝑑 𝜆𝑟
]
63
Wake Rotation
The incremental contribution of Cp
𝑑𝑃
𝑑 𝐶𝑝=
1
𝜌 𝐴𝑈 3
2
Solving for Cp
𝝀
𝟖
𝑪 𝒑= 𝟐 ∫ 𝒂 ′ (𝟏 − 𝒂) 𝝀𝒓 𝒅 𝝀𝒓
𝟑
𝝀 𝟎
64
Wake Rotation
Maximum Cp for Wake Rotation
𝒂𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝟒 ( 𝟏 − 𝒂 ) ( 𝟏− 𝟐 𝒂)(𝟏 − 𝟒 𝒂)
𝑪𝒑 = 𝟐 ∫[ ] 𝒅𝒂
𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝝀 𝒂 𝟏
(𝟏 −𝟑 𝒂)
65
Theoretical Max. Cp with Wake
rotation
66
Induction factors for WT with wake
rotation
67
Cp for different Rotor Types
68
Achievable Power Coefficients of
three-bladed Rotor
69
Cp and Tip speed ratio λ
70
Blade Element
Momentum Theory
71
Blade Element Theory
Blade Element Theory provides values for the normal force (Thrust) and tangential
force (Torque) for a section of the blade as a function of angle of attack and the
airfoil characteristics
72
Blade Element Momentum Theory
Blade Element Momentum (BEM) or “Strip” Theory refers to the determination of wind
turbine performance by combining the equations of momentum and blade element
theory for a complete blade
73
74
75
Blade Geometry for Analysis
76
Aerodynamic rotor forces and
torques over the blade length
𝐹 𝑙/ 𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h

𝐶𝑙= =
1 2 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h
𝜌 𝑈 𝐴𝑐
2
𝐹 𝐷/𝑙 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h

𝐶𝑑= =
𝜌 𝑈2𝑐
2
77
Rotor Blade Twist (Linear Variation
for blade pitch control)
78
BEM Theory – Resultant Equations
Normal Force on a section at distance r, and differential torque due to the tangential force
𝟏 𝟐
𝒅 𝑭 𝑵= 𝑩 𝝆 𝑼 𝒓𝒆𝒍 ( 𝑪𝒍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋+ 𝑪 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 ) 𝒄𝒅𝒓
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝒅𝑸=𝑩𝒓𝒅 𝑭 𝒕 =𝑩 𝝆 𝑼 𝒓𝒆𝒍 ( 𝑪 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋+ 𝑪 𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 ) 𝒄 𝒓 𝒅𝒓
𝟐
79
Resultant Equations – Without Wake Rotation
Angle of relative wind φ and chord c:
𝜑 =tan
−1
( )
2
3 𝜆𝑟
8 𝜋 𝑟 sin 𝜑
𝑐=
3 𝐵 𝐶 𝑙 𝜆𝑟
Betz Optimum Blade

80
Without Wake Rotation
81
Without Wake Rotation – Chord and Twist Angle Distribution
82
Resultant Equations – With Wake Rotation
𝜑=
2
3
tan
−1
( )
1
𝜆𝑟
8𝜋𝑟
𝑐= ( 1− cos 𝜑 )
𝐵 𝐶𝑙
83
With/without wake rotation
Pitch angle of section , and :
𝜽 𝑷 =𝝋 − 𝜶
𝜽 𝑻 = 𝜽 𝑷 − 𝜽 𝑷 ,𝟎
Note that is the blade pitch angle at the tip
84
Resultant Equations – With Wake Rotation
85
INFLUENCE OF COMMITTING SECTIONS OF
THE BLADE AREA NEAR THE HUB ON Cp
86
Influence of Blade Twist on Cp
87
Influence of Thickness-to-chord
ratio on Cp
88
Existing Rotor Blade Designs
Three Bladed rotors
89
Influence of Number of
Blades
90
Influence of Number of Blades
Pre- and Post-stall models of the
variation of airfoil lift coefficients
with the angle of attack
91
Pre- and post-stall models of the
variation of airfoil drag coefficients
with angle of attack
92
Influence of the number of blades on
the rotor power coefficient and
optimum tip-speed ratio
93
Rotor Power Curve – Loss Factors
94
Rotor Power curve as a function of
blade numbers (no drag)
95
Rotor Power and Torque
(for WKA-60)
96
Power Output – Pitch vs Stall
Control
97
Rotor Design
98
Procedure for Rotor Design
1 2 3 4
Determine basic Define Blade Calculate rotor Solve for a and a’
rotor parameters Shape performance and
modify blade
design
99
1. Determine Basic Rotor
Parameters
Rotor Diameter
Tip speed ratio
Number of blades
Airfoil selection
100
Define Blade Shape
1. Obtain and evaluate aerodynamic properties of airfoils, from base of blade to tip (chord,
flow angle/angle of relative wind, twisting angle
2. Determine optimum blade section for each section from BEM
3. Using (2), select blade profile
101
Calculate Rotor Performance and
Modify Blade Design
• In the calculation of induction factors, a and a’ , accepted practice is to set Cd equal to

zero (See Wilson and Lissaman, 1974). For airfoils with low drag coefficients, this
simplification introduces negligible errors.
• The torque equations from momentum and blade element theory can be equated
with Cd=0
102
Modify Blade Design
103
Modify Blade Design
• There are two methods for solving the equations in the

previous slide
• Solving for and α
• Iterative solution using a and a’
104
Solving for and α
- Since , for a given blade geometry and operating

condition, there are two unknowns in the
equation shown, and α at each section. In order
to find these values, one can use the empirical vs
α curves for the chosen airfoil.
- One then finds the and α from the empirical data
that satisfy the equation. This can be done either
numerically or graphically (as shown in the figure
- Once and α have been found, a’ and a can be
determined from any two of the equations in the
previous slide
- It should be verified that the axial induction factor
at the intersection point of the curves is less than
0.5 to ensure that the result is valid (Betz method)
105
Iterative solution using a and a’
Another equivalent solution method starts with guesses for a and a’ , from which flow
conditions and new induction factors are calculated:
1. Guess values for a and a’

2. Calculate the angle of the relative wind φ from equation:
3. Calculate the angle of attack from and then and

4. Update a and a’ from the equations provided above
106
Iterative solution using a and a’
This process is repeated until the newly calculated induction factors
are within some acceptable tolerance of the previous ones. This
method is especially useful for highly loaded rotor conditions.
107
Loads on Wind Turbines
108
Wind Turbine “Directives”
A wind turbine must:
- Produce Energy
- Survive
- Be cost effective
109
Loads affecting WTG Operation
Steady Loads (static or rotating)
Cyclic Loads
Transient (Including Impulsive) loads
Stochastic loads
Resonance – Induced loads 110

Steady Loads – Static or Rotating
Steady loads are Constant (non-time varying) loads that impinge on a
structure that may be in motion or static. For example, a steady wind
blowing on a stationary wind turbine would induce static loads on the
various parts of the machine
111
Cyclic Loads
Cyclic loads are those which vary in a regular or periodic manner
(particularly due to rotation of the rotor). Cyclic loads arise as a
result of such factors as the weight of the blades, wind shear, and
yaw motion.
112
Transient loads – Including Impulsive
Transient loads are time-varying loads which arise in response to
some temporary external event. There may be some oscillation
associated with the transient response, but they eventually decay.
Examples of transient loads include those in the drive train resulting
from the application of a brake

113
Stochastic loads
Stochastic loads are time-varying, as are cyclic, transient, and

impulsive loads. In this case, the loading varies in a more
apparently random manner. In many cases the mean value may
be relatively constant, but there may be significant fluctuations
from that mean. Examples of stochastic loads are those which
arise in the blades when the wind is very turbulent.
114
Loads and Stresses on the Rotor
115
Vestas V80 – Full Power
116
Sources of Loading
117
Various Operating Conditions
- Aerodynamics
- Gravity
- Dynamic Interactions
- Mechanical Control – Operational loads arising from actions
of the control system (e.g., braking, yawing, blade-pitch
control, generator disconnection)
118
119
120
121
122
Sources of Loading
- Uniform and steady-state airflow
- Vertical wind shear and cross-winds
- Tower interference
- Wind turbulence and Gusts
- Gravitational loads
- Centrifugal Loads
- Gyroscopic Loads 123

Permissible alternating stresses and
load cycle numbers for various systems
124
Recommended Reading
Wind Turbines by Eric Hau – Chapter 6
Wind Energy Explained - Chapter 4
125
Design Load Assumptions
126
International Standards for WT
design/certification
International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC), 61400 series
Germanicher Lloyd – Det Norske Veritas -

DNV-GL
Danish Standard - DS472
Dutch Standard - NVN 1400-0 127

International Standards – IEC 61400
Series
The IEC 61400 is a set of design requirements made to ensure that wind
turbines are appropriately engineered against damage from hazards within
the planned lifetime
128
IEC 61400 Series
IEC 61400-1 – Design requirements for Wind Turbines
IEC 61400-2 – Design requirements for small Wind Turbines
IEC 61400-3 – Design Requirements for offshore Wind Turbines
IEC 61400-4 – Gears
IEC 61400-5 – Wind Turbine Rotor Blades
IEC 61400-11 – Acoustic noise measurement techniques
IEC 61400-12 – Wind Turbine power performance testing
IEC 61400-13 – Measurement of mechanical loads
IEC 61400-14 – Declaration of apparent sound power level and tonality values
IEC 61400-21 – Measurement and assessment of power quality
IEC 61400-22 – Conformity testing and certification
IEC 61400-23 – Full-scale structural testing of rotor blades
IEC 61400-24 – Lightning protection 129
IEC 61400-25 – Communication Protocol

Design Load Assumptions
Wind Turbine Classes
Normal Wind Conditions
Extreme Wind Conditions

130
Wind Turbine Classes
According to IEC 61400-1:
Wind Turbine Class I II III S

Vref (m/s) 50 42.5 37.5 Values
A Iref (-) 0,16 specified by
B Iref (-) 0,14 the designer
C Iref (-) 0,12
In the Table, the parameters apply at the hub height and
Vref is the reference wind speed average over 10 min

A designates the category for higher turbulence characteristics
B designates the category for medium turbulence characteristics
C designates the category for lower turbulence characteristics
131
Iref is the expected value of the turbulence intensity at 15 m/s
Design Load Assumptions – Normal
Wind Conditions
• Mean wind speed and wind speed

frequency distribution
• Vertical wind shear
• Change in wind direction
• Turbulence
132
Design Load Assumptions –
Extreme wind conditions
• Extreme Wind speed and gusts

• 50-year gust criterion
• Derived from turbulence model and rotor diameter (IEC 61400-1) or
gust factors
• Extreme change in wind direction
133
Design Load Assumptions – Other
Environmental Influences
1. Temperature range
2. Air density
3. Solar radiation
4. Ice accretion
5. Bird strike
6. Orographic influences
7. Lightning
8. Earthquakes 134
Performance of HAWT
135
Energy Production Estimates (AEP)
Performance Curves
Constant and Variable rotational speeds
Performance Measurement and comparison with

theoretical curves
Turbulence Effects 136

Energy Production Estimates
137
Annual Energy Production – AEP
Wind At least one year Long-term

Measurement of data – Seasonal Adjustment (LTA)
Program variability of wind data
Modeling: wind
Power curve from
resource over Estimated losses
manufacturer
projected area
Annual Energy
Production
Estimate (AEP) 138
Wind Statistics
139
Method od Bins – Wind Data +
Power Curve
140
Wind Data + Power Curve
141
Performance/Power Curves
142
Definition of Power Curve
143
Power Curve Parameters
• Cut-in Speed
• Rated Speed
• Cut-out Speed
• Air Density
• Temperature
• Pressure (Elevation above
sea level
144
Effect of wind shear and air density
145
Constant and variable
rotational speeds
146
Constant vs Variable Speed
• Speed of rotation affects the power produced by the wind turbine
• Early models (1980-1990) used constant speed rotors to match the

frequency of the grid
• Modern wind turbines take advantage of the variable speed philosophy

to improve energy conversion and reduce dynamic losses
147
Constant vs Variable Speed
148
Power Coefficients for Modern WTGs
149
Performance Measurement
and comparison with
Theoretical Curves
150
IEC 61400-12
• Divided into 3 parts:
• Part 1: Power performance measurements of electricity

producing wind turbines
• Part 2: Power performance of electricity producing wind
turbines based on nacelle anemometry
• Part 3: Wind farm power performance testing (under
consideration)
151
Effect of wind shear and air density
• Position of the meteorological

mast for measuring the power
curve of a wind turbine
according to IEC 61400-12.
• Wind measurement 2 to 4
diameters from the wind
turbine (recommended
distance 2.5D)
152
Measured and Certified Power
Curve
153
Effects of Turbulence Intensity
154
Mechanical and Civil Aspects
of Wind Turbines
155
Mechanical and Civil Aspects of
Wind Turbines
Blade Structural design
Rotor Hub
Drive Train
Tower
Wind Turbine Foundation

156
Blade Structural Design
157
Blade Structure
Typical fiberglass blade cross-section
158
Design Considerations
aerodynamic performance;
Structural strength;
Blade materials;
Recyclability;
Blade manufacturing;
Worker health and safety;
Noise reduction;
Condition/health monitoring;
Blade roots and hub attachment;
Passive control or smart blade options;
Costs. 159
Aerodynamic Performance
The Primary aerodynamic factors affecting blade design are:
Design rated power and rated wind speed
Design tip speed ratio
Solidity
Airfoil
Number of blades
Rotor power control (stall or pitch)

160
Rotor orientation (upwind or downwind)

161
162
Structural Strength
163
Modern Designs – Blade Cross
section – Structural Strength
164
Modern Wind Turbines – Blade
Structure
165
Aircraft wings as model
166
Aircraft wings as Model
167
Experimental Designs – Past
Experience
Aircraft wing riveted duraluminum design
168
Experience
Rotor blade design with riveted duraluminum in the American MOD-0 Test Turbine
169
Experience
Rotor blades made of extruded aluminum profiles of the Flowind-Darrieus rotors
170
Experimental Designs - WOOD
Rotor blade of the Nibe-B turbine in traditional wood design
171
Modern Designs – Laying Fiberglass
into the Blade Mold
172
Recyclability
An important concern, especially for the future, is blade recyclability. As more and more
turbines are built, and are built, and as older turbines are replaced by newer ones, the issue
blade disposal and securing raw materials for new blades will become more significant. One
way, to deal with both issues, at least partly, is by making the blades or recyclable materials.
This is a relatively new topic of study, but is expected to become more significant over time
173
Blade Manufacturing
174
Blade Manufacturing
There are a number of options for manufacturing composite wind turbine blades. The most
important of these are summarized below:
1. Wet Lay-up
2. Pre-preg
3. Resin Infusion
4. Compression Molding
5. Pultrusion
6. Wood-Epoxy Saturation Technique (WEST)

175
7. Filament Winding
WT Blade Design Considerations
Worker Health and Safety
Some methods of Blade fabrication, particularly wet lay-up, can result in toxic gases being
released into air. These gases can be hazardous for the workers who are building the blades. It
may be therefore be expected that there will be continuing trend to replace wet lay-up with
other fabrication Methods, such as VARTM
Noise Reduction
A wind turbine’s rotor can be a source of unwanted sound (i.e. noise). One way to reduce the
noise is through the selection of suitable airfoils. Another way is to design the rotor to operate
best at a relatively low tip speed ratio.
Condition / Health Monitoring

Wind turbine blades can suffer various types of damage over time. Ideally, they are inspected
periodically. In practice however, it is difficult to do a thorough inspection, especially of the
blades’ interior. One way to deal with this issue is via condition or health monitoring. In this
technique, sensors are embedded in the blades during the manufacture. The sensors are
afterwards integrated into a monitoring system, which can be used to alert operators that
repairs are necessary 176
WT Blade Besign Considerations
Blade Root and Hub Attachment

Blades are attached to the hub by via blade root, which is the end of the blade nearest the hub.
The root experiences the highest loads, and is also the location that must provide for the
connection to the hub. In order to reduce stresses, the root is generally made as thick as is
practical in the flap-wise direction. Connection between the root and the hub has often proven
to be difficult. This is largely due to dissimilarities in material properties and stiffnesses between
the blades, the hub and the fasteners. Highly variable loads also contribute to the problem.
There are different methods used to attach blade roots to the hub:
177
Blade root and hub attachment
Hütter Design
Modified Hütter Design
178
Blade root and hub attachment
(a) Threaded inserts being installed; (b) bladed root with threaded inserts
179
Blade Connection to Rotor Hub
Heavy dual steel flange in earlier rotor blades Blade connection with cross-bolts
180
181
182
Aerodynamic Control Options
Control Surfaces (Active Control)

• Aerodynamic Breaking
• Partial Span Pitch Control
• Aileron
Passive Control
• Pitch-Twist Coupling – Swept Blades
• Pre-bending
Smart Blades 183

Pitch System – Bearing
Arrangement
184
Wind Turbine Pitching
185
Pitch System
186
Lighting Protection
187
Blade De-Icing
188
Rotor Hub
189
Rotor Hub Types
190
Rotor Hub
191
Rotor Hub – Blade Connection
192
Rotor Hub – Pitch System and Blade
Connection
193
Nacelle
194
Nacelle Components
195
Main Shaft Options
196
Gearbox – Configuration and
Relative Cost
197
Gearbox – Configuration and
Relative Cost
198
Gearbox - Examples
Two-Stage Multi-Stage Planetary
199
Direct Drive Systems
200
Direct-drive multi-pole synchronous generator of the Enercon E-30

Tower
201
Tower
• Function: Placement of the rotor at the appropriate elevation
• Considerations:
• Stiffness
• Transportation
• COST
202
Tower Types
Lattice
Free standing tubular
Guyed (anchored) tubular
Concrete
Hybrid (Steel-concrete)
203
Typical Tower Configuration
204
Tower Wall Thickness
205
Tower Manufacturing - Plate Rolling
206
Tower Manufacturing – Plate Rolling
207
Tower Manufacturing
Small Sections Complete
208
Tower Manufacturing
Large Section Assembly
209
Tower Manufacturing
Installation of Tower Flanges
210
Tower Manufacturing
Large Section (Bottom) Complete
211
Tower Manufacturing
Inspection of Welding Seams
212
Tower Manufacturing
Moving to Painting Facility
213
Tower Manufacturing - Painted Tower
with Ladder and Cables Installed
214
215
Foundation Design
Foundation Design is based on:
1. Size of wind turbine and local ground conditions
2. The highest loads acting on the wind turbine under stand-still conditions
(highest assumed wind speed – survival wind speed)
3. Highest loads during operation. The maximum tilting moment for the
foundation is determined by the rotor thrust. In turbines with blade pitch
control, rotor thrust reaches its peak at the rated power.
216
217
Foundation Types
1. Slab (Standard
2. Pile
1. Mono Pile
2. Multiple Piles
218
Slab (Standard) Foundation for
Steel Towers
219
Slab (Standard) Foundation for
Concrete Towers
220
Piled Foundation
221
Foundation Shapes - Square
222
Foundation Shapes - Circular
223
Foundation Shapes - Cross
224

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“Wind Energy Systems”

Mechanical and Civil Aspects of Wind Turbines

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

Momentum Theory and Betz Limit

Blade Element Theory

Influence of blade number

• If the chord line between the leading and trailing

• The angle between the free stream and the chord

• Symmetrical airfoils need a positive angle of

• Cambered airfoils can produce lift if α = 0⁰

Darrieus wind turbines of the former H-rotor wind turbine (rotor

For More information please refer to the sources below:

Analysis of Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines

(a) Two-bladed teetered-hub upwind rotor

(b) Two-bladed rigid-hub downwind rotor.

Midterm Grade Breakdown

Fidan Gadimaliyeva – 101%

1. Homogeneous, incompressible, steady-state flow

As mechanical energy can only be extracted at the cost of the

We need to maintain mass flow rate, which means:

The mass flow thus becomes:

Substituting the mass flow equation in the Power equation, we get:

Now in order to find the maximum , we first replace with a variable α

The maximum point of the is when equals to zero.

Taking the derivative, we get

Factors that Affect Betz Limit

Axial thrust on the disk can be found in the given formula

And thrust coefficient can be calculated as

• If it is assumed that the angular velocity imparted to the

Thrust on annular element, dT is

An angular induction factor, a’, can be defined as:

Earlier we calculated the Thrust to be:

Where U is the free stream velocity

Combining Thrust expressions for wake rotation and linear momentum:

Defining the Tip-Speed Ratio: 𝜴𝑹

𝒖 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒑

Assuming is the local λ (at a given radius)

The power generated at each element dP is:

The incremental contribution of Cp

Maximum Cp for Wake Rotation

turbine performance by combining the equations of momentum and blade element

theory for a complete blade

𝐹 𝑙/ 𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h

𝐹 𝐷/𝑙 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h

Resultant Equations – Without Wake Rotation

Angle of relative wind φ and chord c:

Betz Optimum Blade

Without Wake Rotation

Without Wake Rotation – Chord and Twist Angle Distribution

Resultant Equations – With Wake Rotation

With/without wake rotation

Pitch angle of section , and :

Note that is the blade pitch angle at the tip

Resultant Equations – With Wake Rotation

Pre- and Post-stall models of the

variation of airfoil lift coefficients

with the angle of attack

Pre- and post-stall models of the