PROPELLERS

1
Thrust Producers Compared
• A PROPELLER is a means of converting engine
power into a propulsive force.
• Rotating a propeller results in the rearward
acceleration of a mass of air, the reaction to
this rearward motion is a forward force on the
propeller blades called THRUST.

• THRUST = MASS OF AIRFLOW X ACCELERATION

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 3

• The propeller accelerates a large mass of air
rearward at a relatively low velocity.
• The reaction to this is a thrust force acting in a
forward direction, propelling an aircraft along
its flight path.
• When a propeller is fitted in front of an
engine, it is a tractor, whereas when fitted at
the rear it is a pusher.

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 PROPELLER EFFICIENCY
• Propeller efficiency is the ratio of thrust horse
power (THP), which is delivered by the
propeller, to the engine power (BHP) required
to drive the propeller at a given rpm,
expressed as a percentage.

• PROPELLER EFFICIENCY = THP/BHP

5
• Another definition is the ratio of useful work done by
the propeller in moving an aircraft, to the work
supplied by the engine.
• The work done by the propeller is the product of the
thrust and forward speed(TAS).
• The work supplied by the engine is the torque
required to turn the propeller at a given rpm.

PROPELLER EFFICIENCY=(THRUST
*TAS) / BHP

6
• When the aircraft is stationary on the ground
with the engine running, the propeller is 0%
effective, since, although it may be developing
a lot of thrust, it is not doing any work.
• As the forward speed of the aircraft increases,
the efficiency increases.
• An efficiency level of 88% upon achieving the
optimum airspeed for that propeller can be
expected.

7
• The diagram above illustrates a fixed pitch propeller travelling
at different forward speeds and at a constant rpm.
• For a fixed blade angle, with variations in forward speed the
AOA changes.
• As the forward speed increases, the AOA decreases and with it
the thrust. 8
 DISADVANTAGES OF
FIXED PITCH PROPELLER
• Fixed pitch propellers, like most aerofoils, are most
efficient only under one set of conditions i.e. cruise.
• But until reaching cruising airspeed, the AOA of the
propeller blades is comparatively large, therefore the
propeller is less efficient.
• During take-off, the AOA of the blades of such a
propeller would be extremely large.

9
• This would result in poor acceleration, hence
requiring a longer take-off run.
• At cruise, AOA is at its optimum (around 4°),
therefore limiting forward speed to prevent engine
overspeeding.
• When a fixed pitch propeller is optimised for take-off
and climb performance, the cruise speed is
compromised, since the blades’ AOA would be too
low for maximum efficiency at higher speeds.

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• These disadvantages led to the development of variable
pitch or constant speed propellers.
• Characteristics of various fixed pitch propeller angles versus
a constant speed propeller at various speeds

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VP/01/2008
• For the propeller to be efficient over the whole operating
range, the blade angle needs to vary to maintain the
optimum AOA of the blade (2° to 4°).
• As forward speed increases, the blade angle must increase to
maintain the same AOA.

14
Advance Ratio , J

J =V / nD
 BLADE TWIST

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 17

• Since each blade is an aerofoil cross section, it produces thrust
most efficiently at a particular AOA.
• This angle varies both with operating conditions and with the
design camber of the blade sections.
• The rotational speed of a particular cross-section of a blade
increases with its distance from the axis of rotation, and since
the forward speed of all parts of the blades is the same, the
RAF varies along the blade.
• It is therefore necessary to provide a decreasing blade angle
from root to tip.
20
Draw Control Schematic on white board

BHP

Set Oil Piston Blade RPM

RPM Comparator valve Angle Torque out

RPM = BHP / TORQUE

Comparator Output = (Set RPM – RPM out ) -- error signal

Effectiveness of Propellers
Total Aerodynamic Force is resolved into THRUST and RESISTANCE.
The RESISTANCE force is overcome by engine TORQUE.
 THE VARIABLE AND CONSTANT
SPEED PROPELLER
• A variable pitch propeller allows the blade
angle to vary in flight in order to fully utilise
engine power.
• The earlier variable pitch propeller had two
blade settings: a fine pitch for take-off and
climb, and a coarse pitch to enable full engine
speed for use in cruising.

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• The introduction of an engine-driven propeller
governor enables the blade angle to alter
automatically, defining it as a constant speed
propeller.
• The pitch setting varies automatically to maintain a
pre-selected constant rotational speed.
• As a result, the engine and the propeller can work at
their maximum efficiency, regardless of whether the
aircraft is at take-off, climb, cruise, or maximum
speed.

27
• The blade pitch varies by the operation of the
propeller governor that controls oil flow in and out of
propeller pitch change mechanism to move a piston.
• The piston connects to the propeller blade, thereby
changing the pitch angle.
• The governor has two names,
1. Constant speed unit (CSU) - piston engine
2. Propeller control unit (PCU) - a turboprop.
• The term variable pitch is for use when describing a
constant speed propeller.

VP/01/2008 28
VP/01/2008
31
 Feathered: When the chord line of the blade is
parallel to the airflow, thereby preventing wind
milling.
 Coarse Pitch: the maximum cruising pitch in normal
operation
 Flight Fine Pitch: The minimum pitch obtainable in
flight. 32
• Ground Fine Pitch: the minimum torque position for
ground operation and is sometimes referred to as
superfine pitch.
• Reverse Pitch: an aerodynamic brake position used
for braking and sometimes ground manoeuvring.
It is achieved by accelerating air forward by the blade
going into a negative angle. 33
Alpha Range: The flight operating range, from
flight fine pitch to coarse pitch
Beta Range: from flight fine pitch to reverse pitch
which is the ground operating range and is hydro-
mechanically controlled by a flight deck power
lever.
VP/01/2008
VP/01/2008 36
VP/01/2008
Single Acting Propeller
• This is the type of propeller normally fitted to
a light piston engine aircraft.
• The pitch change mechanism consists of a
piston housed in a cylinder.
• The piston connects to the propeller blade via
an operating link.
• One side of the piston is subject to boosted
engine oil pressure whilst the other side is
subjected to spring force.
38
ATM , CTM
• On a constant speed feathering propeller, fitted onto
a light twin-engine piston aircraft, the boosted oil
pressure plus blade centrifugal turning moment
(CTM) turns the propeller to fine pitch.
• Movement to coarse pitch and feather is achieved via
the spring and counterweights attached to the blades
once the oil pressure has been relieved through the
constant speed unit.
• On a single engine non-feathering propeller there are
no counterweights, so boosted oil pressure is used to
turn the blades to coarse, and blade CTM and a light
spring turn the blades to fine.
VP/01/2008 40
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 41
Low Pitch Stop or Centrifugal Latch:
• This is sometimes referred to as start latch and
is fitted to prevent the propeller from turning
to feather when the engine shuts down.
• The blades normally feather due to the oil
pressure bleeding away through the CSU,
allowing the spring force to turn the blades to
the feather position.
• If the blades feather it places an unacceptable
load on the engine during start.

VP/01/2008 42
• A centrifugal latching mechanism locks the
piston in fine pitch.
• Once the engine starts and the rpm increases
above ground idle the centrifugal force
removes the latches, allowing piston
movement.
• Decreasing the rpm to the ground idle value
results in the return springs engaging the
latches, locking the blades in the fine pitch
position.

VP/01/2008 43
• It is important not to shut down the engine from a
high rpm on the ground, otherwise the latches do
not engage and the propeller feathers.

• In addition take care in flight to prevent the rpm from

falling such as due to engine failure below a pre-
determined figure, usually between 800 to 1000 rpm,
as the latches engage and prevent feathering.

• (The current AIC, pink in colour and subject to

monthly amendment, will give more information)

VP/01/2008 44
VP/01/2008 45
VP/01/2008
• The constant speed unit (CSU) of a single-acting
propeller controls the oil pressure to the piston to
move the blades to fine pitch.
• To move the blades to coarse pitch, relieving the oil
pressure causes the spring to move the piston to
coarse.
• The CSU consists of centrifugal flyweights, a control
valve, a control spring (speeder spring), a NRV, and an
oil pump to boost engine oil pressure for propeller
control mechanism operation.

VP/01/2008 47
• Driven by the engine, the governor’s L-shaped flyweights
measure the engine speed.
• If engine speed increases, the flyweights move outward under
centrifugal force, lifting the control valve against the opposing
control spring.
• The rpm lever sets the control spring tension.
• The engine speed and spring force determines the control
valve position.
• With these forces in balance, the control valve is in
the closed position, preventing oil from flowing into
or from the cylinder and creating a hydraulic lock,
which prevents movement of the piston.
• The principle of operation is also applicable to
double-acting propellers. 49
• The rpm lever that controls the tension of the control spring
achieves the desired rpm selection.
• Moving the rpm lever fully forward, with the throttle at a low
power setting, to the maximum rpm position fully compresses
the control spring and oil from the pump goes to the propeller
operating mechanism turning the propeller to fully fine.
• At the low power setting, any increase in throttle position
results in the engine reacting in the same manner as a fixed
pitch propeller until reaching the CSU speed range 50
• After this point, if the throttle opens to increase power
and engine speed, the centrifugal force on the flyweights
raises the control valve until it reaches the position where
it obtains maximum rpm.
• The centrifugal force of the flyweights and spring control
force are in balance and the CSU is in the on-speed
condition.
• As a result, there is no oil flow in or out of the CSU. 51
• Should the propeller load
decrease the rpm increases above
the rpm lever setting, or engine
rpm increases
• The flyweight centrifugal force
exceeds the spring pressure
causing the pilot valve to rise,
thus moving the governor to an
overspeed condition.
• Oil drains from the propeller
causing the piston to move the
blades to coarse, absorbing the
reduced propeller load and
preventing the rpm increasing
above its pre-determined value
with the CSU assuming the on-
speed condition once more. IAC, NPU
VP/01/2008 52
• When selecting a reduced rpm by
moving the rpm lever rearward, the
speeder spring tension reduces and
results in the flyweights raising the
control valve, which allows the oil to
drain from the propeller hub
coarsening the blades.

• The increased engine load decreases

engine rpm until the centrifugal force
of the flyweights balances the speeder
spring force at the new selected rpm,
and the CSU assumes the on-speed
condition.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 53
• Alternatively, increased propeller
load decreases the engine rpm,
allowing the speeder spring force to
overcome the centrifugal force of
the flyweights.
• The flyweights move inward,
causing the control valve to drop.
• The CSU is now in underspeed
condition .
• Oil now goes into the propeller hub
and the blades move toward fine
pitch, decreasing the propeller load
maintaining the pre-selected rpm.
• Once again the CSU assumes the
on-speed condition.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 54

• Moving the rpm lever forward commands an
increase in rpm, therefore increasing the speeder
spring tension and causing the flyweights to
move inward.
• This allows the control valve to drop and direct oil
into the propeller hub, decreasing the blade
angle.
• This results in the rpm increasing until
achievement of the on-speed condition at the
selected rpm.
• In basic terms, if the control valve lifts, the blades
go toward coarse and ultimately feather.
• If the control drops, the blades go towards fine.
• This is true as long as the operation is within the
controlling speed range of the CSU.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 55
 SINGLE-ACTING
PROPELLER FEATHERING

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 56

• Feathering is a procedure of turning the propeller
blades until the blade chord line is almost , or
completely parallel to the airflow, so there are no
rotating forces acting on the propeller that produce
high drag due to wind milling.
• This is desirable to prevent further rotation of the
engine that may cause damage and ensures
minimum drag is maintained.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 57
• In order to achieve feather, the control valve must lift to
release the oil pressure, allowing the feathering spring and
counterweights to move the blades to feather.
• Moving the rpm lever fully rearward past the low rpm position
to the feather position releases the control spring pressure
and mechanically lifts the control valve up.
• An internal feather stop is fitted to limit piston travel.
• Once in the feather position, the rpm lever, depending on the
installation, may be locked in position by a feather latch to
prevent inadvertent de-selection.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 58
 SINGLE-ACTING
PROPELLER UN-FEATHERING
• When feathered, there is little or no propeller torque
to turn the engine for restart, if desired.
• To un-feather a propeller, oil pressure is necessary to
turn the propeller from the feathered position
toward coarse in order to create windmilling to
restart the engine.
• Two methods can supply oil pressure, either by
cranking the engine on the starter or by use of an un-
feathering accumulator that stores oil pressure.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 59

• The accumulator is a cylinder that contains a
separator piston subject to CSU oil pressure on
one side and nitrogen pressure on the other.
• The accumulator charges with oil pressure
when the engine is running and a non-return
valve retains the pressure.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 60

• When using the engine cranking method, place the rpm lever
in the correct position, which is normally just forward of the
minimum rpm position or just out of the feather gate, in order
to prevent engine overspeed.
• This allows the CSU control valve to drop under action of the
control spring.
• This admits oil pressure created due to the starter turning the
engine to the pitch change mechanism and moving the
propeller from the feather position.
• The disadvantage of this system is the high loads placed on
the starter motor due to the high torque reaction of the
propeller blades in the feathered position.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 61

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 62
• The fitting of the un-feathering accumulator overcomes the
disadvantage of the cranking method.
• As before, moving the rpm lever forward to the correct
position for un-feather allows the CSU control valve to lower.
• In this case, the accumulator supplies the oil pressure
necessary by releasing the stored oil pressure to the pitch
change mechanism.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 63

• Depending on the system employed, oil pressure may be
released either by forward movement of the rpm lever only or
in conjunction with the operation of an un-feathering button.

• The propeller moves from feather toward coarse causing

windmilling of the propeller that in turn rotates the engine
and effects engine start without the aid of the starter motor.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 64

 PROPELLER CONTROL UNIT
(PCU)

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 65

 • These are fitted to a turbo-propeller
engine and function in the same
manner as a CSU but incorporate
various extra functions.
• In this system, it is common for the
engine fuel control unit and PCUs to
connect to the power control lever.
• As a result, fuel flow and engine
speed are selected together.
• Other installations can incorporate a
separate rpm control or condition
lever.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 66

• The double-acting propeller is the type usually fitted to larger
engines.
• In this arrangement, there are no counterweights fitted and the
piston is subject to oil pressure on both sides, turning the
propeller to fine, coarse, and feather.
• In the case of a turboprop, a PCU controls the flow of oil. 67
VP/01/2008
DOUBLE-ACTING PROPELLER FEATHERING

69
 • Since a double-acting propeller
operates by directing oil pressure
to either side of the piston in the
pitch change mechanism, oil
pressure is required in order to
feather.
• Fitting an electrical oil pump in
the system that takes oil from the
bottom of the oil tank below a
stack pipe achieves this.

VP/01/2008 70
• Pushing in the feathering button (normally
illuminated) energises a holding coil.
• This activates the electrical pump to supply oil
pressure.
• It also energises a valve lift solenoid, allowing
the pump oil pressure to lift the control valve,
allowing pump oil pressure into the pitch
change mechanism to feather the propeller.
• Once reaching the full feather position, a
pressure cut out switch turns off the
feathering pump.
VP/01/2008 71
• On a manual system, moving the high pressure
fuel cock to the feather position, mechanically
lifting the control valve, lifts the control valve
in the PCU.
• If insufficient oil pressure is available from the
engine-driven PCU pump to move the
propeller to feather, then operation of the
electrical feather pump becomes necessary.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 72

VP/01/2008
 DOUBLE-ACTING PROPELLER
UN-FEATHERING
• In a double-acting propeller, the electrical
feathering pump oil pressure directed to the
pitch change mechanism achieves un-
feathering, with the power levers closed and
the high pressure fuel cock open.
• The rpm lever moves in normal operating
range and the control valve lowers under the
action of the governor spring.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 74

• The electrical feathering pump switches on and oil
pressure discharges to the PCU, turning the propeller
from feather toward coarse.
• The propeller then windmills and rotates the engine.
• Once the engine starts and is on speed, the oil
pressure from the feathering pump rises and a cut
out switch turns the pump off.
• Operation of the pump occurs either via manual
selection of a switch or automatically via a micro
switch mounted on the high pressure fuel cock lever.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 75

PITCH STOPS :
• These are fitted to control the propeller angle for
ground and flight operations. The types of pitch stops
are:
 Ground Fine Pitch Stop :
This stop type ensures fine pitch on the ground
during engine start and ground running.
 Flight Fine Pitch Stop
This stop type limits the minimum pitch in
flight to prevent overspeed and resulting high
drag.
It must be removed to allow selection of
ground fine pitch for ground operation.
VP/01/2008 76
BETA RANGE:
• Some gas turbine engines use a form of
control known as Beta Control.
• Beta is blade angle, and during ground
operations only, direct control of the propeller
pitch by the power levers is achieved in the
ground idle and reverse pitch range.
• To operate in the Beta range, the aircraft must
be on the ground and have the flight fine pitch
stops removed.
• This gives better control for ground
manoeuvring.
• REVERSE PITCH:
• In ground fine pitch, the blade position is 0° and provides
high windmilling drag to aid aircraft retardation on the ground
to a low forward speed.
• To improve this on slippery or short runways, some engine
installations are fitted with reverse pitch propellers.
• This system includes installation of removable ground fine
pitch stops.
• With the ground fine pitch stop removed and reverse
selected, moving the power levers rearward beyond ground
idle causes the blades to move to a negative pitch, applying
the correct amount of engine power to produce reverse
thrust.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 78

 PITCH LOCKS

VP/01/2008 79
• Pitch locks lock the blades at
whatever angle they are currently
at should there be a propeller
mechanism or PCU failure, which
would cause the propeller to run to
fine due to CTM.
• There are various types of lock.
Two are:
 Hydraulic Lock: This responds
to fine pitch oil pressure failure
to create a hydraulic lock.
 Mechanical Lock: Again, this
responds to fine pitch oil
pressure failure and
mechanically locks the blade.

80
Automatic Feathering:
• An automatic feathering system is sometimes provided
to automatically feather the propeller in the event that
engine power and hence indicated torque pressure falls
to a pre-determined value.
• In this instance, a low torque switch operates,
completing the circuit to the piston lift solenoid on the
PCU and feathering pump.
• The relevant feathering button pulls in and a red light
illuminates. 81
82
• The control valve rises hydraulically, thus enabling
the feathering of the propeller.
• A switch on the flight deck arms the system,
indicated by an amber light.
• The throttles must advance to approximately 45 to
75% of lever movement to close the throttle micro
switch.
• Normally this system is only used during take-off and
landing.
• To prevent the system operating as a result of
momentary loss of torque pressure, a time delay unit
prevents completion of the circuit until a pre-
determined time has elapsed, typically one or two
seconds. 83
VP/01/2008 84
• To prevent more than one engine from
autofeathering, a blocking relay is usually fitted
either between the master switch and the throttle
switch, or incorporated in the feathering button
circuit.
• Sometimes it can be reset to re-arm the autofeather
system in the event of another engine failure.
• By activating the feather button, regardless of
whether or not the propeller has been auto-
feathered, any engine can be feathered at any time.
• Some engines incorporate an automatic drag limiting
(ADL) system or negative torque sensing(NTS)
system that do not feather the propeller in the event
of engine failure but turn the blades to coarse to limit
windmilling. 85
 SYNCHRONISATION SYSTEM
• The purpose of a synchronisation system is to
reduce vibration and cabin noise by ensuring
that all engines are set to the same rpm.
• One engine is the master engine, whilst the
other engine(s) is the slave engine(s).
• In the case of four-engine aircraft, any engine
can serve as the master, but the master is
always the left engine on a light twin-engine
aircraft.

VP/01/2008 86
• Comparison of electrical signals generated from the
engines occur and if an imbalance exists between the
rpms, then the slave engine(s) governor
automatically adjusts to match the master engine
rpm.
• For the system to operate, the slave engine rpm must
be within a certain speed of the master engine.
• A typical value is 100 rpm.
• This system is not for use during take-off or landing
as failure of the master engine would result in a
tendency for the slave engine(s) to follow the master
resulting in a loss of power.
87
SYNCHROPHASING SYSTEM

88
VP/01/2008
 Synchrophasing

VP/01/2008
• To further improve vibration and noise
reduction, a synchrophaser system is used.
• It involves phasing the propeller relative
positions at any specific time and enables the
blades of the slave engine(s) to be set a
number of degrees in rotation behind that of
the master engine.
• Most systems both synchronise and
synchrophase at the same time.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 91

 SYNCHROPHASING SYSTEM OPERATION

VP/01/2008 92
• A typical system consists of magnetic pickups on each
propeller, trimming coils on the propeller governor and
a control box.
• The magnetic pickups send speed and phase angle
information from all engines to the control box.
• The control box compares the signals and sends a signal
to the propeller governor(s) trimming coils, which
adjusts the appropriate phase angle whilst maintaining
the pre-selected rpm.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 93
• In larger aircraft, a flight deck propeller phase control is for
use in selecting the phase angle that provides minimum
vibration.
• On a light aircraft system, a switch that only allows a choice of
two pre-set phase angles may select synchrophasing.
• As before, the engines must be within a certain speed range
before the system is selectable.
• The speed range can be as low as 10 rpm in the case of a light
aircraft up to typically 100 rpm on larger aircraft.
• The indicator lamp flashes the entire time the engines are out
of synchronisation, extinguishing when they are in sync.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 94

 PROPELLER CHECKS
• Propeller checks ensure the propeller governor and operating
mechanism are functioning correctly.
• The rpm lever should be positioned fully forward in the
maximum rpm position; the throttle is then set to the rpm
setting for the engine.
• The rpm lever is moved from MAX to MIN, observing the drop
in rpm (on some engines move the rpm lever until the rpm
drops by a specified amount).
• The rpm lever is then returned to the MAX position, ensuring
the restoration of the original rpm figure.
• Carry out this exercise three times to ensure that the propeller
operating mechanism is charged with low viscosity hot oil
thereby preventing sluggish operation
95
 REDUCTION GEARING

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 96

 ROLE OF REDUCTION GEAR
TQ
meter
TQ
sensor

ENGINE REDUCTION
PROPELLOR THRUST
BHP GEARBOX BHP
High RPM Low RPM
Low Torque High Torque

η prop

97
VP/01/2008
Propellers are selected based on intended aircraft cruise speeds
BLADE STALL
 REDUCTION GEARING
• The purpose of reduction gearing is to enable
the propeller to rotate at the most efficient
speed to absorb the engine power, whilst the
engine rotates at a higher speed to develop
more power.
• This is particularly the case when operating a
turbo-prop.
• Reduction ratios can vary from 2:1 to 15:1
depending on the power unit employed.
103
Typical examples of gearing design are:
– Spur gear
– Planetary gears
– Bevel planetary gears
– Combination of spur and planetary gears
VP/01/2008
VP/01/2008
TORQUEMETERS

107
• Power produced by a propeller is proportional
to the torque, where the torque is the turning
moment that is produced by the propeller
around the axis of the output shaft.
• A torquemeter on the flight deck indicates the
power produced by a turbo-propeller engine.
• There are various torquemeter systems. It is
part of the engine, normally assembled within
the reduction gear assembly between the
engine output and propeller shafts.
• System operation is based on the principle of
the tendency for part of the reduction gear to
rotate, which is resisted by hydraulic cylinder
pistons.
• Pressure created by the pistons transmits to a
flight deck gauge that can display as pressure
in pounds per square inch (psi) or shaft
horsepower.
• The greater the pressure indication the
greater the torque, and therefore power, and
vice versa.
VP/01/2008 109
• Torque measurement can also occur via an electrical
strain gauge system consisting of a fine insulated
conductor wire bonded to a component and
consisting of two independent bridge circuits.
• Upon applying strain, a transducer generates a
millivolt electronic signal proportional to engine
torque. A signal conditioner amplifies the input signal
and provides a varying voltage to the flight deck
indicator, which is essentially a voltmeter that may
display engine power as psi, horsepower, or percent
power or percent torque.

VP/01/2008 110
• Basic Operation:
• The primary cockpit controls to consider are
those of the “engine throttle”, which controls
the engine power setting, and the “RPM
control lever”.
• The RPM control lever enables the pilot to
select the required engine speed within the
pitch range of the propeller.

VP/01/2008 111
• The RPM control lever is connected to a
control unit known as the CSU, that is
mounted on and driven by the engine.
• Once a particular engine speed has been
selected, the CSU acts as a governor unit and
maintains the selected engine speed, within
the power available.
• For example: Engine speed increases. Through
the propeller drive shaft, the propeller rpm
will also increase.

VP/01/2008 112
• The propeller rpm increases will be sensed by
the CSU, which will move the propeller blade
angle to a coarser angle which will in turn
make the propeller do more work, increasing
the load on the engine and so causing the
engine rpm to reduce, thereby maintaining
the selected rpm on the RPM control lever.
• In the event engine speed reduces, the
opposite will happen.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 113

 When the cockpit lever is selected to the ‘Constant
speed’ position, three conditions of operation obtain:

1. 1. On Speed

2. 2. Under Speed

3. 3. Over Speed
VP/01/2008
• 1.‘On speed’:
• This condition exists when the flight conditions are
steady and the system is in balanced condition.
• The propeller is operating at a blade angle that
converts the entire engine power to thrust at the
selected rpm and forward speed.
• The centrifugal force exerted by the governor
weights exactly balances the spring pressure and the
engine power is fully absorbed by the propeller.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 115

• 2. ‘Over speed’:
• the Overspeed condition would exist in case the
engine power is increased by throttle opening or the
forward speed of the aircraft increases (like for
instance in a dive) or the rpm increases beyond the
selected one for any reason, or when a reduced rpm
selection is made on the pitch control lever.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 116

• In all these conditions, the blade AOA is less
than required.
• Therefore, the blade angle gets coarsened.
• The increased blade angle will now load the
engine and slow it down and get the condition
to ‘on speed’ state once again.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 117

• 3. ‘Under speed’:
• The under speed condition would exist in case the
engine power is decreased by reducing throttle or
the forward speed of the aircraft decreases ( for
instance in a pull up) or rpm decreases below the
selected one, or when an increased rpm selection is
made on the pitch control lever, or the rpm
decreases for any reason.
• In all these conditions, the blade AOA is more than
the required one.
• The control valve operates to reduce the blade angle.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 118

• At the limit of travel ( the fine pitch stop) of
the blades, the rpm will slowly fall off as the
airspeed is reduced and the propeller will ‘
windmill’.
• Thus when engine power is insufficient to
maintain a selected rpm, an under speed
condition exists which will hold the propeller
blades against the pitch stops.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 119

 Feathering:
• Feathering is the procedure by which the propeller
blades can be turned until, with the blade chord lines
almost parallel to the airflow, there are no rotating
forces acting on the propeller blades as a whole.
• The blade angle is 90° and the AOA is zero.
• In the event of engine failure and the engine ignition
is switched off, the airflow passing through the
propeller will crank the engine over, i.e. rotating the
engine; this may cause considerable damage.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 120

• If the propeller is feathered it can be seen that
the propeller is stationary and therefore no
further damage will be inflicted on the engine.
• By feathering the propeller on a failed engine,
considerable drag that would otherwise be
created can be avoided.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 121

 ‘Windmilling’:
• In the windmilling position the propeller
continues to rotate the engine and the blade is
operating at a negative AOA, with the blade as
sufficiently fine as possible.
• In a failed engine, the propeller in the
windmilling position produces very heavy drag
and causes a yaw towards the failed engine.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 122

 Situations
*Procedure for unfeathering:
• When a propeller is in the feathered position,
the engine is not rotating, so no pressure can
be provided from the engine oil system.
• The unfeathering process must therefore be
carried out using either pressurised oil stored
within an accumulator, or from an electric
pump.

VP/01/2008 123
• In both cases the force necessary to spin up the
propeller in order to start the engine is provided by
the airflow.
• If the propeller unfeathers but the engine fails to
start, there is a danger that the additional drag will
reduce airspeed to less than the minimum control
speed.
• Before selecting unfeather, it is therefore necessary
to ensure that TAS is sufficiently high to spin up the
engine to starting rpm and to provide a safe margin
above minimum control speed.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 124

 *Purpose of a synchroscope:
• In multi-engine propeller aircraft it is possible
for the individual propellers to interact
harmonically, such that the noise and
vibration reaches very high levels.
• Minimum noise and vibration is achieved by
ensuring that all of the propellers run at the
same rpm.
• This is achieved by selecting one of the
propellers as the master and others as slaves.

VP/01/2008 125
• The constant speed governors of the slave
propellers are then adjusted to match their
rpm with that of the master propeller.
• This may be achieved automatically or
manually.
• The manual system employs a small
synchroscope for each propeller, to provide
the pilot with an indication of the relative rpm
of the propellers.
• Each synchroscope contains a small rotating
propeller symbol.
126
• The speed and direction of rotation of this
symbol indicates the rpm of the propeller
relative to the master.
• When the rpm of a slave propeller is matched
with that of the master, the propeller symbol
will stop rotating.
• The propellers are fully synchronised when all
of the synchroscopes are stationary.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 127

• *Procedure of feathering:
• Following an in-flight engine failure, the airflow will
cause the propeller to windmill, such that the dead
engine is driven by its propeller.
• In this condition the propeller extracts energy from
the airflow in order to drive the engine.
• This results in very high propeller drag, which
reduces glide range and endurance, and increases
the asymmetric thrust problem in multi-engine
aircraft.
• These problems can be minimised by driving the
propeller blades to a very coarse pitch angle which
produces zero lift AOA.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 128
• In this condition the propeller stops rotating
and produces only a small amount of parasite
drag.
• This process is termed feathering and is
achieved by pulling the propeller rpm lever
fully back to select zero rpm.
• This completely unloads the CSU datum
spring, thereby enabling the CSU to drive the
blades to their fully coarse position.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 129

• If the propeller is not feathered, its rpm and
hence drag is determined by its AOA and
hence blade angle.
• In the windmilling condition, the propeller
blades experience a negative AOA as the
airflow approaches from ahead.
• If blade angle is increased, the chord lines of
the blades move to a more forward alignment,
so the magnitude of the negative AOA
decreases with increasing blade pitch.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 130

• At fine pitch angles the AOA is very high,
resulting in high rpm and drag.
• Greatest rpm and drag will be produced if the
propeller remains in the fine pitch position.
• It should be noted that regardless of pitch
angle, a propeller which is stopped will
produce less drag than when windmilling.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 131

• *A constant speed propeller aircraft is descending
with the throttle closed and RPM set at 2000 RPM.
What would be the effect of retarding the propeller
lever?
• **When the RPM of a constant speed propeller is
lower than that selected, the CSU moves the blades
to a finer pitch (Underspeed condition???), to
decrease propeller torque and increase RPM.
• When descending with the throttle closed and rpm
lever set at 2000, the CSU would be holding the
blades at very fine pitch in an attempt the set RPM.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 132

• The propeller would therefore be windmilling,
causing a great deal of drag and hence a considerable
rate of descent.
• Pulling the rpm lever back would set a lower rpm, so
the CSU would increase blade angle to prevent over
speeding.
• This would move the blades to an angle closer to the
feathered position, thereby reducing both
windmilling rpm and drag.
• If no attempt is made to alter the pitching angle of
the aircraft the reduced drag will cause it to
accelerate, increasing the rate of descent.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 133
• If however the nose was brought up to
maintain constant airspeed, the descent
gradient and rate of descent would decrease.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 134

• *If propeller pitch is decreased in glide, the rate of
descent and L:D ratio will???
• ** When an aircraft is gliding, the propeller is
producing no thrust, but is contributing to the total
drag acting on the aircraft.
• The magnitude of the drag produced by the propeller
is dependent upon its blade angle.
• When a propeller is stationary in the feathered
position, the blades are at their zero-lift AOA, so the
only aerodynamic force acting upon them is profile
drag.

VP/01/2008 135
• When set at any blade angle other than the
feathered position, the propeller will windmill.
• In this condition the propeller will be subjected to a
negative AOA, causing the total reaction to act
through the back surface of the blades.
• In this condition the propeller torque acts in the
direction of rotation and it is this , which causes the
propeller and engine to windmill.
• The remainder of the total reaction comprises of
profile and induced drag.

VP/01/2008 136
• This decreases propeller RPM and the drag
produced by the propeller.
• In a glide this decrease in drag will increase
glide range.
• The effect of increasing propeller pitch in a
glide is therefore a decrease in RPM and an
increase in glide range.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 137

* Increasing propeller RPM setting in a glide will………
range and………L:D ratio?
• When an aircraft is gliding, the propeller is producing
no thrust, but is contributing to the total drag acting
on the aircraft.
• The magnitude of the drag produced by the propeller
is dependent upon its blade angle.
• When a propeller is stationary in the feathered
position, the blades are at their zero-lift AOA, so the
only aerodynamic force acting upon them is profile
drag.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 138

• In a constant speed propeller system the pilot does
not control the blade angle directly, but selects the
required propeller RPM.
• The CSU then varies blade angle to maintain the
selected RPM.
• The feathered condition is obtained by selecting zero
RPM.
• Selection of any higher RPM causes the blades to
move to a finer pitch, thereby increasing the
windmilling effect and increasing the drag generated
by the propeller.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 139

• Maximum glide range is equal to L:D ratio
multiplied by height.
• Selecting an increased propeller RPM in a
glide increases drag, thereby decreasing both
glide range and L:D ratio.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 140

* For a constant speed propeller:

• The AOA of a propeller blade at any given blade

angle is determined by the vector sum of airflows
produced by rotation, propeller slip and the TAS of
the aircraft.
• At normal flight speeds propeller slip represents a
small proportion of the total airflow velocity and so
can be ignored.
• The airflow due to TAS approaches the blades from
ahead, so increasing TAS decreases AOA at any given
blade angle.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 141
• The airflow due to propeller rotation approaches the
blade from its underside, so increasing RPM at any
given TAS increases AOA at any given blade angle.
• The AOA of a fixed pitch propeller therefore
decreases with increasing TAS and increases with
increasing RPM.
• A propeller can achieve maximum aerodynamic
efficiency at only one AOA so changes in TAS and
RPM will alter the efficiency of a fixed pitch propeller.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 142

• In order to maximise the range of speeds over
which a propeller can achieve a high level of
efficiency it is necessary to vary its blade angle
to achieve the optimum combination of blade
angle, TAS and RPM.
• In a constant speed propeller system the blade
angle is automatically varied in flight to
maintain the selected RPM and AOA.
• The AOA of a constant speed propeller
therefore remains approximately constant at
all flight speeds.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 143
• If TAS increases, the AOA of the blades will decrease,
thereby reducing the total reaction generated.
• This will reduce the rotational drag force acting on
the blades, and so cause the RPM to increase.
• This will be sensed by the constant speed unit, which
will increase the blade angle.
• The increased blade angle will increase the rotational
drag force acting on the blades, causing the RPM to
decrease to its selected value, restoring the original
AOA.
• The blade angle of a constant speed propeller will
therefore increase with an increase in TAS.
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 144
 * Blade angle in Reverse thrust:
• The rotational airflow at any point on a rotating
propeller blade, increases from root to tip.
• In order that the entire blade operates at an efficient
AOA, propeller blades are twisted, such that in
normal powered flight, blade angle decreases from
root to tip.
• When in reverse thrust the blades are set at a
negative blade angle, so this blade twist causes blade
angle and (negative) AOA to increase from root to
tip.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 145

• This root to tip increase in AOA in reverse
thrust, causes the total reaction to increase
from root to tip.
• This also means that the majority of reverse
thrust is produced at the blade tips.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 146

* The effect of throttle angle increase at
constant altitude on the blade angle and
thrust of a constant speed propeller:
• The AOA of a propeller blade is the angle
between the blade chord line and the relative
air flow.
• The alignment of the chord line is determined
by blade angle, whilst the direction of the RAF
is the vector sum of the airflows due to RPM
and TAS.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 147

• If throttle angle is increased at constant altitude, the
power output of the engine will increase.
• This in turn will increase the torque applied to the
drive shaft, thereby causing the propeller RPM to
increase.
• The CSU will respond to this increase in rpm by
increasing the blade angle.
• Increased blade angle will increase AOA, which will
increase both thrust and blade torque.
• This process will continue until increasing blade
torque returns the propeller to its selected value.
• The overall effect on the propeller will therefore be
increased blade angle and thrust.
VP/01/2008 148
 CTM & ATM:
• Whenever a propeller blade is in its
unfeathered position, it generates a total
reaction which acts ahead of its pitch change
axis.
• This produces an Aerodynamic Turning
Moment (ATM) which in powered flight tends
to drive the blades towards the coarse pitch
angle.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 149

• In the windmilling condition total reactions
acts through the rear face of the blades, so
the ATM tends to drive them to the fine pitch
blade angle.
• The centrifugal force generated by a rotating
propeller creates a Centrifugal Twisting
Moment (CTM) which tends to drive the
blades towards the fine pitch blade angle.
• So CTM opposes ATM when a rotating
propeller is not windmilling.

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 150

VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 151
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 152
VP/01/2008 IAC, NPU 153