Geomorphology Notes Free e-book

Geomorphology Notes

If you are preparing for the UGC NET Geography Exam, mastering
Geomorphology is crucial. Our Geomorphology Notes for UGC NET cover key
concepts, landforms, and processes that shape the Earth’s surface. From
weathering and erosion to plate tectonics and fluvial processes, these notes
provide in-depth yet easy-to-understand explanations.

Table of Content

S.No. Topics
1. Continental Drift Theory
2. Theory of Plate Tectonics
3. Exogenic and Endogenic Forces
4. Denudation and Weathering

Continental Drift Theory

The Concept of Continental Drift Theory was first proposed by Alfred

Wegener in 1912, explaining the movement of Earth’s continents over
geological time. This theory suggests that continents were once part of a single
supercontinent, Pangaea, which gradually drifted apart due to tectonic forces.
The idea laid the foundation for modern plate tectonics and revolutionized our
understanding of Earth’s geological history.

Historical Background of Concept of Continental Drift Theory

The continental drift hypothesis was first proposed by Alfred

Wegener in 1912, suggesting that continents were once part of a single
supercontinent called Pangaea and gradually drifted apart. Wegener presented
his ideas in his book Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane (The
Origin of Continents and Oceans) in 1915.

Initially, the scientific community rejected Wegener’s theory due to the lack
of a convincing mechanism for continental movement. However, supporting
evidence from fossil distribution, geological formations, and
paleoclimatic data kept the idea relevant. The discovery of seafloor spreading
by Harry Hess (1960s) and advancements in plate tectonics theory provided
the missing mechanism, leading to the eventual acceptance of continental drift
and plate tectonics as a unified model in modern geology.

Key Evidence Supporting Continental Drift Theory

The Concept of Continental Drift Theory is backed by strong scientific

evidence, including fossil similarities, geological formations, climatic
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patterns, and paleomagnetic studies, proving that continents have moved

over time.

1. Fossil Evidence

 Identical fossils of species like Mesosaurus (a freshwater

reptile) and Glossopteris (a plant) found on continents separated by
oceans.

 Suggests these landmasses were once connected, supporting the

continental drift hypothesis.

2. Geological Evidence

 Matching rock formations and mountain ranges across continents (e.g.,

Appalachians in North America align with Caledonian mountains in
Europe).

 Similar coal deposits and geological structures found on widely separated

continents.

3. Climatic Evidence

 Presence of glacial deposits in tropical regions like India,

Africa, and South America indicates these continents were once closer
to the South Pole.

 Contradicts current climatic conditions, proving past continental

movements.

4. Paleomagnetic Studies & Oceanic Crust Movements

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 Magnetic minerals in rocks show changes in Earth’s magnetic

field, proving continents shifted over time.

 Seafloor spreading (discovered by Harry Hess) provided solid proof

of tectonic plate movements, reinforcing continental drift and plate
tectonics theory.

Mechanism Behind Continental Drift

The Concept of Continental Drift Theory is powered by deep geological forces

that constantly reshape Earth’s surface. These forces include mantle
convection, seafloor spreading, tectonic plate interactions, mid-ocean
ridges, and subduction zones. Let’s break them down:

1. Mantle Convection – The Engine of Continental Drift

 Beneath Earth’s crust lies the mantle, a semi-molten layer where

convection currents occur.

 Heat from Earth’s core causes hot magma to rise and cool magma to sink,
creating a slow-moving cycle.

 These convection currents push and pull tectonic plates, driving

continental drift.

2. Seafloor Spreading – The Expanding Ocean Floor

 Discovered by Harry Hess, seafloor spreading explains how new oceanic

crust forms at mid-ocean ridges.

 Molten rock rises, cools, and solidifies, pushing older crust away, causing
continents to move apart.

 This process provides strong evidence for plate tectonics and continental
movement.
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3. Tectonic Forces – The Movers of Continents

 Divergent Boundaries: Plates move apart (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge,

separating South America and Africa).

 Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide, forming mountain ranges like

the Himalayas.

 Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each other, triggering

earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault).

4. Mid-Ocean Ridges & Subduction Zones – The Recycling System

 Mid-ocean ridges create new crust, pushing continents apart.

 Subduction zones (like the Pacific Ring of Fire) pull old crust into the
mantle, recycling Earth’s surface.

 This balance of creation and destruction keeps the continents in motion.

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Why It Matters?

 The Concept of Continental Drift Theory is more than just history, it

explains earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain formation, and
oceanic changes.

 It revolutionized geology and remains a cornerstone of Earth sciences

today.

Impact of Continental Drift on Modern Geography

The Concept of Continental Drift Theory has profoundly shaped modern

geography, geology, and Earth sciences, explaining key natural phenomena and
the evolution of Earth’s surface.

1. Influence on Earthquakes, Volcanic Activity & Mountain Formation

 Earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic plates along fault

lines (e.g., San Andreas Fault).

 Volcanic activity is concentrated in subduction zones and mid-ocean

ridges, forming volcanic islands and arcs (e.g., Pacific Ring of Fire).

 Mountain ranges like the Himalayas and Andes formed due to

continental collisions, proving large-scale landmass movements.

2. Connection with Plate Tectonics & Global Landmass Distribution

 The theory explains how continents shift, break apart, and

reassemble, influencing climate, ocean currents, and biodiversity.

 The movement of tectonic plates determines the position of continents

and ocean basins, impacting global ecosystems.

3. Importance in Geophysical Studies & Environmental Sciences

 Helps predict seismic activity, volcanic eruptions, and natural

disasters, aiding disaster management.

 Provides insights into climate change, continental

weathering, and resource distribution (e.g., fossil fuels, minerals).

 Supports paleogeographic research, helping scientists reconstruct

Earth’s ancient landscapes.

The Concept of Continental Drift Theory remains a cornerstone of Earth

sciences, influencing modern research on tectonic processes, natural hazards,
and global environmental changes.

Criticism and Limitations of Continental Drift Theory

Despite its groundbreaking insights, the Concept of Continental Drift

Theory faced strong opposition in its early days due to several limitations:
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1. Lack of a Driving Mechanism

 When Alfred Wegener proposed the theory in 1912, he couldn’t explain

how continents moved.

 He suggested forces like Earth’s rotation and tidal forces, but these were
scientifically weak and dismissed by geologists.

2. Rejection by the Scientific Community

 Geologists in the early 20th century believed continents were fixed and
immovable.

 Without evidence of a powerful force driving continental movement, the

theory lacked acceptance.

3. Plate Tectonics – The Missing Link

 The discovery of seafloor spreading (Harry Hess, 1960s) provided a

solid explanation for continental movement.

 Mantle convection currents were identified as the actual driving force

behind tectonic plate movements.

 The theory of plate tectonics combined these discoveries, resolving

criticisms and confirming continental drift as part of modern geology.

Thus, while Wegener’s idea was initially dismissed, plate tectonics

theory validated his insights, making the Concept of Continental Drift a key
pillar of Earth sciences today.

The Concept of Continental Drift Theory, proposed by Alfred

Wegener in 1912, revolutionized geology by proving that continents were once
connected as Pangaea and later drifted apart. Initially rejected due to the lack
of a driving mechanism, it was later validated by plate tectonics theory,
supported by seafloor spreading and mantle convection. This theory remains
essential in understanding earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain formation,
and global landmass distribution, laying the foundation for modern geology and
geophysics.

Theory of Plate Tectonics

The Theory of Plate Tectonics explains the movement of Earth’s

lithospheric plates over the asthenosphere, shaping the planet’s surface.
Proposed in the 1960s, it integrates continental drift, seafloor
spreading, and tectonic activity, making it a cornerstone of geophysical
studies. The Earth’s crust is divided into major and minor tectonic plates that
interact at divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries, causing
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain formation. This theory also
explains rift valleys, oceanic trenches, and mid-ocean ridges, making it essential
for UGC NET Geography aspirants to understand.
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What is the Theory of Plate Tectonics?

The term “Plate Tectonics” was introduced as a unifying theory explaining the
movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates.
 It was coined by Xavier Le Pichon (1968).
 Earth’s Lithosphere is Divided into Plates: The outer shell of the Earth
consists of rigid plates that float over the semi-fluid asthenosphere.
 Integration of Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading: It
combines Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory
(1912) and Harry Hess’s Seafloor Spreading Theory (1960s) to
explain global tectonic activity.
 Plates Move Due to Mantle Convection: The motion of tectonic plates is
driven by convection currents in the mantle, along with ridge push and slab
pull forces.
 Types of Plate Boundaries Define Earth’s Features: Plate interactions
occur at divergent (spreading), convergent (collision/subduction), and
transform (sliding) boundaries, shaping continents, ocean basins, and
mountains.
 Plays a Crucial Role in Understanding Earth’s Dynamic System: The
theory is essential for geology, geography, seismology, and environmental
studies, making it a key topic in UGC NET Geography.

Major and Minor Tectonic Plates

Major Tectonic Plates (7 in total)

 Pacific Plate – Largest plate, covering most of the Pacific Ocean.

 North American Plate – Covers North America, parts of the Atlantic
Ocean, and parts of Siberia.
 South American Plate – Encompasses South America and extends into
the Atlantic Ocean.
 Eurasian Plate – Includes Europe, Russia, and most of Asia.
 African Plate – Covers Africa and the surrounding oceanic crust.
 Indo-Australian Plate – Comprises Australia, surrounding ocean regions,
and parts of the Indian Ocean.
 Antarctic Plate – Covers Antarctica and extends outward into the
Southern Ocean.

Minor Tectonic Plates (Not exhaustive, but significant)

 Indian Plate – Sometimes considered part of the Indo-Australian Plate,

but moves separately.
 Arabian Plate – Covers the Arabian Peninsula.
 Philippine Sea Plate – Found near the Philippines, responsible for high
seismic activity.
 Caribbean Plate – Covers the Caribbean region, known for earthquakes
and volcanic activity.
 Nazca Plate – Located in the southeastern Pacific, subducting under the
South American Plate.
 Cocos Plate – Located off the west coast of Central America, interacting
with the Caribbean Plate.
 Scotia Plate – Found between the South American and Antarctic Plates.
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 Juan de Fuca Plate – A small plate off the west coast of North America,
responsible for seismic activity in the Pacific Northwest.

Historical Background of Plate Tectonics

1. Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1912)

 Proposed that continents were once part of a supercontinent called Pangaea
and drifted apart over time.
 Based on fossil distribution, geological fit, and climatic evidence.
 Lacked a mechanism for movement, which was later explained by plate
tectonics.
2. Seafloor Spreading (Harry Hess, 1960s)
 Discovered that new oceanic crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and spreads
outward.
 Confirmed by paleomagnetic evidence (magnetic striping on the ocean
floor).
 Provided the mechanism missing in Wegener’s theory, proving that
continents move as part of larger lithospheric plates.
3. Development of Plate Tectonics (Xavier Le Pichon, 1968)
 Integrated Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading into a comprehensive
theory.
 Defined seven major lithospheric plates and their movements.
 It explained earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain formation, and ocean basin
evolution through plate interactions.

Structure of the Earth in Plate Tectonics

Understanding the Earth’s internal structure is crucial for comprehending plate

tectonics, as it explains how lithospheric plates move, interact, and reshape the
planet’s surface. The key structural components involved in plate
movements are:

1. Lithosphere – The Rigid Outer Shell

 The lithosphere is the Earth’s outermost layer, comprising

the crust and uppermost mantle.
 It is rigid, brittle, and broken into tectonic plates, which move over the
semi-fluid asthenosphere.
 Two types of lithospheres exist:
 Continental Lithosphere: Thicker (30-70 km), composed of
granitic rocks, and less dense.
 Oceanic Lithosphere: Thinner (5-10 km), composed of basaltic
rocks, and denser.
 Plate boundaries within the lithosphere define the Earth’s most active
geological features, including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain-
building, and rift formation.
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2. Asthenosphere – The Semi-Molten Layer

 The asthenosphere lies below the lithosphere, extending up to 700 km in
depth.
 Composed of hot, partially molten rock, it behaves like a viscous
fluid, allowing tectonic plates to glide and shift.
 The heat and pressure in the asthenosphere generate plasticity, enabling
mantle convection, which drives plate motion.
 The asthenosphere plays a key role in seafloor spreading, slab
pull, and ridge push, crucial for understanding plate dynamics.

3. Mantle Convection – The Driving Force Behind Plate Movements

 Mantle convection is the primary force causing tectonic plate movements.
 The Earth’s core generates intense heat, creating convection currents within
the mantle.
 These currents cause hot magma to rise at mid-ocean ridges, spread
outward, cool, and eventually sink at subduction zones.
 Three key forces result from mantle convection:
 Ridge Push – Rising magma at divergent boundaries pushes plates
apart (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
 Slab Pull – Denser, colder plates sink into the mantle at subduction
zones, pulling the rest of the plate along (e.g., Pacific Plate
subducting under the Philippine Plate).
 Basal Drag – Friction between the convecting mantle and
lithosphere moves the plates along with the current.
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Types of Plate Boundaries

Plate boundaries are the regions where tectonic plates interact, leading to
earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain formation, and oceanic trench
development. These boundaries are classified into three main types:

1. Divergent Boundaries – Plates Moving Apart

 At divergent boundaries, plates move away from each other, creating new
crust.
 Key Features:
 Formation of mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys.
 Magma rises from the mantle, cools, and forms new crust.
 Associated with seafloor spreading and volcanic activity.
 Examples:
 Mid-Atlantic Ridge – Separates the Eurasian and North American
plates.
 Great Rift Valley (East Africa) – A developing continental rift
zone.

2. Convergent Boundaries – Plates Colliding

 At convergent boundaries, plates move toward each other, causing

subduction or mountain formation.
 Types of Convergent Boundaries:
 Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence: One oceanic plate subducts under
another, forming volcanic island arcs (e.g., Japan, Philippines).
 Oceanic-Continental Convergence: Dense oceanic plate subducts
under a lighter continental plate, forming deep-sea trenches and
volcanic mountain ranges (e.g., Andes Mountains, Peru-Chile
Trench).
 Continental-Continental Convergence: No subduction occurs;
instead, plates crumple and uplift, forming massive mountain ranges
(e.g., Himalayas, Alps).
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3. Transform Boundaries – Plates Sliding Past Each Other

 At transform boundaries, plates slide horizontally past each other, creating
fault lines.
 Key Features:
 No new crust is created or destroyed.
 High seismic activity leads to frequent earthquakes.
 Can connect divergent and convergent boundaries.
 Examples:
 San Andreas Fault (USA) – Separates the Pacific and North
American plates.
 North Anatolian Fault (Turkey) – One of the most seismically
active zones.

Mechanisms of Plate Movement

The movement of tectonic plates is driven by internal Earth

processes, primarily caused by heat transfer from the core to the surface. These
mechanisms explain continental drift, seafloor spreading, and plate interactions,
making them essential for UGC NET Geography.

1. Mantle Convection – The Primary Driving Force

 In this, circular heat-driven currents in the mantle move tectonic plates.

 How it Works:
 Hot magma rises from deep inside the mantle.
 As it reaches the surface, it spreads outward, pushing plates apart.
 The cooled magma sinks back, creating a continuous convection
cycle.
 Impact:
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Drives seafloor spreading and continental drift.

Helps in formation of new oceanic crust.
 Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 The Eurasian and North American plates are moving apart due to
mantle convection.
 New crust forms, creating an expanding ocean basin.
 This process causes volcanic activity along the ridge.

2. Ridge Push – Gravity Drives Plate Separation

 Ridge Push is gravity-driven force where new crust at mid-ocean ridges

pushes plates apart.
 How it Works:
 Magma upwells at mid-ocean ridges, forming new crust.
 The elevated crust pushes older crust away due to gravity.
 Impact:
 Causes plates to move apart.
 Creates rift valleys and expands ocean basins.
 Example: East African Rift Valley
 The African plate is splitting into the Somali and Nubian plates.
 This rift is slowly creating a new ocean basin, similar to how the Red
Sea formed.

3. Slab Pull – The Strongest Force

 The pulling force exerted by a sinking tectonic plate at subduction zones is

slab pull.
 How it Works:
 Denser oceanic plates sink into the mantle at subduction zones.
 As they descend, they pull the rest of the plate along.
 Impact:
 Forms deep-sea trenches and volcanic arcs.
 Triggers earthquakes and tsunamis.
 Example: Mariana Trench
 The Pacific Plate is subducting beneath the Philippine Plate.
 This has created the deepest ocean trench (Mariana Trench).
 The process also leads to frequent earthquakes in the Pacific Ring
of Fire.

Evidence Supporting Plate Tectonics

The Theory of Plate Tectonics is supported by strong geological and geophysical

evidence, proving that continents and ocean floors are continuously moving. The
key evidence includes:

1. Paleomagnetism – Earth’s Magnetic Record

 Magnetic striping on the ocean floor reveals alternating patterns of normal
and reversed polarity, proving seafloor spreading.
 Mid-ocean ridges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge) show symmetrical
magnetic bands on either side, confirming new crust formation.
 Fact: The study of paleomagnetism helped confirm the seafloor
spreading hypothesis (Hess, 1960s).
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2. Fossil Distribution – Clues from Ancient Life

 Identical fossils of Mesosaurus (freshwater reptile) and Glossopteris

(fern plant) are found in South America, Africa, and India, indicating these
continents were once connected.
 Supports Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory (1912), later
refined into Plate Tectonics.

3. Geological Fit – Jigsaw Puzzle of Continents

 The coastlines of South America and Africa fit together, supporting the
idea that they were once part of Gondwana.
 Similar rock formations and mountain belts (e.g., Appalachians in
North America & Caledonian mountains in Europe) indicate past
continental connections.

Implications of Plate Tectonics – Shaping Earth’s Surface

Plate movements drive natural disasters, landform evolution, and ocean

formation.

1. Earthquakes & Volcanoes – Tectonic Activity at Boundaries

 Earthquakes occur along transform and subduction zones (e.g., San

Andreas Fault, Japan Trench).
 Volcanoes form at convergent boundaries (e.g., Pacific Ring of Fire).
 Fact: 90% of the world’s earthquakes occur along plate boundaries.
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2. Mountain Building – Orogeny from Plate Collisions

 Himalayas were formed by the Indian Plate colliding with the Eurasian
Plate.
 The Andes Mountains were created by Nazca Plate subduction beneath
the South American Plate.
 Fact: The tallest mountains are formed at convergent boundaries due to
intense pressure and uplift.

3. Ocean Basin Formation – Expanding Seafloors

 Divergent boundaries create new oceanic crust (e.g., Atlantic Ocean
expanding at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
 Red Sea is an early-stage ocean basin forming due to the rift between the
African and Arabian plates.
 Fact: The Atlantic Ocean is widening by ~2.5 cm per year due to seafloor
spreading.

Exogenic and Endogenic Forces

The Earth’s surface is constantly shaped by Exogenic and Endogenic

Forces, which drive geological changes over time. Exogenic forces, such
as weathering, erosion, and deposition, originate from external
agents like wind, water, and glaciers. In contrast, Endogenic forces arise
from within the Earth, causing phenomena like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and mountain formation.

What is Exogenic Forces?

Exogenic forces originate from external agents such as wind, water, glaciers,
and waves. These forces operate on the Earth’s surface and primarily
involve processes like:
 Weathering
 Erosion and Deposition
 Mass Wasting
Example: The Grand Canyon, formed by the erosional activity of the
Colorado River.

1. Weathering: Rock Breakdown Without Movement

 Physical Weathering: Disintegration due to temperature changes, frost

action (e.g., cracked rocks in deserts).
 Chemical Weathering: Decomposition via oxidation, carbonation,
hydration (e.g., limestone caves).
 Biological Weathering: Breakdown by plant roots, animals, microbes
(e.g., tree roots splitting rocks).
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2. Erosion & Deposition: Transport & Accumulation of Material

 Wind (Aeolian): Forms sand dunes, yardangs (e.g., Thar Desert).

 Water (Fluvial): Carves valleys, deposits deltas (e.g., Ganges Delta).
 Glaciers (Glacial): Creates U-shaped valleys, moraines (e.g.,
Himalayas).
 Sea Waves (Coastal): Erodes cliffs, forms beaches (e.g., Konkan Coast).

3. Mass Wasting: Gravity-Driven Movement

 Landslides & Rockfalls: Sudden slope collapse (e.g., Uttarakhand

landslides).
 Mudflows & Soil Creep: Slow to rapid movement of soil and debris.

What is Endogenic Forces (Internal Forces of Earth)?

Endogenic forces originate from within the Earth due to internal heat and
pressure, causing tectonic movements, earthquakes, volcanic
activity, and mountain formation. These forces shape the Earth’s crust over
time. These forces cause tectonic activities and lead to:
 Volcanism
 Earthquakes
 Diastrophism
Example: The Himalayas, formed due to the collision of the Indian and
Eurasian plates.

1. Tectonic Movements:

Here are the theories that align with tectonic movements:

 Continental Drift Theory: Proposed by Alfred Wegener, explains the
movement of continents over geological time.
 Plate Tectonics Theory: Earth’s lithosphere is divided into plates that
move due to convection currents in the mantle.
 Divergent Boundaries: Plates move apart (e.g., Mid-Atlantic
Ridge).
 Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide, forming mountains (e.g.,
Himalayas).
 Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each other, causing
earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault).

2. Volcanism and Earthquakes: Causes, Effects & Examples

Volcanism occurs when magma erupts from the mantle, forming volcanoes.
 Types: Active, Dormant, Extinct.
 Examples: Mount Vesuvius (Italy), Kilauea (Hawaii).
Earthquakes are sudden release of energy due to fault movement.
 Measured by: Richter Scale.
 Effects: Ground shaking, tsunamis, landslides.
 Examples: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2015 Nepal Earthquake.
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Folding and Faulting: Mountain Formation Processes

The Earth’s crust undergoes deformation due to tectonic forces, leading to

folding and faulting, the key processes responsible for mountain formation and
landform evolution.
 Folding (Orogeny)
 Compression forces bend rock layers, forming fold mountains.
 Examples: Himalayas, Alps.
 Faulting (Epeirogeny)
 Rocks break due to stress, leading to block mountains and rift
valleys.
 Examples: The Great Rift Valley, Vosges Mountains.

Key Differences Between Exogenic and Endogenic Forces

The Earth’s surface is constantly shaped by geomorphic forces, classified

into exogenic forces (acting from outside) and endogenic forces
(originating from within the Earth). Let’s check the key differences
between them:

Exogenic Forces (External Endogenic Forces (Internal

Factor
Forces of Earth) Forces of Earth)

External agents like wind, Internal processes such as mantle

Origin
water, glaciers, and waves. convection, heat, and pressure.

Constructive & Destructive – Creates

Destructive – Breaks down
Nature new landforms and modifies existing
existing landforms.
ones.

Can be both slow (folding) and

Gradual and slow (long-term
Process Type sudden (earthquakes, volcanic
changes).
eruptions).

Geomorphic agents – Water,

Tectonic forces – Magma movement,
Main Agents wind, glaciers, waves, and
seismic activity, plate movements.
gravity.

Landforms Plains, valleys, deltas, sand Fold mountains, rift valleys,

Created dunes, and beaches. volcanoes, and plateaus.

– Erosion: Grand Canyon – Mountain Formation: Himalayas

(USA) by the Colorado River. (folding due to Indian-Eurasian plate
– Glacial Erosion: U-shaped collision).
Examples valleys in the Swiss Alps. – Volcanic Eruptions: Mount Fuji
– Coastal Deposition: (Japan), Mount Etna (Italy).
Beaches along the Indian – Earthquakes: San Andreas Fault
coastline. (USA), 2015 Nepal Earthquake.
Applications
 Exogenic Processes influence agriculture, river management, and
coastal planning due to erosion and deposition.
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 Endogenic Processes are crucial in earthquake preparedness, volcanic

hazard management, and understanding mountain formation.

Significance of Exogenic and Endogenic Forces in Geography

Exogenic and endogenic forces shape the Earth’s surface, influencing landform
development, natural disasters, resource distribution, and human activities.
Their study is essential for UGC NET Geography and environmental
management.

1. Landform Development
 Endogenic Forces create mountains, plateaus, and rift valleys through
tectonic activity.
 Example: Himalayas formed by the Indian-Eurasian plate
collision.
 Exogenic Forces modify landforms via weathering, erosion, and
deposition.
 Example: Grand Canyon carved by river erosion.

2. Natural Disasters & Environmental Impact

 Endogenic Forces cause earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis.

 Example: 2015 Nepal Earthquake due to tectonic movement.
 Exogenic Forces trigger floods, landslides, and soil erosion.
 Example: Coastal erosion in Sundarbans, threatening
ecosystems.

3. Influence on Human Activities & Resources

 Agriculture: Soil fertility is enhanced by weathering and river deposition.

 Example: Indo-Gangetic Plain, rich in alluvial soil.
 Mining & Energy Resources: Tectonic activity forms coal, petroleum, and
mineral deposits.
 Example: Deccan Traps are mineral-rich due to past
volcanism.
 Urban Planning & Disaster Management:
 Understanding geomorphic forces helps in earthquake-resistant
infrastructure and flood control.

4. Climate and Environmental Changes

Exogenic processes influence wind patterns, water cycles, and coastal dynamics.
Volcanic eruptions from endogenic forces impact global temperatures.
Example: 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption led to temporary global cooling.

Exogenic and endogenic forces are fundamental in shaping the Earth’s

surface, influencing landform formation, natural disasters, resource distribution,
and human activities. While endogenic forces drive mountain building,
earthquakes, and volcanic activity, exogenic forces modify landscapes
through weathering, erosion, and deposition.
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Denudation and Weathering

Denudation and Weathering are fundamental geomorphological

processes that shape the Earth’s surface over time. Denudation refers to the
collective processes of weathering, erosion,
transportation, and deposition that lead to the gradual lowering of
landforms. Weathering, a key component of denudation, involves
the breakdown and decomposition of rocks in situ due to physical, chemical,
and biological factors. These processes play a crucial role in landscape evolution,
soil formation, and the redistribution of sediments.

Denudation: Meaning and Processes

What is Denudation?

 Denudation refers to the gradual wearing away, breakdown, and removal

of rock material from the Earth’s surface due to various geomorphic
processes.
 It leads to the lowering and reshaping of landforms over time.
 The primary forces behind denudation include weathering, erosion, mass
wasting, and deposition.
 These processes work together to modify the Earth’s crust, influencing
landscape evolution.

Major Processes of Denudation

1. Weathering (Breakdown of Rocks)

 Weathering is the in-situ disintegration and decomposition of rocks due to

physical, chemical, and biological factors.
 It occurs without the transportation of materials.
 Types of weathering:
 Physical Weathering (e.g., freeze-thaw action, exfoliation)
 Chemical Weathering (e.g., oxidation, carbonation)
 Biological Weathering (e.g., plant roots breaking rocks)

2. Erosion (Removal and Transport of Materials)

 Erosion is the process of wearing away rock materials and transporting

them by agents such as water, wind, ice, and gravity.
 It is an active process that moves sediments from one location to another.
 Major erosion agents:
 Fluvial (river) erosion
 Aeolian (wind) erosion
 Glacial erosion
 Coastal erosion
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3. Mass Wasting (Downslope Movement of Rock Debris)

 Mass wasting involves the movement of soil, rock, and debris downslope
under the influence of gravity.
 It occurs without the involvement of transporting agents like water or
wind.
 Common types of mass wasting:
 Landslides (rapid movement)
 Rockfalls (sudden detachment of rocks)
 Creep (slow movement of soil and rock)

4. Deposition (Settling of Transported Material)

 Deposition is the process where eroded materials settle down in a new

location due to loss of energy in the transporting medium.
 It contributes to the formation of new landforms such as deltas, sand
dunes, and alluvial fans.
 Examples of deposition:
 River deposition (e.g., floodplains, deltas)
 Glacial deposition (e.g., moraines)
 Wind deposition (e.g., sand dunes)

Weathering: Types and Mechanisms

What is Weathering?

 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks,

minerals, and soils at or near the Earth’s surface due to physical,
chemical, and biological factors.
 It plays a crucial role in landscape evolution, soil formation, and the
overall denudation process.
 It occurs in situ, meaning there is no transportation of materials,
distinguishing it from erosion.

1. Physical Weathering (Disintegration of Rocks Without Chemical

Change)

Physical weathering, also known as mechanical weathering, involves the

breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments without altering their chemical
composition. It is primarily driven by temperature fluctuations, pressure
changes, and mechanical forces.

Mechanisms of Physical Weathering:

 Frost Action (Freeze-Thaw Weathering):

 Occurs in cold climates where water enters rock cracks, freezes,
and expands, exerting pressure on the rock.
 Repeated freezing and thawing cause cracks to widen and
eventually break the rock apart.
 Common in high-altitude and polar regions.
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 Thermal Expansion (Insolation Weathering):

 Occurs in arid and semi-arid regions due to extreme temperature
variations between day and night.
 Rocks expand during the day (due to heat) and contract at night
(due to cooling), leading to stress and eventual rock disintegration.

 Exfoliation (Onion-Skin Weathering)

 Involves the peeling away of outer rock layers due to temperature
fluctuations or pressure release.
 Common in granitic rock formations where curved sheets of rock
detach over time.

2. Chemical Weathering (Alteration of Rock Minerals)

Chemical weathering involves the decomposition and alteration of rock minerals

due to chemical reactions with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic acids.
It is most effective in warm and humid climates.

Mechanisms of Chemical Weathering:

 Hydration
 Occurs when water molecules combine with minerals, causing
expansion and weakening of the rock structure.
 Example: The transformation of feldspar into clay minerals.
 Oxidation
 Reaction between oxygen and metallic elements in rocks, leading to
rust-like effects.
 Example: Iron-rich rocks forming reddish-brown iron oxides
(hematite, limonite).
 Carbonation
 Involves the reaction of carbon dioxide (CO₂) dissolved in water
with minerals, forming weak carbonic acid.
 Dissolves carbonate rocks like limestone, leading to karst
landscapes (e.g., caves, sinkholes).
 Solution (Dissolution Weathering)
 Some minerals dissolve directly in water without chemical
alteration.
 Example: Rock salt (halite) and gypsum dissolving in water.

Biological Weathering (Influence of Organisms on Rock Breakdown)

Biological weathering is the process by which living organisms contribute to the

breakdown of rocks through physical and chemical means.

Mechanisms of Biological Weathering:

 Plant Roots
 Roots grow into rock crevices, exerting pressure and causing cracks
to expand.
 Common in forested and vegetated regions.
 Microbial Activity
 Bacteria, fungi, and lichens produce acids that chemically break
Geomorphology Notes Free e-book

down rocks.
 Lichens on rocks produce organic acids that contribute to mineral
decomposition.
 Burrowing Animals
 Organisms like earthworms, ants, and rodents disturb and loosen
soil and rock particles, promoting weathering.

Factors Influencing Denudation and Weathering

Denudation and Weathering depend on natural and human factors, shaping

landscapes through continuous rock breakdown, erosion, and deposition. Here
are its factors:

1. Climate (Temperature & Precipitation)

 Extreme temperature variations cause physical weathering (e.g., freeze-
thaw, thermal expansion).
 High rainfall accelerates chemical weathering (e.g., carbonation,
hydration) and enhances erosion.
2. Rock Type and Structure
 Hard rocks (granite) resist weathering; soft rocks (limestone) weather
easily.
 Joints and fractures increase susceptibility to weathering and erosion.
 Mineral composition affects resistance (e.g., quartz is resistant, feldspar
weathers faster).
3. Vegetation Cover
 Dense vegetation stabilizes soil, reducing erosion.
 Plant roots cause biological weathering by breaking rocks.
 Organic acids from decomposing plants enhance chemical weathering.
4. Time Scale
 Short-term: Landslides, floods cause rapid denudation.
 Long-term: Continuous weathering and erosion shape landscapes over
geological time.
5. Human Activities
 Deforestation & Overgrazing increase erosion.
 Mining & Quarrying accelerate mechanical and chemical weathering.
 Urbanization alters drainage, leading to faster soil degradation.

Difference Between Denudation and Weathering

Aspect Denudation Weathering

The overall process of wearing away The in-situ breakdown and

and reshaping the Earth’s surface, decomposition of rocks due to
Definition
including weathering, erosion, mass physical, chemical, and
wasting, and deposition. biological processes.

Broad process involving multiple sub- A specific process under

Scope processes (weathering, erosion, mass denudation, occurring without
wasting, deposition). material transport.
Geomorphology Notes Free e-book

Includes both mechanical removal Only involves disintegration

Process
(erosion, mass wasting) and and decomposition without
Type
chemical/biological changes. movement.

Involves the transportation of rock

Material No transportation; rocks break
debris by wind, water, glaciers, and
Transport down in their original location.
gravity.

Temperature, water, air, living

Water, wind, ice, gravity (external
Agents organisms (internal chemical
forces).
and physical reactions).

Freeze-thaw action, oxidation,

River erosion, landslides, glacier
Examples carbonation, biological root
movement, coastal erosion.
action.

Denudation and Weathering are essential geomorphic processes that shape the
Earth’s surface by breaking down, transporting, and depositing rock materials.
Weathering weakens rocks in situ, while denudation includes erosion, mass
wasting, and deposition, actively reshaping landscapes.
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