Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

MODULE 16
PISTON ENGINE 1
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• Introduction.

1860 - Etienne Lenoir of France built the first practical piston engine.
- The engine called Lenoir’s engine. Used battery ignition system and natural
gas as fuel.
- The engine use to operate industrial machinery such as lathes
machine and printing presses.

1876 - Dr. August Otto and Eugene Langen of Germany developed four stroke,
five-event cycle engine and called Otto cycle.
- The engine used on most modern reciprocating engine.
- They also built two-stroke cycle engine.

1885 - Gottlieb Daimler associated with Otto and Langen built the first successful
gasoline engine.

17 Dec.1903, Wright Brothers flew the first airplane.

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• DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION.

• Purpose is to convert heat energy into mechanical energy

to drive the propeller..

• How? By specific volume of air and fuel mixture and burned

it to provide combustion.

• Combustion provide heated air than expands and creating a

force that converted into mechanical energy.

• Reciprocating engines derive their name from back-and-

forth motion. Then from linear motion to rotary motion.
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TYPE OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

• CLASSIFICATION:-
a. Cylinder arrangement
b. Method of cooling (liquid cooled or air cooled)

a. Cylinder arrangement
1. Radial engines.
2. In-line engines.
3. V-type engines.
4. Opposed type engines.

1. RADIAL ENGINE.
a. Rotary type
b. Static type
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Rotary type radial engines.

●1a. Rotary type radial engine.

- Cylinder mounted around the

crankcase.

- Cylinder and propeller rotate

together and crankshaft
stationary.

- Most popular rotating engine

was the Bently, Gnome and LeRhone.
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Rotary type radial engine.

● Disadvantages:-

- The torque effect produced by the

large rotating mass of the
propeller and cylinders made
aircraft difficult to control.

- Coupled with carburetor,

lubrication and exhaust problem.

- Large frontal area.

- Have some cooling problem.

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Static type radial engine.

- Engine is stationary and bolted to the airframe.

- Crankshaft rotates and turns the propeller.

- No. of cylinders from 3 to 28 cylinders.

- Consist of a single row and multiple rows,

max. of 4 rows with 7 cylinders in a row
and total of 28 cylinders.

- Produce higher horsepower and high

power to weight ratio, mostly used on
military and civilian transport aircraft.
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Static type radial engine.

- Most radial engine is a single row

and has an odd number of the
cylinder and connected to the
single crankshaft.

- In multiple row radial engine,

cylinder is staggered behind the
space between the frontal cylinders
to increase the amount airflow past
each cylinders for cooling
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In-Line Engine.
- Cylinder are aligned in single row parallel with crankshaft.

- Engine either liquid or air-cooled.

- Piston either located upright

or inverted.

- Inverted engine is generally

employed.

- Number of cylinders limited to six only to facilitate cooling and

prevent engine overheating

- Cylinder are generally even number to provide proper balance.

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In-Line Engine.
● Advantages of in-line engine.
- Small frontal area, less drag
- Greater propeller clearance
as for inverted engine.
- Shorter main landing gear and
provide better visibility.

● Disadvantages of in-line engine.

- Relatively low power to weight ratio
- The rearmost cylinder receives less cooling air
- Low and medium horsepower output to engine fitted to light
aircraft only.
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V-Type Engine.
Two type:-

a. Inverted V-type engine

b. Upright V-type engine.

- Cylinders are arranged in two

rows (bank) forming letter V.
- Angle between banks 45,
60 or 90 deg.
- Cylinders are always even
number in each row.
- The two banks are opposite each other.
- Most V-type engine has 8 or 12 cylinders.
- Either air cooled or liquid cooled.
- Still employed typically found on racing aircraft.
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V-Type Engine.

➢ Advantages of V-type engine.

- Producing higher horsepower than in-line engine.

- Small frontal area with higher power to weight ratio.

- Better pilot visibility as

shorter/lower main
landing gear.
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Opposed Type Engine.

- Most popular reciprocating engine used on light aircraft.

- Engine as little as 36 hp. and as much as 400 hp.
- Cylinder are always even numbers and opposes each other.
- Some engines are liquid cooled, mostly air cooled.
- Horizontally installed on fixed
wing aircraft.
- When installed on helicopter it
is mounted vertically.
- Recent development engine
employs dual electronic
ignition system.
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Opposed Type Engine.

● Advantages.

- High power to weight ratio because of small and light

weight crankcase.

- Small frontal areas, more

streamline and less drag.

- Less vibration because

the power impulses
tend to cancel each
other.
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ENGINE COMPONENTS

• As an aviation maintenance technician,

you must be familiar with an engine’s
components in order to understand its
operation.

• Understanding the engine’s basic

component will enhances your ability to
perform routine operation.
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Engine Components.
► Basic parts of the engine.
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CRANKCASE

FOUNDATION OF A PISTON ENGINE

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CRANKCASE
• The crankcase is the foundation of the piston engine.

• It contains the engine’s internal parts and provides a mounting surface

for the engine cylinders and accessories.

• It provide a tight enclosure for lubricating oil.

• It supports external and internal mechanism of the powerplant. It

provides mounting for attachment to the aircraft.

• It provides support for attachment of the cylinders.

• By reason of its strength and rigidity, it prevents misalignment of the

crankshaft and it bearing.

• Crankcase must able to absorbed vibration produce by propeller and

engine internal combustion.
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Opposed Engine Crankcases.

●. Most crankcase consist of two pieces or halves.
● Some one-piece and up to five-pieces case assemblies.

● To provide the strength, rigidity and light weight , most

aircraft crankcase are made of cast aluminum alloys.
● Manufactured either sand casting or permanent molds.
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Opposed Engine Crankcases.

• Permanent mold process or permamold are denser than

those made by sand casting.

• Denser molded crankcase have thinner wall than sand

casting and less tendency to crack due to fatigue.

• Most opposed crankcases are approximately cylindrical,

with smooth areas machined to serve as cylinder pads.

• Cylinder pad is a surface where cylinder is mounted to

a crankcase.
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Opposed Engine Crankcases.

● To support a crankshaft, a series of transverse webs are
cast directly into a crankcase parallel to the case’s
longitudinal axis.

● Webs form an integral part of the structure and housing

the bearings that support the crankshaft, the webs add
strength to the crankcase.

● The crankcase is also an integral part of the lubricating oil

system.

● Oil passages are drilled throughout the case halves to

allow lubricating oil to be delivered to the moving parts
housed within the crankcase.
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Opposed Engine Crankcases.

• Oil galleries are machined into the case halves to scavenge or
collect oil and return it to the main oil tank or sump.

• Most crankcase halves splits vertically and are aligned, held

together with studs and bolts.

• Crankcase halves are sealed with a very thin coating of a non-

hardening gasket compound.

• On some engine a fine silk thread extending around the entire

case perimeter is embedded in the compound.

• With proper torque form an effective oil seal.

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RADIAL ENGINE CRANKCASE

➢ Separates into four main sections:-

THE FOUR BASIC SECTION OF A RADIAL ENGINE

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Nose Section
➢ Mounted at the front of the engine
crankcase and bolted directly to
power section.

➢ Made of aluminum alloy cast as one

piece with domed or convex shape.

➢ Usually houses and support the

propeller governor drive shaft,
propeller shaft, cam ring and
propeller gear assembly.

➢ Also have mounting point for

magnetos and engine accessories.
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Power Section

➢ Power section is the second

portion of the crankcase.

➢ Where the reciprocating motion of

the piston is converted to rotary
motion of crankshaft.

➢ It absorb the intense stress from

crankshaft assembly and cylinder.

➢ Can be either one, two or three

pieces.
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Power Section

➢ One piece power section consist of a solid piece of

aluminum.

➢ Split power section manufactured from aluminum or

magnesium and bolted together.

➢ Contains machined
bosses that rigidly support
the crankshaft bearings
and the crankshaft.
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Power Section
• Cylinders are attach around the
perimeter of the power section to
machined cylinder pads.

• The inner portion of the cylinder pad

is chamfered or tapered to permit
the installation of a large rubber O-
ring around the cylinder skirt.

• O-ring effectively seals the joint

between the cylinder and cylinder
pads.
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Supercharger Section

➢ Also known as diffuser section.

➢ Located directly behind the power section.

➢ Made of cast aluminum alloy or magnesium.

➢ Compress air and

distribute it to the engine’s
cylinders.

➢ Houses the supercharger

and its related components.
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Supercharger Section
• Used to compress air and distribute to engine’s cylinders.

• Increase the air density for engine operation at altitude

and still produce power as it at sea level.

• Incorporates mounting
lugs (mounting points)
to secure engine
assembly to the engine
mounts.
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Accessory Section
• Usually cast of either aluminum alloy or magnesium.

• If cast in one piece and then

machined to provide mounting
accessories such as magnetos,
pumps, starters and generators.

• On other accessories section

consist of an aluminum alloy
casting and separate cast magnesium cover plate on
which the accessories are mounted.
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Accessory Section
➢ Engine accessories are:-

- Starter, generator, magnetos, pumps and carburetors.

➢ Gear train are of spur and bevel type gear that drive
various engine components and accessories.

➢ Spur type gears are used to drive heavy loaded

accessories or those requiring the least play and
backlash in the gear train.

➢ Bevel gears permit angular location of short stub shafts

leading to the various accessories mounting pads.
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Engine Mounting Points

● Mounting points for opposed engine, sometimes

called mounting lugs.

● Low horsepower engines mounting lugs are cast into

the crankcase.

● High-powered engines employ mounting lugs that are

bolted to the crankcase.

● Mounting arrangement supports the entire engine

including propeller.
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CRANKSHAFT
➢ PURPOSE:-

➢ Is to transform the reciprocating motion of the pistons and

connecting rod to rotary motion to turn a propeller.

➢ Typically have one or more cranks or throws located at

specific points along its length.
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Crankshaft.

➢ Formed by forging offsets into crankshaft then machined.

➢ To withstand high stress, it is made from strong alloy such as

chromium-nickel molybdenum steel.

➢ Made from single piece of steel which consist of several components.

➢ Crankshaft have one throw or as many as eight throws depending on

the engine types.

➢ Parts include the main bearing

journal, crankpin and crank cheek.

➢ In addition counterweight and

dampers are often installed to
reduce vibration.
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Main bearing journals or main journals.

➢ The centerline of a crankshaft and support the crankshaft

as it rotates in the main bearings.

➢ All crankshafts require at least two main journals to

support the crankshaft and absorb operational loads.

➢ Transmit stress from the crankshaft to the crankcase.

➢ To help minimize and resist wear, most main bearing

journals or crank journals are hardened through nitriding.
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Crankpins.

➢ Attachment points for the connecting rods.

➢ Forged directly into the crankshaft and are offset from the main
journal.

➢ Offsets design means any applied forced to the crankpin in a direction

other than parallel to the crankshaft center line will causes the
crankshaft to rotate.

➢ Crankpin are nitrided to resist wear

and provide a suitable bearing
surface.
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Crankpins.

➢ To reduce weight, crankpins are usually hollow.

➢ Hollow construction provides a passage for lubricating oil.
➢ Also serve as collection chamber for sludge, dirt, carbon
deposit and foreign materials.
➢ Centrifugal force throws the dirt away from reaching the
crankpin surface.
➢ Two cheeks or crank arm are required to connect the crankpin
to the crankshaft.
➢ Some crank cheek extends beyond the journal to form a
counterweight that helps to balance the crankshaft.
➢ Most crank cheeks have drilled passage ways that allow oil
flow from the main journal to the crankpin.
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Crankpin

THE POSITION OF THE CRANKPINS ON A CRANKSHAFT IN RELATION

TO EACH OTHER IS EXPRESS IN DEGREES.
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CRANKSHAFT BALANCE

➢ Excessive engine vibration can cause metal

structure to become fatigued and fail or wear
excessively.

➢ Excessive vibration cause by an unbalanced

crankshaft.

➢ To prevent vibration most crankshafts are balanced

both statically and dynamically.
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Crankshaft Balance
➢ Statically Balance:

➢ When the weight of the entire crankshaft is balance

around its axis of rotation.

➢ By placing outside main journals on two knife edge

balancing blocks.

➢ Tendency to rotate to any one position indicated out of

balance.

➢ Once statically balanced it must be dynamically

balance.
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➢ Dynamic Balance.

➢ Balancing the centrifugal force create by the rotating crankshaft

and the impact force create by the engine power impulse.

➢ Corrected through the use of dynamic dampers fastened to

crankshaft’s crank cheek assembly and free to move back and
forth in small arc.

➢ May use one or two damper at different crank cheek.

➢ Moveable slotted-steel counterweight to a crank cheek through

oversized holes in a counterweight and crank cheek.

➢ Difference in diameter between the pins and the holes allows

the dynamic damper to oscillate back and forth.
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 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Each time a cylinder fires, a pulse is transmitted into the

crankshaft that causes it to flex.

➢ Engine running, the crankshaft receives hundreds of these

pulses each minute and flexes or vibrate constantly.

➢ To minimize these vibrations, the dynamic damper oscillates or

swing each times the crankshaft receives a pulse from a firing
cylinder.

➢ These oscillation are opposite the crankshaft vibration and

absorb some of the force produced by the power impulse.
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Crankshaft Types
➢ The type of crankshaft used depends on the number and arrangement of
the engine’s cylinders.

➢ The most common types of crankshaft are:-

- Single – throw.
- Two – throw.
- Four – throw.
- Six – throw.

➢ The simplest crankshaft is the single-throw

or 360 degree crankshaft used on single
row radial engine.

➢ Single-throw crankshaft consist of single crankpin with two main journals

that support the crankshaft in the crankcase.

➢ A single-throw crankshaft may be constructed out of either one or two

pieces.
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➢ Twin row radial engine require a two-throw crankshaft, one throw for
each bank of cylinder.

➢ Two-throw crankshaft are typically set 180 degree from each other
and may consist of either one or three pieces.

➢ Four-throw crankshafts from a four cylinder opposed engine, throws

are arranged 180 degrees apart and has either three or five main
bearings.

➢ Six-throw crankshaft is forged as one piece and consists of four main

bearings and six throws that are 60 degrees apart.
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Crankshaft type

Four-Throw

Single-Throw
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BEARINGS

➢A bearing is any surface which supports and

reduces friction between two moving parts.

➢Use typically in main journal, crankpins,

connecting rods end and accessory drive shafts.

➢Must be made from material strong enough to

withstand pressure yet allows free rotation or
movement with minimum friction and wear.
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Bearings

➢Provide efficient and quiet operation.

➢Hold two parts in nearly fixed position with close

tolerance.

➢Be able to withstand radial loads, thrust loads or a

combination of both.

➢Bearing surface move in either sliding movement

or sliding over one another.
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Bearings

➢ Three difference types of

bearing typically use in
aircraft piston engine:

1) Plain bearing.

2) Ball bearing.

3) Roller bearing.
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1. Plain Bearings.

➢ Generally use in crankshaft

main bearing, cam ring,
camshaft bearing and
connecting rods end bearing.

➢ These bearing is of radial load

only.

➢ Flange-type plain bearing are

often used as thrust bearing in
opposed engine.
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1. Plain Bearings.

➢ Plain bearings are made of nonferrous metal such as

silver, bronze, babbit, tin or lead.

➢ One type of plain bearing consists of thin shells of silver

plated steel with lead-tin plated over silver on the inside
surface only.

➢ Smaller bearing to support various accessory drive

shafts called bushing.

➢ Oil impregnated porous oilite bushing draws oil to the

bearing surface when heat produced by friction to
provide lubrication during engine operation.
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2. Ball Bearings.

➢ Ball bearing assembly consists of:-

- grooved inner and outer race.
- one of more set of polished
steel ball.
- bearing retainer (cage) to held
ball bearing in place.
- some with deep grove to
provide more support for high
radial load.
- less contact area and friction.

➢ Well suited for thrust loads such as thrust bearing for

piston and turbine engine.
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2. Ball Bearings.

➢ If heavier loads in one direction a larger race is used on

the side of the increased load.

➢ Ball bearing common to maintenance personnel are

found in accessories such as magnetos, alternators,
turbochargers and vacuum pumps.

➢ Bearings are prelubricated and sealed to provide trouble-

free operation between overhaul.

➢ If a sealed to be remove or replaced use proper tools.

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3. Roller Bearings.
➢ Similar in construction to ball bearing
except that polished steel rollers are
used instead of balls.

➢ Provide greater contact area and

increase rolling friction.

➢ Available in many styles and sizes but

most aircraft use either a straight roller
or tapered roller bearing.

➢ Straight roller bearings are subjected to

radial loads only used on high-powered
aircraft engine’s crankshaft main bearing.

➢ Tapered roller bearing have cone-shaped inner and outer races allow
bearing to withstand both radial and thrust loads.
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 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

CONNECTING RODS
➢ Purpose:-
- To transmit the force exerted on piston to the
crankshaft.

➢ Material:
- Made of a durable steel alloy.
- aluminum can be used on low horsepower engine.

➢ The lighter a connecting rod is, the less inertia it

produces when the rod and piston stop and accelerate.
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➢ It is forged and cross sectional of

“H” or “I” and few are tubular.

➢ Crankshaft end is called crankpin

(big) end and the other end is
piston end (small).

➢ Three types of connecting rod

assemblies generally in used:-

i) Plain-type.
ii) Master and articulated rod type.
iii) Fork and blade type.
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i) Plain Connecting Rod.

➢ Used in in-line and opposed

engines.

➢ Bronze bushing are pressed,

ream to size at the piston pin.

➢ Crankpin end usually fitted with

two pieces bearing and cap
which is held by bolts or studs.
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➢ Main bearing insert typically made of

steel lined with nonferrous alloy such as
babbit, lead, bronze or copper.

➢ To provide proper fit and balance

connecting rods are match with the
pistons and crankpins.

➢ Stamp with numbers to identify the

cylinders and piston assembly is of
correct match. If removed, replaced
back in the same cylinder.
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ii) Master and Articulated Rod.

➢ Used in radial engine.

➢ One piston in each row of the

cylinders is connected to
crankshaft by a master rod.

➢ The remaining piston is connected

to a master rod by articulated rod.

➢ Master rod is made of steel alloy

forging that is machined and heat-
treated for maximum strength.
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➢ Articulated rod are constructed of a forged steel alloy in

either “I” or “H” cross sectional profile.

➢ Bronze bushing pressed into bores in each end of the

articulated rod end to serve as bearing.

➢ Master rod is the only connecting link between all the

pistons and the crank pin.

➢ Small end of master rod with a plain bearing called

piston pin bearing receives the piston pin.
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➢ Crankpin end of master rod contains

crankpin bearing or master rod
bearing.

➢ Crankpin bearing is of plain bearing

type to withstand radial load.

➢ Machined flanged hole provide

attachment for articulating rods.

➢ Master rod can be of single or split

type use on multiple or single piece
crankshaft respectively.
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Master and Articulated Rod

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➢ Each articulated is hinged to

master rod by knuckle pin.

➢ Some knuckle pin are press in so

do not rotate.

➢ Full floating knuckle pin allows

rotation.

➢ Lock plate on each side retains

the knuckle pins and prevents
lateral movement.
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➢ Master rod with full floating knuckle

pin and lock plate assembly.

➢ Stationary knuckle pin and lock

plate assembly.

➢ Since the flange holes on a master

rod encircle the center crankpin
and crankpin travel as the
crankshaft true circle.

➢ The remaining knuckle pins travel

in an elliptical path.
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➢ Because of the varying

angularity, all piston do not
move an equal amount in
each cylinder for a given
number of degrees of the
crankshaft rotation.

➢ To compensate, the knuckle

pin holes in the master rod
are position at varying
distances from the center of
the crankpin.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

iii) Fork and Blade Assembly.

➢ Used primarily in V-type engines.

➢ Consists of fork connection rod

and blade connecting rod.

➢ Fork rod is split at crankpin end

to allow for the blade rod to fit
between the prongs.

➢ The fork and blade assembly is

fastened to a crankpin with a two
piece bearing.
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 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Pistons
➢ Piston moves up and down within the cylinder to draw fuel
and air into the cylinder, compress the gas and purge the
burned exhaust gases from the cylinder.

➢ Transmit the force produced by combustion to crankshaft.

➢ Piston are machined from aluminum alloy forging.

➢ Ring grooves are cut into a piston outside surface to hold a

set of piston rings.
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➢ May have up to 6 ring grooves.

➢ Portion between ring grooves

referred to as ring land.

➢ Top surface is called the

piston head and directly
exposed to combustion heat.

➢ Piston pin boss provides support for piston pin and attach
the piston to a connecting rod.
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➢ Piston base is extended to

form the piston skirt, help to
align a piston in a cylinder.

➢ Cooling fins are cast

underside of the piston for
greater heat transfer.
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➢ Piston are classified

according to their head
design.

➢ Most modern aircraft

engines used flat-head
pistons.
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Pistons
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➢ Cam ground piston.

➢ Machined with a slightly oval

shape.

➢ Purpose to compensate for

greater expansion parallel to
piston boss during engine operation.

➢ Diameter measures several thousand of an inch larger

perpendicular than parallel to piston boss.
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➢ Perform three functions:-

- Prevent leakage of gas pressure from the combustion

chamber.
- Reduced oil seepage into the combustion chamber.
- Transfer heat from the piston to cylinder walls.

➢ Rings fit into groove but spring out to press against

cylinder walls.
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Piston Rings
➢ When properly lubricate form an
effective seal.

➢ Made of high grade grey cast iron.

➢ Some are chrome plated mild steel

to withstand high temperature.

➢ After it is made, it is ground to

desired cross-section and then split.
TYPES OF JOINT FOR PISTON RING
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➢ This allow the ring to slip over the

piston and seat into the grooves.

➢ Split is called piston ring gap.

➢ Piston ring gap are of butt, angle

or step joint.

TYPES OF JOINT FOR PISTON RING

➢ Specific clearance and correct
stagger to ensure effective sealing during all operating
temperature to prevent blow-by thus loosing power.
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➢ To ensure piston ring seal against cylinder wall, it must

press fit against cylinder wall snugly.

➢ It must also exert equal pressure all around as well form

gas tight fit against the ring groove.

➢ Two broads type of ring are used namely compression

and oil ring.
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➢ Compression ring.

➢ Prevent gas from escaping pass the piston.

➢ Place in ring grooves immediately below

the piston head.

➢ The number of compression rings in used

on each piston is determined by the type of
engine and its design.

➢ Most aircraft typically use two or three rings

on each piston.
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➢ Cross Section of Piston Ring.

➢ The cross section can be rectangular,

wedge shape or tapered.

➢ Rectangular compression ring fits flat

against the cylinder wall with large
contact area to provide a tight seal.

➢ Takes longer times to seat or wear to

matches the cylinder wall contour.
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➢ Tapered rings are beveled to reduce

contact area which help reduce friction
and hasten ring seating.

➢ Wedge shaped rings also have beveled

face that promote ring seating.

➢ Compression ring receives least

amount of lubrication, prone to sticking.

➢ Therefore, most compression rings are

wedge shaped.
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➢ Oil rings.

➢ Control the amount of oil that is applied to the cylinder

wall and prevent oil from entering the combustion
chamber.

➢ Two types of oil rings found on most engine oil system:-

a) Oil control rings.

b) Oil scrapper rings.

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a) Oil control ring.

➢ Place in grooves directly below

the compression ring.

➢ Piston may have one or more oil

control rings depending on the
type of piston.

➢ As many as 2 oil control ring can

be installed in a single ring
grooves.
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➢ The primary purpose is to regulate

the thickness of the oil film on the
cylinder wall.

➢ Excess oil is returned back to OIL CONTROL RINGS

crankcase through hole drilled in

the ring grooves.

➢ Some piston use ventilated-type oil DRILLED HOLE FOR

RETURN OIL
control ring which typically consist
of two or more pieces with small
slots machined around the ring
OIL SCRAPER RINGS
groove to allow oil drain into the
OIL RING LOCATION
groove and return to crankcase.
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b) Oil scrapper ring.

➢ If oil enters the combustion chamber, oil will be burn cause

carbon buildup on piston head, combustion chamber wall,
spark plug and valves.

➢ Enter the ring grooves or valves guides it can cause valves

and piston ring to stick.

➢ Carbon buildup can cause spark misfiring, detonation,

preignition or excessive oil consumption.
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➢ To prevent this, an oil scraper ring is

used to regulate the amount of oil between
the piston skirt and the cylinder wall.

➢ Sometime called an oil wiper ring, has a

beveled face and installed in a ring groove
at the bottom of the piston skirt.

➢ The ring can be installed with beveled OIL FORCE OIL FORCE
UPWARD DOWNWARD
edge away from the piston head or in the ALONG ALONG CYLINDER
CYLINDER WALL
reverse position. WALL
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➢ Installed faces the piston head, the ring pushes oil

downward toward crankcase.

➢ If installed in reverse position the scrapper ring retain

surplus oil above the ring on the upward piston stroke,
and this oil return to crankcase by the oil control ring on
the downward stroke.

➢ These rings are installed in accordance with the

manufacture’s instruction.
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Piston Pins
➢ Purpose:-

➢ Is to joins the piston to the

connecting rod.

➢ Pin is machined in a tube shape

from nickel-steel alloy forging
and case-hardening.

➢ Also known as wrist pin or

gudgeon pin.
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Types of Piston Pins.

1. Stationary
- Held tightly in place by set screw that prevent movement.

2. Semi-floating
- Retained stationary in the connecting rod by set clamp
that engage a slot in the pin.

3. Full floating
- Free to rotate in both connecting rod and the piston and
are use in most modern aircraft engine.
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➢ Piston pin held in place laterally to prevent it from rubbing and

scoring the cylinder wall.

➢ Device that used to hold a piston pin in place are;

- Snap ring or spring ring, circlets may be
use by fitting it in the groove inside the boss.

➢ Modern engine use piston pin plug

(soft aluminum).

➢ Due to the plug’s soft aluminum construction and cylinder

lubrication, the metal to metal contact causes no damage to the
cylinder wall.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

CYLINDERS
➢ PURPOSE:
- Provides a combustion chamber where the burning and
expansion of gases takes place to produce power.
- Cylinder houses the piston and connecting rod as well as the
valves and spark plugs.

➢ REQUIREMENT:
- Strong enough to withstand internal pressure during engine
operation yet lightweight to minimize engine weight.
- Must have good heat conducting properties for efficient
cooling.
- Cylinder assembly must be comparatively easy and
inexpensive to manufacture, inspect and maintain.
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➢ An air-cooled engine cylinder consists of cylinder head, barrel,

mounting flange, skirt, cooling fins and valve assembly.

➢ To form a cylinder, cylinder head is heated up and chilled

barrel is screwed together.

COOLING FINS
MOUNTING FLANGE

SKIRT BARREL CYLINDER HEAD

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Cylinder Barrels

# Mounting flange located at the

base of the cylinder.

# Cylinder skirt on all inverted and

lower cylinder of radial engine is
much longer to reduce hydraulic
lock that protrude into the
crankcase.
# Drilled to provide mounting
stud or bolt.
# Top of the barrel are machined
with screw thread so that it
can screw into the cylinder head.
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➢ Material used must be as light as possible.

➢ Can withstand operation under high pressure and

temperature.

➢ Posses good bearing characteristics as well as high

tensile strength.

➢ From high-strength steel alloy such as chromium-

molybdenum steel or nickel chromium molybdenum
steel.
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➢ Some cylinder bore are taper to compensate for

uneven expansion cause by higher operating
temperature and larger mass near cylinder head.

- Barrel will be parallel when at

operating temperature.

➢ Amount of choke is usually

between 0.003” to 0.005”.
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➢ Inside the cylinder barrel is the cylinder wall.

➢ To minimized wear most cylinder

wall are hardened.

➢ Two types hardening process on

cylinder wall are nitriding and
chrome plating.

➢ Nitrided cylinder are identified

through blue paint around the base.
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Cylinder barrel (Nitrided)

➢ Do not used nitrided piston ring on a nitrided cylinder wall for it

will become too smooth to retain lubricating oil.

➢ Being not a plating or coating, it changes cylinder bore by

0.002” to 0.004”.

➢ It is then honed to accurate micro-smooth finish.

➢ ONE PROBLEM – Do not hold oil for extended period thus

susceptible to corrosion if left out of service too long.

➢ Need to coat with sticky preservative for extended period.

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Cylinder barrel (Chrome plating)

➢ Applying thin coating of chromium to the inside of aircraft

cylinder barrel.

➢ Chromium is a hard natural element

which has high melting point, high heat
conductivity and very low coefficient of
friction.

➢ Process is known as electroplating.

➢ Identified through orange/red band around the cylinder base.

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➢ Its natural corrosion resistance and tends to wear longer.

➢ Can be chrome plated back to original size if wear

beyond its limits.

➢ PROBLEM – In its natural state, it is too smooth to retain

enough oil to lubricate piston ring.

➢ Overcome by a process of chrome channeling.

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➢ A reverse current is sent through a cylinder for a

controlled period of time after the chromium has been
applied.

➢ This causes microscopic

surface cracks that help to
hold lubricating oil on
cylinder wall.

PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF CHROME PLATING

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Cylinder Finishes
➢ Engine manufacturers applied special paints to the exterior of
cylinder barrels to protect from corrosion.

➢ This special paint would change color when exposed to high

temperatures.

➢ This indicate a possible overheat and could damaged the

cylinders.

➢ Textron-Lycoming cylinders – painted with a gray enamel that

appears burned when exposed to excessive heat.

➢ Teledyne Continental – painted with a gold paint that turns pink.

 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Cylinder Heads
➢ Provide an enclosed chamber for combustion.

➢ Cylinders heads contain:-

- exhaust and intake valve port,
- spark plug,
- valve actuating mechanisms,
- cooling fins – conduct heat away.

➢ Made of either forged or die-cast aluminum alloy

because conducts heat well, light weight and durable.
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➢ The inner shape of a cylinder head may be flat, semi-spherical or

peaked.

➢ Semi-spherical type most satisfactory because it is stronger and

more rapid scavenging of the exhaust. gases.

➢ Cooling fins provide effective heat transferring to the air.

➢ Exhaust port typically the hottest region have more fins.

➢ Intake port has less fins because the fuel/air mixture cools this area.

➢ Stainless steel Heli-Coil spark plug inserts in used, damaged

threads replace the insert.
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Cylinder Numbering
➢ Irrespective of mounting of position, propeller shaft end is
always referred to as front of an engine.

➢ And the accessory end is always the rear of an engine.

➢ Always view the engine from the rear or accessory end when
referring left (port) or right (starboard)side of an engine.

➢ Likewise rotation of engine is

also view from rear of an engine as
either clockwise or counterclockwise
(anticlockwise).
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ For oppose engine of 4 or 6

cylinder.

➢ Teledyne continental starts from

right rear.

➢ Textron-Lycoming starts from the

right front.

OPPOSE ENGINE CYLINDERS NUMBERING

➢ Both maker have odd number on the right hand side and
even number on the left hand side.
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➢ For radial engine, all are numbered the same way, with top
cylinder as no. 1 progressing clockwise for single row engine.

➢ Double-row engine, front row even numbered and back/rear

row odd numbered.

RADIAL ENGINES CYLINDERS NUMBERING

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Valves VALVE TIP

PURPOSE:
- Regulates the flow of gases into and
out of the cylinder at predetermined
times.
VALVE STEM

➢ Intake valve control the amount of

fuel/air mixture that enter the
VALVE NECK
cylinder through intake port.
VALVE FACE

➢ Exhaust valve allows the exhaust

gas exit through the exhaust port.
VALVE HEAD
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> Subject to high temperature, corrosion and extreme stress.

> Made from metals that are able to resist this factors.

➢ Normally each cylinder must have one intake and exhaust

valve. But some high power engine have two intake and
exhaust valve for each cylinder.

➢ Most common type of valve in used is the poppet valve

which gets its name from the popping action of the valve.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Classified through their head shape.

➢ Four basic design either flat head, semi-tulip head, tulip

head, and mushroom head.
SLIGHTLY WIDE INDENTED HAVE CONVEX
HEAD IS FLAT AREA ON ITS HEAD
CONCAVE HEAD HEADS

TYPICALLY USE ONLY NOT COMMONLY FOUND

AS INTAKE VALVE ON AIRCRAFT ENGINE
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➢ The valve face is typically ground to an angle of between

30° and 60º to form a seal against the valve seat when
its in closed position.

➢ In some engine intake valve face is ground to 30degrees

and exhaust valve face is ground to 45 degrees.

➢ Engine manufacturer specified the exact angle which

based on airflow, efficiency and sealing ability.
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➢ Stellite are often welded to the valve

tip and valve face than ground to
correct angle.

➢ Stellite is an alloy of cobalt and

chromium.

➢ Purpose to resist high temperature

and corrosion and to withstand
shock and wear associated with valve operation.
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➢ Valve stem act as pilot to

keep valve head properly
aligned as it moves back
and forth.
VALVE STEM

➢ Most valve stems are

surface hardened to resist
wear and are joined to the
valve head at the valve
neck.
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➢ Groove is machined around the valve stem near the tip

for a split key or keeper key which act as lock ring to
keep the valve spring retaining washer in place and hold
the valve in the cylinder head.
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➢ On some radial engine, the

valve stem have an
additional groove below the
split key groove.

➢ Second groove is used to

hold a safety circlet or spring
ring.

➢ Prevents valve from falling

into the cylinder in the event
the valve tip breaks off. SAFETY CIRCLET ON SOME RADIAL
ENGINES
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➢ To dissipate heat better some valve

stem is filled with metallic sodium.

➢ Sodium melt at approximate 208ºF

➢ Movement of stem up and down

absorb heat and carry heat and
dissipated through cylinder head.

➢ In some case it may reduce

temperature to as much as
400ºF.
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➢ Sodium filled valve should never be

cut or handle in a manner that would
allow the sodium to come in contact
with air.

➢ This dangerous material burn

violently when expose to air.

➢ It must be disposed in an
appropriate manner.
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Valve Seating Components

➢ To ensure valve’s face seat
firmly against cylinder,
several individual components
are utilized such as:-

- Valve seat.

- Valve guides.

- Valves springs.

- Valve retainers.
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Valve Seat.

➢A circular ring of hardened

metal that provide uniform
sealing surface for valve
face.

➢ Typical material either bronze

or steel and machined to an
oversize fit.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ To installed, cylinder head is

heated and valve seat chilled
then pressed into the head using
special tool called mandrel.

➢ Ground to same angle to valve

face but may be ground
quarter or one degree shallower
than valve face to provide
interference fit that results in
more positive seating.
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Valve Guide.

➢ Cylindrical sleeve that provides

support to the valve stem and
keeps the valve face aligned with
the valve seat.

➢ Made of steel, tin-bronze, or

aluminum-bronze.

➢ Installed shrunk as valve seat.

 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Valve Spring.

➢ Helical-coiled springs that

provide force to hold the
valve face firmly against the
valve seat.

➢ Most engine have two or

more valve springs of
difference diameter to
prevent valve float or valve
surge.
VALVE SPRINGS
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➢ Two springs make it impossible for

the springs to vibrate at the same
time.

➢ Also reduce the chance of failure

due to breakage cause by heat
and metal fatigue.

➢ Valve is held in place by valve

spring retainer and split valve keys
that lock the valve retainer to valve
stem.
Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Valve Operating Mechanisms

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Valve Operating Mechanisms

 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Valve Operating Mechanisms

➢ To open each valve at correct time, hold it open for a
certain period and then closed the valve.

➢ Consists of:-

- Internally driven camshaft or cam ring,

- That push the valve lifter,
- Transmit force to push rod,
- Actuate a rocker arm,
- Depress and open valve against valve
spring tension and hold the valve open.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Oppose Engine – Operation.

➢ Valve operation begin with

camshaft.

➢ Consists of round shaft with series

of cams or lobes that transform
rotary motion to linear motion to
actuate valve.
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➢ Shapes determined:-

- Distance valve lift off its seat,

- Duration,

- Length of time held open.

➢ Due to its bearing surface,

all lobes are harden to resists
wear.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Opposed Engines – Camshaft.

➢ Supported by bearing journal in the camshaft boss of

crankcase.

➢ Rotating force from crankshaft through gears

CAM LOBES

BEARING JOURNALS
CAMSHAFT
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➢ Speed of rotation is always

half crankshaft speed:-

- Each cylinder fires once

for two rotation of the
crankshaft.

- Therefore each valve open

and close once for every
two rotation of the
crankshaft.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Valve Lifter.

➢ Valve lifter or tappet transmit the lifting force of the cam

to pushrod.

➢ Valve lifter can be either solid or hydraulic.

➢ The camshaft end of a solid lifter is flat with polished

surface while the pushrod end contains spherical cavity
that house the pushrod.

➢ Holes drilled to allow lubricating oil flow through the lifter

to lubricate the push rod.

➢ Most opposed engine used hydraulic lifters.

 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Used oil pressure to cushion the impact of the cam lobes

striking the lifter and removes any play within the valves
operating mechanism.

➢ Typical hydraulic lifters consist of:-

- Movable cam followers cam face.
- A lifter body.
- A hydraulic plunger and plunger
spring.
- A check valve.
- A push rod socket.

➢ The entire assembly sits in a hole in the crankcase and

rest on the camshaft.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ The cam follower face on smooth surface, lifter rides on the cam.
➢ If on the back side of cam lobe hydraulic plunger forces the hydraulic
plunger outward so push rod socket against the push rod.
➢ As the hydraulic plunger moves outward, a ball check valve off its seat
and allow oil flow from oil supply chamber to the oil pressure chamber.
➢ Cam lobe strikes the follower face, the body and cylinder move outward.
➢ Causes check valve close and trap oil in the oil pressure chamber.
➢ Trapped oil, dampen the abrupt pressure to the push rod.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

HYDRAULIC LIFTER USING DISK TYPE CHECK VALVE

➢ Similar to the lifter just discussed, except a disk-type instead of ball

check valve.

➢ Hydraulic lifter eliminates all the clearances between various

components of a valve operating mechanism, thereby reducing the
amount of hammering and wear.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Push Rod.

➢ Transmit lifting action to the rocker arm.

➢ Is a hollow steel or aluminum alloy tube with polished

end.

➢ One end rides in valve lifter while other end fit into socket
in rocker arm.

➢ Typically have hole on

each end to allow oil
flow from lifter to valve
component.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Enclose by thin metal

shroud or tube that run
from cylinder head to
crankcase.

➢ These provide return path

for oil that is pumped up
to cylinder head.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Rocker Arm.

➢ Purpose:-

➢ Change lifting movement of

the pushrod into downward
motion needed to open the
valve.

➢ Made of forged steel.

➢ Has a cup shape socket to

hold push rod end.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ A flat surface that push the

valve tip.

➢ Entire rocker arm pivot on

shaft suspended between
rocker arm bosses that are
cast into cylinder head.

➢ Bronze bush provide bearing

surface for the rocker shaft.
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➢ Rocker shaft is machined with

press fit and held in place by
cover or cover inserted over
outside of the each rocker
boss.

BOSSES
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Radial Engines
➢ Valve operating
mechanism on radial
engine used one or two
cam ring instead of
camshaft depending on
number of cylinder rows.

➢ Cam ring is a circular

piece of steel with a series
of raised lobe on its outer
edge.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Number of lobe varies with

number of cylinder.

➢ Each lobe is with a cam ramp on

each side of lobes to reduce
abrupt rising lobe.

➢ Smooth are between lobe is

called cam track.

➢ Single cam ring have two tracks,

one each for inlet and exhaust.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ The cam ring also driven by the

crankshaft.

➢ The speed of the cam ring can

be determined by using formula.

1
2 X Number of lobes.

➢ Cam roller replace cam follower

face.
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➢ Roller push against tappet

which is enclosed in the
tappet guide.

➢ Tappet in turn actuate a push

rod same as opposed engine.

➢ Lock screw allow adjustment.

➢ Rocker arm equip with roller

to reduce friction, eliminate
side loading on valve stem and
lessen tip deformation.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Valve (Tappet) Clearance Adjustment

➢ Valve clearance describes the space between valve

stem (tip) and rocker arm face.

➢ For engine to run properly, correct

valve clearance must be maintained.

➢ During normal engine operating

temperature, the cylinder assemblies
expand and force the cylinder along
with its valve operating component
further away from the crankcase.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Valve Clearance.

➢ Due to relative mass, the push rod expand less

than the cylinder resulting in increases in valve
clearance.

➢ Cold clearance - set when the engine cold.

➢ Running clearance – set when the engine is hot.

➢ The clearance is set or adjusted at beginning of

power stroke using a thickness or feeler gauge.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ No setting of valve clearance is required for opposed

engine using hydraulic lifters.

➢ They automatically maintain a zero valve clearance

during normal operation.

➢ Hydraulic lifters are often called zero clearance or zero

lash lifters and are set during engine overhaul.

➢ If the clearance not within specifications, push rods of

varying lengths are installed until the correct clearance is
achieved (short / long push rods).
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Large radial engine incorporate a floating cam ring that

requires a special procedure when adjusting valve
clearance.

➢ Correct adjustment, the cam ring must be seated to

eliminate cam bearing clearance.

➢ Involves depressing two valves to seat the cam ring,

allowing an accurate measurement on a third valve.

➢ Procedure is repeated for each cylinder.

 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

PROPELLER REDUCTION GEARS

➢ General rules, the faster an engine turn, the more power

it produces.

➢ However, it does not apply to propeller as a propeller

blade tip approaches the speed of sound, the propeller can
no longer efficiently convert the power produced by an
engine into thrust.

➢ Hence, the use of propeller reduction gears to permit

propeller to turn slower than the engine.

➢ This allow an engine to turn at relatively fast speed

and propeller at slower speed.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Reduction gear system utilize spur gears, planetary

gears or combination of the two.

➢ The amount of reduction is based primarily on the size

of the propeller shaft gear.

➢ The larger the gear the slower the propeller turn.

➢ This reduction gear does some disadvantages.

 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Disadvantages:
- when using two external tooth spur gears, the
propeller turns opposite the crankshaft.

➢ Since the propeller shaft is off-center from the

engine crankshaft it act like a gyroscope and
places serve torsional loads on the engine case.

➢ Requires the use of stronger and heavier

crankcase.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ To overcome use an internal-tooth spur gear on the

propeller shaft and external-tooth spur gear on the
crankshaft.

➢ To allow propeller to turn in the same direction as the

engine.

➢ Keep propeller more closely aligned with the crankshaft.

➢ Eliminating stress on the crankcase.

➢ To minimize vibration, some engine use a quill shaft

between the crankshaft and propeller shaft.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Quill shaft is a hardened steel shaft that is splined on both

ends and installed between two gears or shaft to absorb
torsional vibration.

➢ One end of the quill shaft fits into the front end of the
crankshaft.

➢ Opposite end is inserted into

the front of the propeller drive
shaft.

➢ This arrangement, the quill

shaft drives the propeller and
absorbs vibration from the
reduction mechanism.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ Planetary reduction gear.

➢ Keep the propeller shaft and crankshaft perfectly aligned.

➢ Propeller shaft is attached to a

housing which contains several
small gears called planetary gears.

➢ Planetary gears rotate between a

sun gear and a ring or bell gear.

➢ Used on opposed, radial and

turboprop engines.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

PROPELLER SHAFTS
➢ Three type common in use:-
i) Tapered
ii) Splined
iii) Flanged shaft.

i) Tapered propeller shafts.

- used on low-power engines.
- shaft gets smaller in diameter
toward the end of the shaft.
- one or more key slots are
milled into the shaft to lock propeller to the shaft.
- end of the shaft is treaded to receive a propeller
retaining nut.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

ii) Splined shaft.

- rectangular groove is machined into the propeller
shaft with master spline.
- master spline assures a propeller is attached a
shaft a specified way and kept vibration to a minimum.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

iii) Flanged shaft.

- widely used on oppose engine.
- use bolt or bolt and nut to secure propeller to
the shaft.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Engine Identification
➢ Series of letters and numbers that identified the type and size of
the engine.

O - Horizontally opposed engine.

R - Radial engine.
I - In-line engine.
V - V-type engine.
T - Turbocharged
I - Fuel injection.
S - Supercharged.
G - Geared nose section ( propeller reduction gearing )
L - Left hand rotation.
H - Horizontal mounting (helicopter)
V - Vertical mounting (helicopter)
A - Modified for aerobatics.
 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

➢ The numbers in an engine identification code indicate

an engine displacement in cubic inches.

➢ Eg.
- O-320 horizontally opposed engine with a
displacement of 320 inches.
- LIO-360 – left rotation, fuel injection and
horizontally opposed engine with displaces of 360
cubic inches.
- GSTIO-520-F – engine is geared, turbo-
supercharged, fuel injection, horizontal opposed,
displaces 520 cubic inches and F model.