00Geomorphology By www.pmfias.com.

docx
01Geomorphology.1.Earths Interior.docx
02Geomorphology.2.Earth Movmts.docx
03Geomorphology.3.Tectoncs.docx
04Geomorphology.4.Tectonics and Orogeny.docx
05Geomorphology.5.Types of Mountains.docx
06Geomorphology.6.Fold & Block mountains (2).docx
07Geomorphology.7.Divergent.docx
08Geomorphology.7.Imp mountain ranges.docx
09Geomorphology.8.Volcanism Intro.docx
10Geomorphology.9.Volcanic landforms.docx
11Geomorphology.10.Types of Volcanism.docx
12Geomorphology.11.Eartquakes.docx
13Geomorphology.12.Volcanoes.docx
14Geomorphology.13.Rocks.docx
15Geomorphology.14.Fluvial.docx
16Geomorphology.15.Karst.docx
17Geomorphology.16.Marine.docx
18Geomorphology.17.Glacial.docx
19Geomorphology.18.Arid.docx
20Geomorphology.19.Lakes.docx
21Geomorphology.20.Plateau.docx
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Geomorphology Notes By WWW.PMFIAS.COM

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INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

 The configuration of the surface of the earth is largely a product of the processes
operating in the interior of the earth.
 Exogenic as well as endogenic processes are constantly shaping the landscape.

Why know about earth’s interior

Understanding of the earth's interior is essential to understand the nature of changes that
take place over and below the earth's surface.

 To understand geophysical phenomenon like volcanism, earthquakes etc..

 To understand the internal structure of various solar system objects
 To understand the evolution and present composition of atmosphere
 Future deep-sea mineral exploration etc.

Sources of information about the interior

Direct Sources
 Deep earth mining and drilling reveals the nature of rocks deep down the surface.
[Mponeng gold mine and TauTona gold mine in South Africa are deepest mines
reaching to a depth of 3.9 km. And the deepest drilling is about 12 km deep]
 Volcanic eruption forms another source of obtaining direct information.

Mponeng mine
 South Africa
 Deepest mine
 Gold mine
 Deapth: 2.4 miles (3.9 km)
Indirect Sources
 Depth: With depth, pressure and density increases and hence temperature. This is
mainly due to gravitation.
 Meteors: Meteors and Earth are solar system objects that are born from the same
nebular cloud. Thus they are likely to have a similar internal structure.
 Gravitation: The gravitation force (g) is not the same at different latitudes on the
surface. It is greater near the poles and less at the equator. This is because of the
distance from the center at the equator being greater than that at the poles.
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 The gravity values also differ according to the mass of material. The uneven distribution
of mass of material within the earth influences this value. Such a difference is called
gravity anomaly. Gravity anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass
of the material in the crust of the earth.
 Magnetic field: The geodynamo effect helps scientists understand what's happening
inside the Earth's core. Shifts in the magnetic field also provide clues to the inaccessible
iron core. But their source remains a mystery.

Not important for exam. But if you are a science enthusiast and if you want to know
more…
What causes the magnetic field of earth?
 Our planet’s magnetic field is believed to be generated deep down in the Earth’s core.
 Nobody has ever taken the mythical journey to the centre of the Earth, but by studying
the way shockwaves from earthquakes travel through the planet, physicists have been
able to work out its likely structure.
 Right at the heart of the Earth is a solid inner core, two thirds of the size of the Moon
and composed primarily of iron. At a hellish 5,700°C, this iron is as hot as the Sun’s
surface, but the crushing pressure caused by gravity prevents it from becoming liquid.
 Surrounding this is the outer core, a 2,000 km thick layer of iron, nickel, and small
quantities of other metals. Lower pressure than the inner core means the metal here is
fluid.
 Differences in temperature, pressure and composition within the outer core cause
convection currents in the molten metal as cool, dense matter sinks whilst warm, less
dense matter rises. The Coriolis force, resulting from the Earth’s spin, also causes
swirling whirlpools.
 This flow of liquid iron generates electric currents, which in turn produce magnetic
fields. Charged metals passing through these fields go on to create electric currents of
their own, and so the cycle continues. This self-sustaining loop is known as the
geodynamo.
 The spiraling caused by the Coriolis force means that separate magnetic fields created
are roughly aligned in the same direction, their combined effect adding up to produce
one vast magnetic field engulfing the planet.

Some sources explained in detail

High Levels of Temperature and Pressure Downwards
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 Volcanic eruptions and existence of hot springs, geysers etc. point to an interior which
is very hot.
 The high temperatures are attributed to automatic disintegration of the radioactive
substances.
 Gravitation and the diameter of the earth helps in estimating pressures deep inside.

Evidence From The Meteorites

 When they fall to earth, their outer layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme
friction and the inner core is exposed.
 The heavy material composition of their cores confirms the similar composition of the
inner core of the earth, as both evolved from the same star system in the remote past.
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 The most important indirect source is seismic activity. The major understanding of the
earth’s internal structure is mainly from the study of seismic waves.

Seismic waves
 The study of seismic waves provides a complete picture of the layered interior.

What causes earthquakes?

 Abrupt release of energy along a fault causes earthquake waves.
 A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rock layer.
 Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. But the friction exerted by
the overlying rock strata prevents the movement of rock layer. With time pressure
builds up.
 Under intense pressure, the rock layer, at certain point, overcomes the friction
offered by the overlying layer and undergoes an abrupt movement generating
shockwaves.
 This causes a release of energy, and the energy waves travel in all directions.
 The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake,
alternatively, it is called the hypocentre.
 The energy waves travelling in different directions reach the surface. The point on the
surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is the first one to experience the
waves. It is a point directly above the focus.

Earthquake Waves
 All natural earthquakes take place in the lithosphere (depth up to 200 km from the
surface of the earth).
 An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface.
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 Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.
 Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all
directions travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves
called surface waves. These waves move along the surface.
 The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different
elasticity (stiffness) (Generally density with few exceptions). The more elastic the
material is, the higher is the velocity. Their direction also changes as they reflect
or refract when coming across materials with different densities.
 There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.

Behavior of Earthquake Waves

 The earthquake waves are measured with the help of a seismograph and are of three
types—
1. the 'P' waves or primary waves (longitudinal nature),
2. secondary waves or 'S' waves (transverse in nature) while the
3. surface waves are long or ‘L’ waves.
 The velocity and direction of the earthquake waves undergo changes when the
medium through which they are travelling changes.
 When an earthquake or underground nuclear test sends shock waves through the
Earth, the cooler areas, which generally are rigid, transmit these waves at a higher
velocity than the hotter areas.

Primary Waves (P waves)

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 Also called as the longitudinal or compressional waves.

 Particles of the medium vibrate along the direction of propagation of the wave.
 P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface.
 These waves are of high frequency.
 They can travel in all mediums.
 Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases
 Their velocity depends on shear strength or elasticity of the material.

[We usually say that the speed of sound waves depends on density. But there are few
exceptions. For example: Mercury (liquid metal) has density greater than Iron but speed of
sound in mercury is lesser compared to that in iron. This is because the shear strength of
mercury is very low (this is why mercury is liquid) compared to that of iron.]

 The shadow zone for ‘P’ waves is an area that corresponds to an angle between 1030 and
1420
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 This gives clues about Solid inner core

Secondary Waves (S waves)

 Also called as transverse or distortional waves.
 Analogous to water ripples or light waves.
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 S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag.

 A secondary wave cannot pass through liquids or gases.
 These waves are of high frequency waves.
 Travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid part of
the Earth's crust, mantle.
 The shadow zone of 'S' waves extends almost halfway around the globe from the
earthquake's focus.
 The shadow zone for ‘S’ waves is an area that corresponds to an angle between 1030 and
1800
 This observation led to the discovery of liquid outer core. Since S waves cannot travel
through liquid, they do not pass through the liquid outer core.

Surface Waves (L waves)

 Also called as long period waves.
 They are low frequency, long wavelength, and transverse vibration.
 Generally affect the surface of the Earth only and die out at smaller depth.
 Develop in the immediate neighborhood of the epicenter.
 They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.
 These waves are responsible for most the destructive force of earthquake.
 Recoded last on the seismograph.
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Propagation of Earthquake Waves

 Different types of earthquake waves travel in different manners. As they move or
propagate, they cause vibration in the body of the rocks through which they pass.
 P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. This exerts pressure on the material
in the direction of the propagation.
 As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and
squeezing of the material.
 Other two waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
 The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the
vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which
they pass.

Emergence of Shadow Zone

 Earthquake waves get recorded in seismographs located at far off locations.

 However, there exist some specific areas where the waves are not reported. Such a
zone is called the ‘shadow zone’.
 The study of different events reveals that for each earthquake, there exists an
altogether different shadow zone. Figure 3.2 (a) and (b) show the shadow zones of P
and S-waves.
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 It was observed that seismographs located at any distance within 105 ° from the
epicenter, recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves.
 However, the seismographs located beyond 145 ° from epicenter, record the arrival of
P-waves, but not that of S-waves.
 Thus, a zone between 105 ° and 145 ° from epicenter was identified as the shadow
zone for both the types of waves. The entire zone beyond 105 ° does not receive S-
waves.
 The shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than that of the P-waves. The shadow
zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 105 ° and 145 ° away
from the epicenter.
 The shadow zone of S-waves is not only larger in extent but it is also a little over 40
per cent of the earth surface.

But how these properties of ‘P’ and ‘S’ waves help in

determining the earth’s interior?
 Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in
different directions.
 The variations in the direction of waves are inferred with the help of their record on
seismograph.
 Change in densities greatly varies the wave velocity.
 By observing the changes in velocity, the density of the earth as a whole can be
estimated.
 By the observing the changes in direction of the waves (emergence of shadow zones),
different layers can be identified.

Not important for exam. But if you are a science enthusiast and if you want to know
more…
Why does sound wave travel faster in a denser medium whereas light
travels slower?
 Sound is a mechanical wave and travels by compression and rarefaction of the
medium.
 Its velocity in an elastic medium is proportional to the square root of Tension in the
medium.
 A higher density leads to more elasticity in the medium and hence the ease by
which compression and rarefaction can take place. This way the velocity of sound
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increases by increase in density.

 Light on the other hand is a transverse electromagnetic wave.
 It does not depend on the elastic property of the medium in which it travels.
 Its velocity in a medium is determined by the electromagnetic (e.g. dielectric)
properties of the medium.
 Effective path length on the other hand is increased by an increase in the density
and hence it leads to higher refractive index and lower velocity.
Why S-waves cannot travel through liquids?
 S-waves are shear waves, which move particles perpendicularly to their direction of
propagation.
 They can propagate through solid rocks because these rocks have enough shear
strength.
 The shear strength is one of the forces that hold the rock together, and prevent it
from falling into pieces.
 Liquids do not have the same shear strength: that is why, if you take a glass of
water and suddenly remove the glass, the water will not keep its glass shape and
will just flow away.
 In fact, it is just a matter of rigidity: S-waves need a medium rigid enough to
propagate. Hence, S-waves do not propagate through liquids.

Earth’s Layers
 Earth’s layers are identified by studying various direct and indirect sources [we studied
this in previous post].
 The structure of the earth's interior is made up of several concentric layers.
 Broadly three layers can be identified—crust, mantle and the core.

Earth’s Layers based on chemical properties

(1) crust,
(2) mantle, and
(3) core.
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Earth’s Layers - The Crust

 Crust is the outer thin layer with a total thickness normally between 30-50 km.
 The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
 Oceanic crust is thinner (5-30 km thick) as compared to the continental crust (50-70
km thick).
 The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much
as 70 -100 km thick in the Himalayan region.
 It forms 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume.
 Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms the boundary between crust and
asthenosphere [asthenosphere is a part of mantle].
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 The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material (granitic rocks) and below that
lie crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks which are acidic in nature.
 The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks.
 The continents are composed of lighter silicates—silica + aluminium (also called ‘sial’)
while the oceans have the heavier silicates—silica + magnesium (also called ‘sima’).

Earth’s Layers - Mantle

 The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity (35 km) to a depth of 2,900 km (Moho-
Discontinuity to the outer core).
 The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called lithosphere. Its thickness
ranges from 10-200 km.
 The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
 The density of mantle varies between 2.9 and 3.3.
 The density ranges from 3.3 to 5.7 in the lower part.
 It is composed of solid rock and magma.
 It forms 83 per cent of the earth's volume.
 The outer layer of the mantle is partly simatic while the inner layer is composed of
wholly simatic ultra-basic rocks.

Earth’s Layers - Asthenosphere

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 The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere.

 The word astheno means weak.
 It is considered to be extending up to 400 km.
 It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic
eruptions. It has a density higher than the crust’s.

Earth’s Layers - Core

 Lies between 2900 km and 6400 km below the earth's surface.
 Accounts for 16 per cent of the earth's volume.
 Core has the heaviest mineral materials of highest density.
 It is composed of nickel and iron [nife].
 The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid.
 A zone of mixed heavy metals + silicates separates the core from outer layers.

Earth’s Layers - Seismic Discontinuities

 Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho) - separates the crust from the mantle, its average
depth being about 35 km.
 A soft asthenosphere (highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile). It’s a part of
mantle.
 Gutenberg Discontinuity - lies between the mantle and the outer core. Below 2900
km from earth’s surface.

Earth’s Chemical Composition

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Composition of Earth’s Crust

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Earth Movements
 Our earth is undergoing deformations imperceptibly [so slight, gradual, or subtle as not
to be perceived] but continuously.
 These deformations are caused by the movements generated by various factors like
1. The heat generated by the radioactive elements in earth's interior.
2. Movement of the crustal plates due to tectogenesis.
3. Forces generated by rotation of the earth.
4. Climatic factors like winds, precipitation, pressure belts etc.
 Isostacy ==> According to this concepts, blocks of the earth's crust, because of
variations in density would rise to different levels and appear on the surface as
mountains, plateau, plains or ocean basins
 Tectonic ==> relating to the structure of the earth's crust and the large-scale processes
which take place within it.
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Earth
movements

Endogenetic Exogenetic

Sudden
Diastrophism Weathering Erosion
movements

Orogenic or Mountain building Earthquakes Physical Ice

Epeirogenic or Continent
forming
Tension Volcanoes Chemical River Water
Upward

Compression Biological Sea

Downward

Wind

Underground
Water

Geomorphic processes
 Geomorphic == relating to the form of the landscape and other natural features of the
earth's surface.
 The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical and chemical changes on earth
surface are known as geomorphic processes.
 Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes.
 Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic geomorphic
processes.
 Geomorphic agent == mobile medium (like running water, moving ice masses, wind,
waves and currents etc.) which removes, transports and deposits earth materials.

Endogenetic Movements
 The interaction of matter and temperature generates these forces or movements inside
the earth's crust. The earth movements are mainly of two types: diastrophism and the
sudden movements.
 The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic
geomorphic processes.
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 This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and
primordial heat from the origin of the earth. This energy due to geothermal gradients
and heat flow from within induces diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere.

Diastrophism
 Diastrophism is the general term applied to slow bending, folding, warping and
fracturing.
 Wrap == make or become bent or twisted out of shape, typically from the action of heat
or damp; make abnormal; distort.
 All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under
diastrophism. They include:
1. orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting
long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust;
2. epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust;
3. earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements;
4. plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.
 In the process of orogeny, the crust is severely deformed into folds. Due to epeirogeny,
there may be simple deformation. Orogeny is a mountain building process whereas
epeirogeny is continental building process.
 Through the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes and plate tectonics, there
can be faulting and fracturing of the crust. All these processes cause pressure, volume
and temperature (PVT) changes which in turn induce metamorphism of rocks.

Epeirogenic or continent forming movements

 In geology, Epeirogenic movement refers to upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting
long wavelengths [undulations] and little folding.
 The broad central parts of continents are called cratons, and are subject to epeirogeny.
 The movement is caused by a set of forces acting along an Earth radius, such as those
contributing to Isostacy and Faulting in the lithosphere
 Epeirogenic or continent forming movements act along the radius of the earth;
therefore, they are also called radial movements. Their direction may be towards
(subsidence) or away (uplift) from the center. The results of such movements may be
clearly defined in the relief.
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Uplift

 Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds above sea
level are evidences of uplift.

 Raised beaches, some of them elevated as much as 15 m to 30 m above the present sea
level, occur at several places along the Kathiawar, Nellore, and Thirunelveli coasts.
 Several places which were on the sea some centuries ago are now a few miles inland. For
example, Coringa near the mouth of the Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri
delta and Korkai on the coast of Thirunelveli, were all flourishing sea ports about
1,000 to 2,000 years ago.

Subsidence

 Submerged forests and valleys as well as buildings are evidences of subsidence.

 In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a result of an earthquake.
 Presence of peat and lignite beds below the sea level in Thirunelveli and the
Sunderbans is an example of subsidence.
 The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated from the Arakan coast by
submergence of the intervening land.
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 On the east side of Bombay island, trees have been found embedded in mud about 4 m
below low water mark. A similar submerged forest has also been noticed on the
Thirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu.
 A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait is very shallow and has been
submerged in geologically recent times. A part of the former town of Mahabalipuram
near Chennai (Madras) is submerged in the sea.

Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements

 Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth surface,
as in plate tectonics.
 Tensions produces fissures (since this type of force acts away from a point in two
directions) and compression produces folds (because this type of force acts towards a
point from two or more directions). In the landforms so produced, the structurally
identifiable units are difficult to recognise.
 In general, diastrophic forces which have uplifted lands have predominated over forces
which have lowered them.
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Sudden Movements
 These movements cause considerable deformation over a short span of time, and may be
of two types.

Earthquake
 It occurs when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks in the earth's interior is
relieved through the weak zones over the earth's surface in form of kinetic energy of
wave motion causing vibrations (at times devastating) on the earth's surface. Such
movements may result in uplift in coastal areas.
 An earthquake in Chile (1822) caused a one-metre uplift in coastal areas.
 An earthquake in New Zealand (1885) caused an uplift of upto 3 metres in some areas
while some areas in Japan (1891) subsided by 6 metres after an earthquake.
 Earthquakes may cause change in contours, change in river courses, 'tsunamis' (seismic
waves created in sea by an earthquake, as they are called in Japan) which may cause
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shoreline changes, spectacular glacial surges (as in Alaska), landslides, soil creeps,
mass wasting etc.

Volcanoes
 Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s
surface and also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.
 A volcano is formed when the molten magma in the earth's interior escapes through the
crust by vents and fissures in the crust, accompanied by steam, gases (hydrogen
sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide etc.) and pyroclastic
material. Depending on chemical composition and viscosity of the lava, a volcano may
take various forms.
 Pyroclastic ==> adjective of or denoting rock fragments or ash erupted by a volcano,
especially as a hot, dense, destructive flow.
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Earth Movements - Exogenetic Forces

 Exogenic (Exogenetic) processes are a direct result of stress induced in earth materials
due to various forces that come into existence due to sun’s heat.
 Force applied per unit area is called stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or
pulling.
 Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are shear stresses (separating forces). It
is this stress that breaks rocks and other earth materials.
 Earth materials become subjected to molecular stresses caused due to temperature
changes.
 Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains.
 Thus, the basic reason that leads to weathering, erosion and deposition is development
of stresses in the body of the earth materials.
 Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements that control
various processes by inducing stress in earth materials.

Denudation
 All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation.
 The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover.
 Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion and transportation are included in
denudation.

 Denudation mainly depends on rock type and its structure that includes folds, faults,
orientation and inclination of beds, presence or absence of joints, bedding planes,
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hardness or softness of constituent minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral

constituents; the permeability or impermeability etc.
 The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow but will in
the long run affect the rocks severely due to continued fatigue.

WEATHERING
 Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
rocks through the actions of various elements of weather and climate.
 As very little or no motion of materials takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or on-
site process.
 There are three major groups of weathering processes: (i) chemical; (ii) physical or
mechanical; (iii) biological weathering processes.

Chemical Weathering Processes

 A group of weathering processes viz; solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and
reduction act on the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine state.
 Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat speed up all chemical
reactions.

Solution
 When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved contents
is called solution.
 On coming in contact with water many solids disintegrate. Soluble rock forming
minerals like nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are affected by this process.
 So, these minerals are easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy climates
and accumulate in dry regions.

Carbonation
 Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals.
 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water, to form carbonic
acid that acts as a weak acid on various minerals.

Hydration
 Hydration is the chemical addition of water.
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 Minerals take up water and expand; this expansion causes an increase in the volume of
the material itself or rock.
 This process is reversible and long, continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in
the rocks and may lead to their disintegration.
 The volume changes in minerals due to hydration will also help in physical weathering
through exfoliation and granular disintegration.

Oxidation and Reduction

 In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides
(rusting in case of iron) or hydroxides. Red soils appear red due to the presence of iron
oxides.
 Oxidation occurs where there is ready access to the atmosphere and water.
 The minerals most commonly involved in this process are iron, manganese, sulphur etc.
 When oxidized minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction
takes place.
 Such conditions exist usually below the water table, in areas of stagnant water and
waterlogged ground.
 Red colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish or bluish grey.

These weathering processes are interrelated. Hydration, carbonation and oxidation go hand
in hand and hasten the weathering process.

Biological activity and weathering

 Biological weathering is removal of minerals and ions from the weathering environment
and physical changes due to growth or movement of organisms.
 Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, rodents etc., help in exposing
the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture and air.
 Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in
mixing and creating new contacts between air, water and minerals in the earth
materials.
 Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and other
acids which enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
 Algae utilise mineral nutrients for growth and help in concentration of iron and
manganese oxides.
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 Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure on the earth materials mechanically breaking
them apart.

Physical Weathering Processes

 Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces like (i)
gravitational forces (ii) expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal growth or
animal activity; (iii) water pressures controlled by wetting and drying cycles.

Unloading and Expansion

 Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes vertical pressure
release with the result that the upper layers of the rock expand producing disintegration
of rock masses.
 In areas of curved ground surface, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets or
exfoliation slabs of rock.

Granular Disintegration
 Rocks composed of coarse mineral grains commonly fall apart grain by grain or undergo
granular disintegration.

Exfoliation - Temperature Changes and Expansion

 With rise in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes against its neighbor and as
temperature falls, a corresponding contraction takes place.
 Because of diurnal changes in the temperatures, this internal movement among the
mineral grains takes place regularly.
 This process is most effective in dry climates and high elevations where diurnal
temperature changes are drastic.
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 The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand more than the rock at depth and this
leads to the formation of stress within the rock resulting in heaving and fracturing
parallel to the surface.
 Exfoliation results in smooth rounded surfaces in rocks.

Block Separation
 This type of disintegration takes place in rocks with numerous joints acquired by
mountain-making pressures or by shrinkage due to cooling.
 This type of disintegration in rocks can be achieved by comparatively weaker forces.
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Shattering
 A huge rock may undergo disintegration along weak zones to produce highly angular
pieces with sharp corners and edges through the process of shattering.

Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging

 During the warm season, the water penetrates the pore spaces or fractures in rocks.
 During the cold season, the water freezes into ice and its volume expands as a result.
 This exerts tremendous pressure on rock walls to tear apart even where the rocks are
massive.
 Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice within pores and cracks of rocks during
repeated cycles of freezing and melting.

Salt Weathering
 Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and crystallisation.
 Many salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and barium have a tendency to
expand.
 High temperature ranges in deserts favour such salt expansion.
 Salt crystals in near-surface pores cause splitting of individual grains within rocks,
which eventually fall off. This process of falling off of individual grains may result in
granular disintegration or granular foliation.
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Mass Wasting
 Since gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and the products of weathering
tend to slide, roll, flow or creep down all slopes in different types of earth and rock
movements grouped under the term ‘mass wasting’.

Effects of Weathering
 Weathering and erosion tend to level down the irregularities of landforms and create a
peneplane.
 The strong wind erosion leaves behind whale-back shaped rocks in arid landscape.
These are called inselberg or ruware.
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 Sometimes a solid layer of chemical residue covers a soft rock. Sometimes, differential
weathering of soft strata exposes the domelike hard rock masses, called tors. Tors are a
common feature of South Indian landscape.

Weathering and Erosion

 Lead to simultaneous process of ‘degradation' and ‘aggradation'.
 Erosion is a mobile process while weathering is a static process [disintegrated material
do not involve any motion except the falling down under force of gravity].

Significance of weathering
 Weathering is the first step in formation of soils.
 Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the enrichment and concentrations of certain
valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium, copper etc.
 Weathering helps in soil enrichment.
 Without weathering, the concentration of the same valuable material may not be
sufficient and economically viable to exploit, process and refine. This is what is called
enrichment.

Another important process in Exogenetic movements is erosion. We will study about

erosion in Indian Geography.
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Continental Drift Theory - Tectonics

 Tectonics == Large scale movement of lithospheric plates.

Introduction
 During WW II, scientists discovered that the ocean floor was not a flat surface but had
some unique relief features like ridges, trenches, seamounts, shoals etc.
 The most important discoveries were ridges and trenches which gave insights into
natural boundaries between various lithospheric plates (sometime called as crustal
plates or tectonic plates)
 These important discoveries led to the theory of Plate Tectonics.

Plate Tectonics
 Plate tectonics is the large scale movement of lithospheric plates due to forces
emanating from earth’s interior.
 Prior to the theory of ‘Plate Tectonics’, there were other theories like ‘Continental Drift
Theory’ and ‘See Floor Spreading Theory’ which tried to explain the large scale
movements on earth’s surface.
 In this post, we will study about ‘Continental Drift Theory’.

Important theories
1. Polar wandering (Similar to Continental Drift Theory)
2. Continental Drift Theory (CDT)
3. Convectional Current Theory (CCT)
4. Sea Floor Spreading Theory (SFST)
5. Plate Tectonics (PT)
 Polar wandering is the relative movement of the earth's crust and upper mantle with
respect to the rotational poles of the earth.
 Continental drift refers to the movement of the continents relative to each other.
 Convectional current theory forms the basis of SFST and PT.
 Sea floor spreading describes the movement of oceanic plates relative to one another.
 Plate tectonics is simply the movement of crustal plates relative to each other.

Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1922)

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 This theory was suggested by Alfred Wegener in 1920’s.

 According to Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory, there existed one big landmass
which he called Pangaea which was covered by one big ocean called Panthalassa.
 A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two huge landmasses: Laurentia
(Laurasia) to the north and Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.
 Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic Era), and the continents began
to break up and drift away from one another.
 To get a rough idea about Geologic timescale, refer the image below.

Force for Continental Drift

The drift was in two directions-

1. equator wards due to the interaction of forces of gravity, pole-fleeing force and
buoyancy (ship floats in water due to buoyant force offered by water), and
2. westwards due to tidal currents because of the earth’s motion (earth rotates form west
to east, so tidal currents act from east to west. Watch video for better understanding).
 Wegener suggested that tidal force also played a major role.
 The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the earth. You are aware of the fact that
the earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at the equator. This bulge is due to the
rotation of the earth. [Greater Centrifugal force at the equator. Centrifugal force
increases as we move from poles towards equator. This increase in centrifugal force has
led to pole fleeing].
 Tidal force is due to the attraction of the moon and the sun that develops tides in
oceanic waters.
 Wegener believed that these forces would become effective when applied over many
million years.
 According to Wegener, the drift is still continuing.

Evidence in support of Continental Drift

Apparent Affinity of Physical Features
 South America and Africa seem to fit in with each other, especially, the bulge of Brazil
fits into the Gulf of Guinea.
 Greenland seems to fit in well with Ellesmere and Baffin islands.
 The east coast of India, Madagascar and Africa seem to have been joined.
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 North and South America on one side and Africa and Europe on the other fit along the
mid-Atlantic ridge.
 The Caledonian and Hercynian mountains of Europe and the Appalachians of USA
seem to be one continuous series.

Criticism

 Coastlines are a temporary feature and are liable to change.

 Several other combinations of fitting in of landforms could be attempted.
 Continental Drift Theory shifts India's position too much to the south, distorting its
relation with the Mediterranean Sea and the Alps.
 The mountains do not always exhibit geological affinity.

Causes of Drift
 Gravity of the earth, buoyancy of the seas and the tidal currents were given as the main
factors causing the drift, by Wegener.

Criticism

 This is illogical because for these factors to be able to cause a drift of such a magnitude,
they will have to be millions of times stronger.

Polar wandering (Shifting of Poles)

 The poles drifted constantly.

Criticism

 Poles may have shifted, not necessarily the continents (don’t think deep).

Botanical Evidence
 Presence of glossopteris vegetation in carboniferous rocks of India, Australia, South
Africa, Falkland Islands (Overseas territory of UK), Antarctica, etc. can be explained on
the basis of the fact that parts were linked in the past.

Criticism

 Such vegetation is also found in the northern parts like Afghanistan, Iran and Siberia.
 Similar vegetation found in unrelated parts of the world.
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Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans

 The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches with those
from western Africa.

Criticism

 Rocks of same age and similar characteristics are found in other parts of the world too.

Tillite deposits
 It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers. The Gondwana system of
sediments from India is known to have its counter parts in six different landmasses of
the Southern Hemisphere.
 At the base the system has thick Tillite indicating extensive and prolonged glaciation.
Counter parts of this succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar,
Antarctica and Australia besides India.
 Overall resemblance of the Gondwana type sediments clearly demonstrates that these
landmasses had remarkably similar histories.
 The glacial Tillite provides unambiguous evidence of palaeoclimates and also of drifting
of continents.

Placer Deposits
 Rich placer deposits of gold are found on the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the source
(gold bearing veins) are in Brazil and it is obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana
are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side.

Distribution of Fossils
 The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to
consider a contiguous landmass “Lemuria” linking these three landmasses.
 Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish water. The skeletons of
these are found only in South Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil. The two localities
presently are 4,800 km apart with an ocean in between them.

Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory

 Wegener failed to explain why the drift began only in Mesozoic era and not before.
 The theory doesn’t take oceans into consideration.
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 Proofs heavily depend on assumptions and are very general in nature.

 Forces like buoyancy, tidal currents and gravity are too weak to be able to move
continents.
 Modern theories (PT) accept the existence of Pangaea and related landmasses but give a
very different explanation to the causes of drift.
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In this post we will study about a very important concept called See Floor Spreading. Before
jumping directly into the concept of See Floor Spreading, we must understand some basic
concepts that form the corner stones for the concept of See Floor Spreading. These corner
stones are Convectional Current Theory and Paleomagnetism.

Convectional Current Theory - Tectonics

 Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of convection currents in the mantle.
 These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences
in mantle.

Mapping of the Ocean Floor

 Detailed research during World Wars revealed that the ocean floor is not just a vast
plain but it is full of relief with mountain ranges, deep trenches etc..
 The mid-oceanic ridges were found to be most active in terms of volcanic eruptions.
 The dating of the rocks from the oceanic crust revealed the fact that the latter is much
younger than the continental areas (Rocks on ocean floor are much younger than
those on the continents).
 Rocks on either side of the crest of oceanic ridges and having equidistant locations from
the crest were found to have remarkable similarities both in terms of their constituents
and their age.

Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

 Volcanism and associated earthquakes at plate margins are a direct consequence of
convection currents in the mantle.
 Dots in the central parts of the Atlantic Ocean and other oceans are almost parallel to
the coastlines.
 In general, the foci of the earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are at shallow
depths whereas along the Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the Pacific, the
earthquakes are deep-seated ones (deep focus earthquakes are more destructive).
 The map of volcanoes also shows a similar pattern. The rim of the Pacific is also called
rim of fire due to the existence of active volcanoes in this area.

These observations (ocean floor and the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes) led to
the theory of See Floor Spreading.
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Convectional Current Theory is the soul of See Floor Spreading theory.

Convectional Current Theory

 According to this theory, the intense heat generated by radioactive substances in the
mantle (100-2900 km below the earth surface) seeks a path to escape, and gives rise to
the formation of convention currents in the mantle.
 Wherever rising limbs of these currents meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the sea
floor and wherever the failing limbs meet, trenches are formed.
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Paleomagnetism
 It is the study of the record of the Earth's magnetic field in rocks, sediment etc..

Why do we need to study this concept?

 Paleomagnetic rocks on either side of the submarine ridges provide the most important
evidence to the concept of Sea Floor Spreading (next post).

Paleo == Rocks; Paleomagnetism == magnetism in rocks.

 Certain minerals in rocks lock-in a record of the direction and intensity of the
magnetic field when they form.
 This record provides information on the past behavior of Earth's magnetic field and
the past location of tectonic plates.
 Paleomagnetists led the revival of the continental drift hypothesis and its
transformation into plate tectonics.
 Paleomagnetic studies of rocks and ocean sediment have demonstrated that the
orientation of the earth's magnetic field has frequently alternated over geologic time.
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 Periods of "normal" polarity (i.e., when the north-seeking end of the compass needle
points toward the present north magnetic pole, as it does today) have alternated with
periods of "reversed" polarity (when the north-seeking end of the compass needle points
southward)[I have explained this in detail in the video].
 As today's magnetic field is close to the earth's rotational axis, continental drift could be
tested by ascertaining the magnetic characteristics of ancient rocks.

Paleomagnetism: Strong evidence of See Floor Spreading and

Plate Tectonics
 Some of the strongest evidence in support of the theory of see floor spreading and plate
tectonics comes from studying the magnetic fields surrounding oceanic ridges.
 Rocks formed from this underwater volcanic activity were mainly basalt, which is low
silica, iron-rich, volcanic rock that makes up most of the ocean floor.
 Basalt contains magnetic minerals and as the rock is solidifying, these minerals align
themselves in the direction of the magnetic field.
 This basically locks in a record of which way the magnetic field was positioned at the
time that part of the ocean floor was created.
 Paleomagnetists [scientists who study past magnetic fields], took a look at the ocean
floor going out away from oceanic ridges (either side of the oceanic ridges), they found
magnetic stripes that were flipped so that one stripe would be normal polarity and the
next reversed.

How could this be?

 These oceanic ridges were actually boundaries with tectonic plates pulling apart.
 This movement of the plates allowed the magma to rise up and harden into new rock.
 As the new rock was formed near the ridge, older rock, which formed millions of years
ago when the magnetic field was reversed, got pushed farther away, resulting in this
magnetic striping.
 Rising magma assumes the polarity of Earth’s geomagnetic field before it solidifies into
oceanic crust.
 At spreading centres, this crust is separated into parallel bands of rock by successive
waves of emergent magma.
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 When Earth’s geomagnetic field undergoes a reversal, the change in polarity is recorded
in the magma, which contributes to the alternating pattern of magnetic striping on
the seafloor.
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Concept of Sea Floor Spreading

 The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and carries the continents with it) as it expands
from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess.
 According to this theory, the intense heat generated by radioactive substances in the
mantle (100-2900 km below the earth surface) seeks a path to escape, and gives rise to
the formation of convention currents in the mantle.
 Wherever rising limbs of these currents meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the sea floor
and wherever the failing limbs meet, trenches are formed.
 Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic
crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the
ridge.
 Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When
oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere.
 Basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new sea
floor.
 Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will
be found nearer to the spreading zone.

Evidences
 The mapping of the ocean floor and Paleomagnetic studies of rocks from oceanic regions
revealed the following facts :
1. Volcanic eruptions are common all along the midoceanic ridges and they bring
huge amounts of lava to the surface in this area.
2. The rocks equidistant on either sides of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show
remarkable similarities
3. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges are normal polarity and are the youngest.
4. The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the crest.
5. The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the
midoceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have shallow depths.
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 It was on the basis of the continental drift theory, theory of sea floor spreading, that the
theory of Plate Tectonics was formulated—first outlined by Morgan in 1968.
 So, next post will be a detailed explanation on Plate Tectonics.
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In this post we will study about one of the most important concept of geomorphology called
Plate Tectonics. This is the third post in ‘Tectonics’ after ‘Continental Drift Theory’ and ‘See
Floor Spreading Theory’.

Plate Tectonics
 In 1967, McKenzie and Parker suggested the theory of plate tectonics. The theory was
later outlined by Morgan in 1968.
 By then, the ‘continental drift theory’ was completely discarded with the emergence of
‘convectional current theory’ and ‘see floor spreading theory’.
 Both ‘convectional current theory’ and ‘see floor spreading’ paved the way for the Theory
of Plate Tectonics.

Theory
 According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth’s lithosphere is broken into
distinct plates which are floating on a ductile layer called asthenosphere (upper
mantle). Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
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 The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying
between 5-100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas.
 The oceanic plates contain mainly the Simatic crust and are relatively thinner, while
the continental plates contain Sialic material and are relatively thicker.
 Lithospheric plates (sometimes called crustal plates, tectonic plates) vary from minor
plates to major plates, continental plates (Arabian plate) to oceanic plates (Pacific
plate), sometime a combination of both continental and oceanic plates (Indo-Australian
plate).
 The movement of these crustal plates causes the formation of various landforms and is
the principal cause of all earth movements.

Rates of Plate Movement

 The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise in
the South Pacific [about 3,400 km west of Chile], has the fastest rate (more than 15
cm/yr).
 Indian plate’s movement during its journey from south to equator was one of the fastest
plate movements.

Major tectonic plates

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate
2. North American plate
3. South American plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate

Minor tectonic plates

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate
2. Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia.
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7. Turkish plate,
8. Aegean plate (Mediterranean region),
9. Caribbean plate,
10. Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific and North American plates)
11. Iranian plate.

There are many more minor plates other than the above mentioned plates. Most of the
these minor plates were formed due to stress created by converging major plates. Example:
the Mediterranean Sea is divided into numerous minor plates due to the compressive force
exerted by Eurasian and African plates.

The figure below shows the changes in landform with time due to the interaction of various
plates.
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Force for the Plate Movement

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 The slow movement of hot, softened mantle that lies below the rigid plates is the
driving force behind the plate movement.
 The heated material rises to the surface, spreads and begins to cool, and then sinks
back into deeper depths (convection currents – explained in the previous post – See
Floor Spreading). This cycle is repeated over and over to generate what scientists call a
convection cell or convective flow.
 Heat within the earth comes from two main sources: radioactive decay and residual
heat. Arthur Holmes first considered this idea in the 1930s, which later influenced
Harry Hess’ thinking about seafloor spreading.

Plate Tectonics - Interaction of Plates

 Major geomorphological features such as fold and block mountains, mid-oceanic ridges,
trenches, volcanism, earthquakes etc. are a direct consequence of interaction between
various lithospheric plates.
 There are three ways in which the plates interact with each other.
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Divergence forming Divergent Edge or the Constructive Edge

 As the name itself suggests, in this kind of interaction, the plates diverge [move away
from each other].
 Mid-oceanic ridges are formed due to this kind of interaction. Here, the basaltic magma
erupts and moves apart (see floor spreading).
 On continents, East African Rift Valley is the most important geomorphological feature
formed due to divergence of African and Somali plates.
 Such edges are sites of earth crust formation (hence constructive) and volcanic earth
forms are common along such edges.
 Earthquakes (shallow focus) are common along divergent edges.
 The sites where the plates move away from each other are called spreading sites.
 The best-known example of divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At the mid-
oceanic ridge in Atlantic ocean, the American Plate(s) is/are separated from the
Eurasian and African Plates.

Convergence forming Convergent Edge or Destructive Edge

 In this kind of interaction, two lithospheric plates collide against each other (in detail in
the next post).
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 The zone of collision may undergo crumpling and folding and folded mountains may
emerge.
 This is an orogenic collision. Himalayan Boundary Fault is one such example.
 When one of the plates is an oceanic plate, it gets embedded in the softer
asthenosphere of the continental plate and as a result, trenches are formed at the
zone of subduction.
 The subducted material gets heated, up and is thrown out forming volcanic islands and
dynamic equilibrium is achieved
 There are mainly three ways in which convergence can occur.
1. between an oceanic and continental plate;
2. between two oceanic plates; and
3. between two continental plates.

Transcurrent Edge or Conservative Edge or Transform Fault

 Formed when two plates move past each other.
 In this kind of interaction, two plates grind against each other and there is no creation
or destruction of landform but only deformation of the existing landform. [Crust is
neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other].
 In oceans, transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to the
midoceanic ridges.
 San Andreas Fault along the western coast of USA is the best example for a transcurrent
edge on continents.

Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics

 Evidences for both See Floor Spreading and Plate tectonics are complimentary (almost
same evidences).
 Paleomagnetic rocks are the most important evidence. The orientation of iron grains on
older rocks shows an orientation which points to the existence of the South Pole, once
upon a time, somewhere between the present-day Africa and Antarctica
(Paleomagnetism).
 Older rocks form the continents while younger rocks are present on the ocean floor. On
continents, rocks of upto 3.5 billion years old can be found while the oldest rock found
on the ocean floor is not more than 75 million years old (western part of Pacific floor). As
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we move, towards ridges, still younger rocks appear. This points to an effective spread of
sea floor (See floor spreading is almost similar to plate tectonics except that it examines
the interaction between oceanic plates only) along oceanic ridges which are also the
plate margins.
 The normal temperature gradient on the sea floor is 9.4°C/300 m but near the ridges it
becomes higher, indicating an upwelling of magmatic material from the mantle.
 In trenches, where subduction has taken place (convergent edge), the value of
gravitational constant ‘g’ is less. This indicates a loss of material. For instance, gravity
measurements around the Indonesian islands have indicated that large gravity
anomalies are associated with the oceanic trench bordering Indonesia.
 The fact that all plate boundary regions are areas of earthquake and volcanic
disturbances goes to prove the theory of plate tectonics.

Significance of Plate Tectonics

 For the earth scientists, it is a fundamental principle for study. For physical
geographers, this approach is an aid in interpretation of landforms.
 New minerals are thrown up from the core with the magmatic eruptions. Economically
valuable minerals like copper and uranium are found more frequently near the plate
boundaries.
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 On the basis of present knowledge of crustal plate movement, the shape of landmasses
in future can be guessed. For instance, if the present trends continue, North and South
America will separate. A piece of land will separate from the east coast of Africa.
Australia will move closer to Asia.

Movement Of The Indian Plate

 The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental portions.

Indian Plate Boundaries

 The subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the
form of continent — continent convergence.
 In the east, it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains (Arakan Yoma) of Myanmar
towards the island arc along the Java Trench. The eastern margin is a spreading site
lying to the east of Australia in the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific.
 The Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of Pakistan. It further extends along the
Makrana coast (Pakistan and Iranian coasts) and joins the spreading site from the Red
Sea rift (Red Sea rift is formed due to divergence of Somali plate and Arabian plate)
southeastward along the Chagos Archipelago (Formed due to hotspot volcanism).
 The boundary between India and the Antarctic plate is also marked by oceanic ridge
(divergent boundary) running in roughly W-E direction and merging into the spreading
site, a little south of New Zealand.
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Movement
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 India was a large island situated off the Australian coast, in a vast ocean.
 The Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian continent till about 225 million years ago.
 India is supposed to have started her northward journey about 200 million years ago at
the time when Pangaea broke.
 India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of the
Himalayas.
 The positions of India since about 71 million years till the present are shown in the
Figure. It also shows the position of the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian plate.
 About 140 million years before the present, the subcontinent was located as south as
50◦ S. latitude. The two major plates were separated by the Tethys Sea and the Tibetan
block was closer to the Asiatic landmass.
 During the movement of the Indian plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event that
occurred was the outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps. This started
somewhere around 60 million years ago and continued for a long period of time.
 Note that the subcontinent was still close to the equator. From 40 million years ago
and thereafter, the event of formation of the Himalayas took place.
 Scientists believe that the process is still continuing and the height of the Himalayas is
rising even to this date.

In short
 Around 220 million years ago, around the time that Pangea was breaking apart, India
started to move northwards.
 It travelled some 6,000 kilometres before it finally collided with Asia around 40 to 50
million years ago.
 Then, part of the Indian landmass began to go beneath the Asian plate, moving the
Asian landmass up, which resulted in the rise of the Himalayas.
 It’s thought that India’s coastline was denser and more firmly attached to the seabed,
which is why Asia’s softer soil was pushed up rather than the other way around.
 The mountain range grew very rapidly in comparison to most mountain ranges, and it’s
actually still growing today.
 The continued growth in the Himalayas is likely due to the Indian tectonic plate still
moving slowly but surely northward. We know the plate is still moving in part because of
the frequent earthquakes in the region.
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Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor Spreading –

Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift See Floor Spreading Plate Tectonics
Explained Alfred Wegener in Arthur Holmes In 1967, McKenzie and
by 1920s explains Convectional Parker suggested the
Current Theory in theory of plate tectonics.
1930s. The theory was later
Based on convectional outlined by Morgan in
current theory, Harry 1968
Hess explains See Floor
Spreading in 1940s
Theory Explains Movement of Explains Movement of Explains Movement of
Continents only Oceanic Plates only Lithospheric plates that
include both continents
and oceans.
Forces for Buoyancy, gravity, pole Convection currents in Convection currents in
movement fleeing force, tidal the mantle drag crustal the mantle drag crustal
currents, tides, plates plates
Evidences Apparent affinity of Ocean bottom relief, Ocean bottom relief,
physical features, Paleomagnetic rocks, Paleomagnetic rocks,
botanical evidence, distribution of distribution of
fossil evidence, Tillite earthquakes and earthquakes and
deposits, placer volcanoes etc. volcanoes, gravitational
deposits, rocks of same anomalies at trenches,
age across different etc.
continents etc.
Drawbacks Too general with silly Doesn’t explain the
and sometimes illogical movement of ---------------------
evidences. continental plates
Acceptance Totally discarded Not complete Most widely accepted
Usefulness Helped in the evolution Helped in the evolution Helped understand
of convectional current of plate tectonics theory various geographical
theory and see floor features.
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spreading theory

Multiple choice questions.

1. Polar fleeing force relates to:
1) Revolution of the Earth
2) Rotation of the earth
3) Gravitation
4) Tides
2. Which one of the following is not a minor plate?
1) Nazca
2) Philippines
3) Arabia
4) Antarctica
3. Which one of the following facts was not considered by those while discussing the
concept of sea floor spreading?
1) Volcanic activity along the mid-oceanic ridges.
2) Stripes of normal and reverse magnetic field observed in rocks of ocean floor.
3) Distribution of fossils in different continents.
4) Age of rocks from the ocean floor.
4. Which one of the following is the type of plate boundary of the Indian plate along the
Himalayan mountains?
1) Ocean-continent convergence
2) Divergent boundary
3) Transform boundary
4) Continent-continent convergence

Answer in about 30 words.

1. What were the forces suggested by Wegener for the movement of the continents?
2. How are the convectional currents in the mantle initiated and maintained?
3. What is the major difference between the transform boundary and the convergent or
divergent boundaries of plates?
4. What was the location of the Indian landmass during the formation of the Deccan
Traps?
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Answer in about 150 words

1. What are the evidences in support of the continental drift theory?
2. Bring about the basic difference between the drift theory and Plate tectonics.
3. What were the major post-drift discoveries that rejuvenated the interest of scientists in
the study of distribution of oceans and continents?
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In this post we will study about Ocean - Ocean Convergence. Understanding Ocean -
Ocean Convergence helps us in understanding the formation of Japanese Island Arc,
formation of Indonesian Archipelago, formation of Philippine Island Arc and
formation of Caribbean Islands.

Previous mains question: “Explain the formation of thousands of islands in Indonesian and
Philippines archipelagos.”

In the previous post, we have studied about Plate Tectonics, Interaction of plates –
Convergence, Divergence etc.

In convergence there are subtypes namely:

1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean - ocean convergence.

2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates or ocean - continent convergence.
3. Collision of continental plates or continent - continent convergence.
4. Collision of continent and arc or continent - arc convergence.

In this post we will stick to Ocean – Ocean Convergence. Remaining types will be explained
in future posts.

Basics
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Ocean - Ocean Convergence or The Island - Arc

Convergence
 In Ocean - Ocean Convergence, a denser oceanic plate subducts below a less denser
oceanic plate forming a trench along the boundary.

[We have studies in the previous post on See Floor Spreading how convectional currents in
the mantle drive the lithospheric plates]
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 As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into the softer
asthenosphere, the rocks on the continental side in the subduction zone become
metamorphosed under high pressure and temperature.

 After reaching a depth of about 100 km, plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed
sediments and the melted part of the subducting plate) has lower density and is at
high pressure. It rises upwards due to the buoyant force offered by surrounding denser
medium. The magma flows out, sometimes violently to the surface.
 A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic eruptions at the
ocean floor.
 Constant volcanism above the subduction zone creates layers of rocks. As this process
continues for millions of years, a volcanic landform is created which in some cases rises
above the ocean waters.
 Such volcanic landforms all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic islands which
are collectively called as Island Arcs (Indonesian Island Arc or Indonesian Archipelago,
Philippine Island Arc, Japanese Island Arc etc.).
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 Orogenesis sets in motion the process of building continental crust by replacing

oceanic crust (this happens at a much later stage. For example, new islands are born
around Japan in every few years. After some million years Japan will be a single
landmass because continental crust formation is constantly replacing the oceanic crust
[more and more volcanism creates much bigger landform]).

This explanation is common for all the island arc formations due to ocean - ocean
convergence. In addition, we only need to know the plates involved with respect to each
island formation.

Formation of Philippine Island Arc System

 For the study of the formation of the Philippine islands, the most important of the major
plates are: the Sunda Plate (major continental shelf of Eurasian plate) and the
Philippine Sea plate.

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[The extreme southeastern portion of the Eurasian plate, which is a part of Southeast Asia,
is a continental shelf. The region is called the Sunda Shelf. The Sunda Shelf and its
islands is known as the Sundaland block of the Eurasian plate].
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 Philippine Island Arc system is formed due to subduction of Philippine Sea plate under
Sunda Plate (part of Eurasian Plate). The trench formed here is called Philippine
Trench.

Formation of Indonesian Archipelago

 In case of Indonesian Archipelago, Indo-Australian plate subducts below Sunda Plate
(part of Eurasian Plate). The trench formed here is called Sunda trench (Java Trench
is a major section of Sunda trench).
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Formation of Caribbean Islands

 Formation of Caribbean Islands is also similar but here the plate interaction is complex
due to the involvement of many minor plates.
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 North American Plate subducts under the Caribbean plate and forms the Puerto Rico
Trench. There is trough formation on the other side as well.

Formation of Japanese Island Arc

 Japan's volcanoes are part of three volcanic arcs.
 The arcs meet at a triple junction on the island of Honshu.
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 Northern arc is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the
Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is Japan Trench.
 Central arc is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the
Philippine Plate (island formation is not significant along this arc). The trench
formed is Izu Trench.
 Southern Arc is formed due to the subduction of the Philippine Plate under the
Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is Ryukyu Trench.

 Japanese island arc was very close to the mainland.

 The force exerted by the Pacific plate and the Philippine plate tilted the arc towards
its east giving rise to the Sea of Japan.
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Explain the formation of thousands of islands in Indonesian and

Philippines archipelagos
[20 marks - Mains 2014]

I suggest you to rely on mrunal.org answer key to know how to write an answer.

Archipelago: an extensive group of islands. [All the above mentioned ones and + few more]

Island arc: narrow chain of islands which are volcanic in origin. Island arc is usually
curved. The convex side will have a trench if it’s an oceanic arc. Japan, Philippines, Hawaii
etc. are oceanic arcs. Cascade range, Western Chile range etc. are examples of continental
arcs.

Model Answer [May not be ideal, there is always scope for optimization] [I followed
the formula 20 marks = 200 words]

 Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago are located along the plate margins.
Both the archipelagoes were formed due to ocean – ocean convergence.
 Indonesian archipelago was formed due to convergence between Sunda oceanic plate
(part of Eurasian plate) and Indo – Australian plate whereas Philippine archipelago was
formed due to convergence between Sunda oceanic plate and Philippine Sea plate. [if you
can’t remember names, you should avoid these kind of points]
 In ocean – ocean convergence, two oceanic plates converge or collide. The denser plate
subducts into the asthenosphere below the convergence zone and forms a trench at the
surface. This region below the convergence zone is called the zone of subduction.
 In the zone of subduction, due to high temperature and pressure, the rocks undergo
metamorphosis and the sediments in the oceanic plate melt to form magma.
 The magma being lighter moves upwards. It is at high pressure due to the buoyant force
offered by the surrounding denser medium. At the surface magma escapes in the form
of volcanic eruptions.
 The magma solidifies creating a volcanic layer. Subsequent volcanism builds layer over
layer and a volcanic mountain if formed. Such mountains are formed all along the
converging edge above the less denser plate.
 Over time the mountains merge and oceanic crust gets transformed into continental
crust.
 And this is how Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago are formed.
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[Figure must for this answer]

[211 words] [you can always optimize an answer by addition or deletion] [I tried my best to
keep this answer relevant] [If you have a better answer, write it in the comments]

If asked for 10 marks = 100 words.

 Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos are formed due to ocean – ocean convergence.
 In ocean – ocean convergence, the denser plate subducts into the asthenosphere. This
region below the convergence zone is called the zone of subduction.
 In the zone of subduction the rocks undergo metamorphosis and the sediments in the
oceanic plate melt to form magma.
 At the surface magma escapes in the form of volcanic eruptions.
 constant volcanism builds layer over layer and a volcanic mountain if formed.
 Such mountains are formed all along the converging edge.
 Over time the mountains merge and oceanic crust gets transformed into continental
crust.
 And this is how Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago are formed.

Related question

In spite of extensive volcanism, there is no island formation

along the divergent boundary (mid oceanic ridge)
 Basaltic magma flows out along the divergent edge (Fissure type volcano).
 Basaltic magma = less silica = less viscosity = flows over a large distance and hence
causes see floor spreading but not volcanic islands.
 On the other hand, along convergent boundary, andesitic or acidic magma flows out.
 Andesitic or acidic magma = more silica content = higher viscosity = doesn’t move
quick and also solidifies quickly. This helps in building layer over layer in a narrow
region = huge volcanic mountain.
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In this post we will study about Continent - Ocean Convergence. Understanding

Continent - Ocean Convergence is important to understand the Fromation of The
Rockies, the Formation of the Andes and other similar fold mountain systems.

We have studied in See Floor Spreading how convectional currents in the mantle drive the
lithospheric plates. Rising vertical limbs of the convection currents in the mantle create a
divergent plate boundary and falling limbs create a convergent plate boundary.

In convergence there are sub-types namely:

1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean - ocean convergence. [Explained in the previous

post]
2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates or ocean - continent convergence [This
post].
3. Collision of continental plates or continent - continent convergence [Next Post].
4. Collision of continent and arc or continent - arc convergence [Next Post].

In all types of convergence, denser plate subducts and the less denser plate is either up
thrust or folded or both [up thrust and folded].

Continent - Ocean Convergence Or The Cordilleran

Convergence
 Continent - Ocean Convergence is also called Cordilleran Convergence because this kind
of convergence gives rise to extensive mountain systems. A cordillera is an extensive
chain of mountains or mountain ranges. Some mountain chains in North America and
South America are called cordilleras.
 Continent - Ocean Convergence is similar to ocean - ocean convergence. One important
difference is that in continent - ocean convergence mountains are formed instead of
islands.
 When oceanic and continental plates collide or converge, the oceanic plate (denser plate)
subducts or plunges below the continental plate (less denser plate) forming a trench
along the boundary. The trenches formed here are not as deep as those formed in ocean
- ocean convergence.
 As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into the softer
asthenosphere, the rocks on the continental side in the subduction zone become
metamorphosed under high pressure and temperature.
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 After reaching a certain depth, plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed sediments and the
melted part of the subducting plate) has lower density and is at high pressure. It rises
upwards due to the buoyant force offered by surrounding denser medium. The magma
flows out, sometimes violently to the surface.
 A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic eruptions at the
surface of the continental plate along the margin.
 Such volcanic eruptions all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic mountains
which are collectively called as continental arc.

[Arc: narrow chain of volcanic islands or mountains.

Island arc: A narrow chain of volcanic islands. Island arc is usually curved. The convex
side will have a trench if it’s an oceanic arc. Japan, Philippines, Hawaii (hotspot island
arc) etc. are oceanic arcs. They are formed due to ocean - ocean convergence.

Continental arc: A narrow chain of volcanic mountains on continents. Cascade range

(parallel to Rockies), Western Chile range (parallel to Andes) etc. are examples of
continental arcs. They are formed due to continent - ocean convergence]

 Continental margins are filled with thick geoclinal sediments brought by the rivers. As a
result of convergence, the buoyant granite [geoclinal sediments] of the continental crust
overrides (is placed above) the oceanic crust [continental crust in up thrust by the
oceanic crust]. As a result the edge of the deformed continental margin is thrust above
sea level.
 The advancing oceanic plate adds more compressive stress on the up thrust continental
margin and leads to its folding creating a fold mountain system.
 In some cases, the advancing oceanic plate compresses the continental arc (orogenic
belt) leading to its folding (Rockies and Andes).

[As the oceanic plate subducts, the sediments brought by it accumulates in the trench
region. These accumulated sediments are called as accretionary wedge. The accretionary
wedge is compressed into the continental margin leading to crustal shortening.

Convergence == Crustal Shortening

Divergence == Crustal Widening

Crustal Shortening at one place is compensated by Crustal Widening in some other place]
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 With the formation of the orogenic belt (fold mountain belt), resistance builds up which
effectively stops convergence. Thus, the subduction zone progresses seaward.
 With the culmination of compression, erosion continues to denude mountains. This
results in isostatic adjustment which causes ultimate exposure of the roots of
mountains.
 Examples are found in the Rockies, deformed in late Mesozoic and early Tertiary period,
and the Andes, where the deformation begun in the Tertiary Period is still going on.

Formation of the Andes - Continent - Ocean Convergence

 The Andes are formed due to convergence between Nazca plate (oceanic plate) and the
South American plate (continental plate). Peru – Chile trench is formed due to
subduction of Nazca plate.
 Andes are a continental arc (narrow, continental volcanic chain) formed due to the
volcanism above the subduction zone. The pressure offered by the accretionary wedge
folded the volcanic mountain, raising the mountains significantly.
 The folding process in Andes is still continuing and the mountains are constantly rising.
 Volcanism is still active. Ojos del Salado active volcano on the Argentina – Chile
border is the highest active volcano on earth at 6,893 m. (Olympus Mons on Mars is the
highest volcano in the solar system. It is 26 – 27 km high)
 Mount Aconcagua (6,960 m, Argentina), the highest peak outside Himalayas and the
highest peak in the western hemisphere is an extinct volcano.
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Formation of the Rockies - Continent - Ocean Convergence

 The North American plate (continental plate) moved west wards while the Juan de
Fuca plate (minor oceanic plate) and the Pacific plate (major oceanic plate) moved
eastwards. The convergence gave rise to a series of parallel mountain ranges.
 Unlike the Andes, the Rockies are formed at a distance from the continental margin due
to the less steep subduction by the oceanic plates.
 Trenching is less conspicuous as the boundary is filled with accretionary wedge and
there are a series of fault zones that makes the landforms a bit different from Andes.
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Wadati - Benioff zone: Earthquakes along Convergent boundary

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 A Wadati–Benioff zone is a zone of seismicity corresponding with the down-going slab

in a subduction zone (the intensity of earthquakes increases with depth of
subduction).
 Differential motion along the zone produces numerous earthquakes, the foci of which
may be as deep as about 670 kilometres.
 Wadati–Benioff zone earthquakes develop beneath volcanic island arcs and
continental margins above active subduction zones.
 They can be produced by slip along the subduction thrust fault or slip on faults
within the down going plate.
 Most disastrous earthquakes are deep seated ones or deep focus earthquakes. Such
earthquakes are common around the subduction zone.

Chile, Japan, Himalayan belt see high intensity disastrous earthquakes due to the
subduction process.

We will study about the formation of Himalayas in the next post.

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In this post we will study about Continent - Continent Convergence. Understanding

Continent - Continent Convergence is important to understand the Formation of the
Himalayas, the Alps, the Urals and the Atlas mountains.

We have studied in See Floor Spreading how convectional currents in the mantle drive the
lithospheric plates. Rising vertical limbs of the convection currents in the mantle create a
divergent plate boundary and falling limbs create a convergent plate boundary.

In convergence there are sub-types namely:

1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean - ocean convergence. [Explained in the previous

posts]
2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates or ocean - continent convergence
[Explained in the previous post].
3. Collision of continental plates or continent - continent convergence [This Post].
4. Collision of continent and arc or continent - arc convergence [This Post].

In all types of convergence, denser plate subducts and the less denser plate is either up
thrust or folded or both [up thrust and folded].

Continent - Continent Convergence or The Himalayan

Convergence
 In ocean – ocean convergence and continent – ocean convergence, at least one of the
plates is denser and hence the subduction zone is quite deep [few hundred
kilometers].
 At continental – continental convergent margins, due to lower density, both of the
continental crustal plates are too light [too buoyant] to be carried downward
(subduct) into a trench. In most cases, neither plate subducts or even if one of the
plates subducts, the subduction zone will not go deeper than 40 – 50 km.
 The two plates converge, buckle up [The subduction of the continental crust is not
possible beyond 40 km because of the normal buoyancy of the continental crust.
Thus, the fragments of oceanic crust are plastered against the plates causing welding
of two plates known as suture zone. Example: The- Indus-Tsangpo suture zone],
fold, and fault.
 Geoclinal sediments are found along the continental margins. As the continental
plates converge, the ocean basin (geosynclinical basin) is squeezed between the two
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converging plates. Huge slivers of rock, many kilometers wide are thrust on top of
one another, forming a towering mountain ranges.
 With the building up of resistance, convergence comes to an end. The mountain belt
erodes and this is followed by isostatic adjustment.
 As two massive continents weld, a single large continental mass joined by a
mountain range is produced.
 Examples: The Himalayas, Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas mountains.

Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent - Continent

Convergence
 Oceanic crust is only 5 – 30 km thick. But the continental crust is 50 – 70 km thick.
Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust, so there are no volcanoes, although the
magma stays in the crust.
 Metamorphic rocks are common because of the stress the continental crust
experiences.
 With enormous slabs of crust smashing together, continent – continent collisions
bring on numerous and large earthquakes. [Earth Quakes in Himalayan and North
Indian Region]

Convergent boundary = More deep focus earthquakes. Example: Kachchh region,

Himalayan region.
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Formation of Himalayans and Tibet

 The Himalayan mountains are also known as the Himadri, Himavan or Himachal.
 The Himalayas are a part of Alpine mountain Chain.
 The Himalayas are the youngest mountain chain in the world.

Indo-Australian Plate
 Indo – Australian plate  Indian plate + Australian plate + Some parts of Indian Ocean.

Indo – Australian Plate boundary

 North ==> Himalayas
 East ==> Purvanchal, Rakinyoma Mountains, Arakan coast, Andaman & Nicobar islands
and Java Trench, South western Pacific plate.
 West ==> Suleiman and Kirthar ranges, Makrana coast, western margin of Red Sea rift,
Spreading site between Indio – Australian plate and African plate
 South ==> Spreading site between Indio – Australian plate and Antarctic plate

Explain the formation of Himalayas

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 Himalayan mountains have come out of a great geosyncline called the Tethys Sea and
that the uplift has taken place in different phases.
 During Permian Period (250) million years ago, there was a super continent known as
Pangaea.
 Its northern part consisted of the present day North America and Eurasia (Europe and
Asia) which was called Laurasia or Angaraland or Laurentia.
 The southern part of Pangaea consisted of present day South America, Africa, South
India, Australia and Antarctica. This landmass was called Gondwanaland.
 In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland, there was a long, narrow and shallow sea
known as the Tethys Sea (All this was explained in detail in Continental Drift Theory).
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 There were many rivers which were flowing into the Tethys Sea (Older than Himalayas.
We will see this in detail while studying Antecedent and Subsequent Drainage).
 Sediments were brought by these rivers and were deposited on the floor of the Tethys
Sea.
 These sediments were subjected to powerful compression due to the northward
movement of the Indian Plate. This resulted in the folding of sediments.
 Once the Indian plate started plunging below the Eurasian plate, these sediments were
further folded and raised. This process is still continuing (India is moving northwards at
the rate of about five cm per year and crashing into rest of the Asia).
 And the folded sediments, after a lot of erosional activity, appear as present day
Himalayas.
 Tibetan plateau was formed due to up thrusting of the Eurasian Plate. And the Indo-
Gangetic plain was formed due to consolidation of alluvium brought down by the rivers
flowing from Himalayas.
 The curved shape of the Himalayas convex to the south, is attributed to the maximum
push offered at two ends of the Indian Peninsula during its northward drift.
 Himalayas do not comprise a single range but a series of at least three ranges running
more or less parallel to one another.
 Therefore, the Himalayas are supposed to have emerged out of the Himalayan
Geosyncline i.e. the Tethys Sea in three different phases following one after the other.
 The first phase commenced about 50-40 million years ago, when the Great Himalayas
were formed. The formation of the Great Himalayas was completed about 30 million
years ago.
 The second phase took place about 25 to 30 million years ago when the Middle
Himalayas were formed.
 The Shiwaliks were formed in the last phase of the Himalayan orogeny — say about two
million to twenty million years ago.
 Some of the fossil formations found in the Shiwalik hills are also available in the Tibet
plateau. It indicates that the past climate of the Tibet plateau was somewhat similar to
the climate of the Shiwalik hills.
 There are evidences to show that the process of uplift of the Himalayas is not yet
complete and they are still rising.
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 [Recent studies have shown that convergence of the Indian plate and the Asian plate has
caused a crustal shortening of about 500 km in the Himalayan region. This shortening
has been compensated by sea floor spreading along the oceanic ridge in the Indian
Ocean]

Formation of Himalayas in Short

 Pangea’s breakup starts in Permian period [225 million years ago].

 India started her northward journey about 200 million years ago.
 It travelled some 6,000 kilometres before it finally collided with Asia.
 India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago.
 Convergent boundary gave rise to Himalayas 40 – 50 million years ago [Tertiary Period]
[Formation of Deccan Traps began 70-60 million years ago]
 Scientists believe that the process is still continuing and the height of the Himalayas is
rising even to this date.

Evidences for the rising Himalayas

 Today’s satellites that use high precision atomic clocks can measure accurately even a
small rise of one cm. The heights of various places as determined by satellites indicate
that the Himalayas rise by few centimeters every year. The present rate of uplift of the
Himalayas has been calculated at 5 to 10 cm per year.
 Due to uplifting, lakes in Tibet are desiccated (lose water) keeping the gravel terraces at
much higher levels above the present water level. This could be possible only in the
event of uplift of the region.
 The frequent tectonic activity (occurrence of earthquakes) in the Himalayan region
shows that the Indian plate is moving further northwards and plunging into Eurasian
plate. This means that the Himalayas are still being raised due to compression and have
not yet attained isostatic equilibrium.
 The Himalayan rivers are in their youthful stage and have been rejuvenated [make or cause
to appear younger or more vital] in recent times. This shows that the Himalayan Landmass is
rising keep the rivers in youth stage since a long time.

Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas

mountains
 The formation of each of these mountains is similar to the formation of the Himalayas.
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 Alps are young fold mountains which were formed due to collision between African Plate
and the Eurasian Plate.
 Atlas mountains are also young folded mountains which are still in the process of
formation. They are also formed due to collision between African Plate and the Eurasian
Plate.
 Urals are very old fold mountains which were formed even before the breakup of
Pangaea. They were formed due to collision between Europe and Asia.
 Appalachians are also very old fold mountains which were formed even before the
breakup of Pangaea. They were formed due to collision between North America and
Europe.

Mains Question on Fold Mountains

Why are the world’s fold mountain systems located along the margins of continents?
Bring out the association between the global distribution of Fold Mountains and the
earthquakes and volcanoes.

Why fold mountains at continental margin?

 Fold mountains are formed due to convergence between two continental plates
(Himalayas) or between an oceanic and a continental plate (Rockies. Explained in
previous post).
 In Continent – Continent (C-C) convergence, oceanic sediments are squeezed and up
thrust between the plates and these squeezed sediments appear as fold mountains
along the plate margins.
 In Continent – Ocean (C-O) convergence, the continental volcanic arc formed along
the continental plate margin is compressed and is uplifted by the colliding oceanic
plate giving rise to fold mountains along the continental plate margin.

Association

 In both C-C convergence and C-O convergence, there is formation of fold mountains
and frequent occurrence of earthquakes.
 This is because of sudden release of friction between the subducting plate and up
thrust plate. In C-C convergence, the denser plate pushes in to the less denser plate
creating a fault zone along the margin. Further collision leads to sudden release of
energy along this fault zone generating disastrous earthquakes (Himalayan Region).
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 In C-O regions the subducting oceanic plate grinds against the surrounding denser
medium producing mostly deep focus earthquakes.
 Volcanism is observed only in C-O convergence and is almost absent in C-C
convergence. This is because of the thick continental crust in C-C convergence which
prevents the outflow of magma. Magma lies stocked within the crust.
 In C-O convergence, metamorphosed sediments and melting of the subducting plate
form magma which escapes to the surface through the less thicker continental crust.

Continent – Arc Convergence or New Guinea Convergence

 New Guinea came into being about 20 million years ago as a result of continent – arc
collision.
 The continental plate pushes the island arc towards the oceanic crust. The oceanic
plate plunges under the island arc.
 A trench occurs on the ocean side of the island arc and, ultimately, the continental
margin is firmly welded against the island arc.
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In this post we will study about different Types of Mountains which are classified based on
various factors.

Orogeny
 Orogeny (Geology) is a process in which a section of the earth's crust is folded and
deformed by lateral compression to form a mountain range.
 Orogenic movements are ‘Tectonic movements’ of the earth which involve the folding
of sediments, faulting and metamorphism [Geology (of rock) that has undergone
transformation by heat, pressure, or other natural agencies].

Formation of Fold Mountains already explained in Continent – Ocean Convergence –

Formation of Andes, Rockies and Continent – Continent Convergence: Formation of
Himalayas

Types of Mountains - Classification of Mountains

On the basis of location
Continental mountains

Coastal mountains

 the Rockies,
 the Appalachians,
 the Alpine mountain chains,
 the Western Ghats and
 the Eastern Ghats (India);

Inland mountains

 the Vosges and the Black Forest (Europe),

 the Kunlun, Tienshan, Altai mountains of Asia,
 the Urals of Russia, the Aravallis,
 the Himalayas, the Satpura, and the Maikal of India.
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Oceanic mountains

 Oceanic mountains are found on continental shelves and ocean floors.

 If the height of the mountains is considered from the ocean floor, Mauna Kea (9140)
would be the highest mountain.

On the basis of period of origin

 A total of nine orogenic or mountain building movements have taken place so far.
 Some of them occurred in Pre-Cambrian times between 600-3,500 million years ago.
 The three more recent orogenies are the Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine.

Precambrian mountains

 They belong to the Pre-Cambrian period, a period that extended for more than 4
billion years.
 The rocks have been subjected to upheaval, denudation and metamorphosis. So the
remnants appear as ‘residual mountains’.
 Some of the examples are Laurentian mountains, Algoman mountains etc..
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Caledonian mountains

 They originated due to the great mountain-building movements and associated

tectonic movements of the late Silurian and early Devonian periods.
 Caledonian mountains came into existence between approximately 430 million
years and 380 million years ago.
 Examples are the Appalachians, Aravallis, Mahadeo etc.

Hercynian mountains

 These mountains originated during the upper Carboniferous to Permian Period in

Europe.
 Hercynian mountains came into existence between approximately 340 million ears
and 225 million years ago.
 Some examples are the mountains of Vosges and Black Forest, Altai, Tien Shan
mountains of Asia, Ural Mountains etc.

Alpine system

 Has its origin in the Tertiary Period which consists of the Palaeocene, Eocene,
Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene epochs.
 The mountains were formed from about 65 million years to 7 million years ago.

Examples are

 the Rockies of North America, the Alpine mountains of Europe,

 the Atlas mountains of north-western Africa,
 the Himalayas of the Indian subcontinent in mountains radiating from Pamir
knot like Pauntic, Taurus, Elburz, Zagros and Kunlun etc.

Being the most recently formed, these ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, Andes and
Rockies are the loftiest with rugged terrain.
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On the basis of mode of origin

Original or Tectonic mountains

 Original or Tectonic mountains are the product of tectonic forces.

 The tectonic mountains may be categorized into fold mountains (Himalayas,
Rockies, Andes etc.), block mountains (Vosges mountains in France, Black
Forest in Germany, Vindhya and Satpuras in India etc.) and volcanic mountains
(Cascade Range in USA, Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Fujiyama
etc.).

Circum-erosional or Relict or Residual mountains

 Circum-erosional or Relict or Residual mountains (Aravalis in India, Urals in Russia

etc.) are the remnants of old fold mountains derived as a result of denudation [strip
of covering or possessions; make bare].

Based on the formation process

 Fold mountains
 Block mountains
 Volcanic mountains

These will be explained in detail in the next post

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‘Fault’ in Geology
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‘Fold’ in geology

Fold Mountains
 Fold mountains are formed when sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines are
subjected to compressive forces.

Formation of Fold Mountains was explained previously in Continent – Ocean Convergence –

Formation of Andes, Rockies And Continent – Continent Convergence: Formation of
Himalayas

 They are the loftiest mountains and they are generally concentrated along
continental margins.

Fold mountains can be divided into two broad types on the basis of the nature of folds.

Simple fold mountains

 Simple fold mountains with open folds in which well-developed systems of synclines
and anticlines are found and folds are of wavy patterns.

Complex fold mountains

 Complex fold mountains in which the rock strata are intensely compressed to
produce a complex structure of folds.
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 In the Himalayas, over folds and recumbent folds are often found detached from
their roots and carried few hundred kilometres away by the tectonic forces. These
detached folds are called ‘nappe’.

On the basis of period of origin, fold mountains are divided into very old fold
mountains, old fold mountains and Alpine fold mountains.

Very Old Fold Mountains

 They are more than 500 million years old.
 Rounded features (due to denudation).
 Low elevation.
 The Appalachians in North America and the Ural mountains in Russia

Old Fold Mountains

 Old fold mountains had their origin before the Tertiary period (70 million years).
 The fold mountain systems belonging to Caledonian and Hercynian mountain-
building periods fall in this category.
 They are also called as Thickening relict fold mountains because of lightly rounded
features and medium elevation.
 Top layers worn out due to erosional activity.
 Example: Aravali Range in India.
 The Aravali Range in India are the oldest fold mountain systems in India. The
range has considerably worn down due to the processes of erosion. The range rose in
a Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogeny.
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Alpine or young fold mountains

 Alpine fold mountains belonging to the Tertiary period can be grouped under the new
fold mountains category since they originated in the Tertiary period.
 Examples are the Rockies, the Andes, the Alps, the Himalayas, etc.

Characteristics

 Rugged relief.
 Imposing height (lofty).
 High Conical Peaks.

Characteristics of Fold Mountains

 Fold mountains belong to the group of youngest mountains of the earth.
 The presence of fossils suggest that the sedimentary rocks of these folded mountains
were formed after accumulation and consolidation of silts and sediments in a marine
environment.
 Fold mountains extend for great lengths whereas their width is considerably small.
 Generally, fold mountains have a concave slope on one side and a convex slope on
the other.
 Fold mountains are found along continental margins facing oceans.
 Fold mountains are characterized by granite intrusions on a massive scale.
 Recurrent seismicity is a common feature in folded mountain belts .
 High heat flow often finds expression in volcanic activity.
 These mountains are by far the most widespread and also the most important.
 They also contain rich mineral resources such as tin, copper, gold etc..

Some relevant definitions

Ridge
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 Mountain ridges refer to mountains which originated as a result of local folding and
faulting.
 Generally, the slope of one side of the ridge is steep in contrast to the moderate slope
on the other side [In case of Himalayas, the southern slope is steeper compared to
the northern slope].
 In some cases a ridge may have a symmetrical slope on both sides.

Mountain range

 It refers to a series of ridges which originated in the same age and underwent the
same processes. The most prominent or characteristic feature of mountain ranges is
their long and narrow extension.
 Example: Himalayas are a mountain range with Himadri ridge, Himachal ridge and
Shiwalik ridge.

Mountain System

 A group of mountain ranges formed in a single period, similar in their form, structure
and extension, is termed a mountain system.
 Examples are the Basin Range of Nevada (USA), the Rocky mountain system of North
America and the Appalachian.

Mountain Chain

 It consists of mountain ranges which differ in size and periods of formation.

 It refers to highlands composed of different types of mountains viz., fold, block or
volcanic mountains although there is a proper arrangement of the mountains.

Cordillera

 Cordillera refers to several mountain groups and systems.

 Cordillera is a community of mountains which includes ridges, ranges, mountain
chains and mountain systems.
 The best example is the Western Cordillera in the western part of the USA and in
British Columbia of Canada.

Block Mountains
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 Block mountains are created when large areas or blocks of earth are broken and
displaced vertically.
 The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts and the lowered blocks are called graben.
 The Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley and the
Vosges mountain in Europe are examples.
 Block mountains are also called fault block mountains since they are formed due to
faulting as a result of tensile and compressive forces.
 Block mountains are surrounded by faults on either side of rift valleys or grabens.

There are two basic types.

 Tilted block mountains have one steep side contrasted by a gentle slope on the other
side.

 Lifted block mountains have a flat top and extremely steep slopes.
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Compression and Tension

 When the earth’s crust bends folding occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes place.
 The faulted edges are very steep, e.g. the Vosges and Black Forest of the Rhineland.
 Tension may also cause the central portion to be let down between two adjacent fault
blocks forming a graben or rift valley, which will have steep walls.
 The East African Rift Valley system is the best example. It is 3,000 miles long,
stretching from East Africa through the Red Sea to Syria.
 Compressional forces set up by earth movements may produce a thrust or reverse
fault and shorten the crust. A block may be raised or lowered in relation to
surrounding areas.
 In general large-scale block mountains and rift valleys are due to tension rather than
compression.
 The faults may occur in series and be further complicated by tilting and other
irregularities.
 Denudation through the ages modifies faulted landforms.
 A majority of geologists argue that block mountains are the product of faulting.
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 Sometimes, the surrounding blocks subside leaving the middle block stationary.
Such cases are found in high plateau regions.
 Block mountains may originate when the middle block moves downward and
becomes a rift valley while the surrounding blocks stand higher as block mountains.

Volcanic mountains
 Volcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic activity.
 Mt.Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt.Fujiyama in Japan are examples of such mountains.
 These are, in fact, volcanoes which are built up from material ejected from fissures in
the earth’s crust.
 The materials include molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and liquid
mud.
 They fall around the vent in successive layers, building up a characteristic volcanic
cone.
 Volcanic mountains are often called mountains of accumulation.
 They are common in the Circum-Pacific belt and include such volcanic peaks as Mt.
Fuji (Japan) Mt. Mayon (Philippines), Mt. Merapi (Sumatra) etc.

Residual mountains
 These are mountains evolved by denudation.
 Where the general level of the land has been lowered by the agents of denudation
some very resistant areas may remain and these form residual mountains, e.g. Mt.
Manodnock in U.S.A.
 Residual mountains may also evolve from plateaus which have been dissected by
rivers into hills and valleys.
 Examples of dissected plateaux, where the down-cutting streams have eroded the
uplands into mountains of denudation, are the Highlands of Scotland, Scandinavia
and the Deccan Plateau.

Significance of mountains
 The mountains are a storehouse of water.
 Many rivers have their source in the glaciers in the mountains.
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 Water from the mountains is also used for irrigation and generation of hydro-
electricity.
 The river valleys and terraces are ideal for cultivation of crops.
 Mountains have a rich variety of flora and fauna.
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In this post we will study about Divergent Boundary (Divergent plate boundary or
Constructive Edge). We will study about the important land forms created due to divergent
boundary. These important land forms include the East African Rift System, Rift Lakes,
Great Rift System etc.. We will also study the formation and evolution of Rift Valley,
Linear Sea, Oceans etc..

Interaction of Plates
 Major geomorphological features such as fold mountains, block mountains, mid-oceanic
ridges, trenches, volcanism, earthquakes etc. are a direct consequence of interaction
between various lithospheric plates.
 There are three ways in which lithospheric plates interact with each other.
1. Divergence: Divergent boundary is also called as constructive edge. Mid-oceanic
ridges, rift valleys, block mountains, etc. are the common landforms formed due to
divergence.
2. Convergence: Convergent boundary is also called as destructive edge. Fold
mountains, trenches, island arcs, continental arcs, etc. are the common landforms
formed due to convergence.
3. Transcurrent boundary or transform edge: Here the landform is deformed due to
the horizontal grinding (plates slide past each other horizontally) of the lithospheric
plates. Example: San Anderas Fault, USA.
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I have already explained about Convergence and types of convergence in these posts:

1. Ocean – Ocean Convergence – Island Arc Formation

2. Continent – Ocean Convergence – Formation of Andes, Rockies
3. Continent – Continent Convergence: Formation of Himalayas

The whole concept of tectonic plates can be studied from these posts:

1. Continental Drift Theory – Tectonics

2. See Floor Spreading – Paleomagnetism – Convectional Current Theory
3. Plate Tectonics – Indian Plate Movement – Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor
Spreading – Plate Tectonics

Divergent boundary
 In the See Floor Spreading theory, we have studied how divergent boundaries below
the oceans are responsible for the spreading of the see floor. In Plate Tectonics, we
have learnt about the major and minor lithospheric plates and how these plates
moved thorough the geological past. We have studied about convection currents in
the mantle which are the primary reason behind plate movements – divergence
(divergent boundary) and convergence (convergent boundary) of the lithospheric
plates.
 The horizontal limbs of the convection currents, just below the lithosphere, drag the
plates horizontally.
 The falling limbs of the convection currents create a negative pressure on the
lithosphere and this negative pressure (pulling force) is responsible for the formation
the convergent boundary.
 The rising limbs on the other hand create positive pressure on the lithosphere and
this positive pressure (pushing force) creates a divergent boundary.
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 Divergence (divergent boundary) is responsible for the evolution and creation of

new seas and oceans just like convergent boundaries are responsible for the
formation of fold mountains, volcanic arcs (few exceptions like Hawaii) etc..

Evolution – Formation of Rift Lakes, Seas and Oceans

 The formation of atmosphere and the oceans took millions of years. They were formed
due to continuous ‘degassing’ of the Earth's interior [denser elements settled at the
center of the earth and the lighter elements at the surface].
 After the Earth's surface temperature came down below the boiling point of water,
rain began to fall.
 Water began to accumulate in the hollows and basins and the primeval [of the earliest
time in history] water bodies were formed.
 The primeval water bodies evolved to form seas and oceans.
 The process of formation of a new sea begins with the formation of a divergent
boundary.
 New lithosphere is created at the divergent boundary and old lithosphere is
destroyed somewhere else at the convergent boundary.
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Basic Terms
 Up warp: Geology a broad elevated area of the earth's surface.
 Plume: Geology a column of magma rising by convection in the earth's mantle.
 Rift Valley: A rift valley is a linear-shaped lowland between several highlands or
mountain ranges created by the action of a geologic rift or fault.

Stage 1: Upwarping, fault zones

 Rising limbs of the convectional currents create a mantle plume that tries to escape
to the surface by upwarping the lithosphere. During upwarping, a series of faults are
created. Both normal and thrust faults (reverse fault) occur during upwarping.
Divergence of plates begin.
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Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation

 Faulting due to divergence creates extensive rift system (fault zones, rift valleys).
Rifting is followed by flood basalt volcanism in some places that spread around the
rift creating plateaus, highlands etc.. East African Rift Valley is at this stage of
evolution.

[Narmada and Tapti Rift Valleys (fault zones) are formed from a mechanism different from
the one explained above. They are formed due to bending of the northern part of the Indian
plate during the formation of Himalayas.]

Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift Lakes

 Rift valley deepens due to further divergence and makes way for ocean waters. If the
rift valleys are formed deeper within the continents, rains waters accumulate forming
rift lakes. Rift lakes form some of the largest fresh water lakes on earth.
 Rift valleys evolve into volcanic vent. Block mountains on either side of the rift evolve
into oceanic ridges. Successive volcanism and see floor spreading creates spreading
sites where new crust is formed (This is the reason that a Divergent Boundary is
called a Constructive Edge). Oceanic crust starts to replace continental crust. This
stage is the formation of linear seas. Example: Red Sea. Most of the narrow seas
are at this stage.

Stage 4: Linear Sea transforms into Ocean

 Intense outpouring of basaltic magma accentuates see floor spreading and oceanic
crust formation. Oceanic crust replaces the continental crust and a mighty ocean is
formed.
 Crust formation along the mid-oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) is compensated by
crust destruction (crustal shortening) along the convergent boundary (Destructive
Edge).
 This is exactly how the continents and oceans get transformed.

Rift valley lakes

 A rift lake is a lake formed as a result of subsidence related to movement on faults
within a rift zone, an area of extensional tectonics in the continental crust.
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 They are often found within rift valleys and may be very deep. Rift lakes may be
bounded by large steep cliffs along the fault margins.
 Many of the world's largest lakes are located in rift valleys.
 Lake Baikal in Siberia lies in an active rift valley. Lake Baikal is the largest (by
volume) freshwater lake in the world, containing roughly 20% of the world's
unfrozen surface fresh water.
 Lake Tanganyika, second by both measures, is in the Albertine Rift, the
westernmost arm of the active East African Rift.
 Lake Superior in North America, the largest freshwater lake by area, lies in the
ancient and dormant Midcontinent Rift.
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Major Lakes of the World

East African Rift Valley

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 The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental rift zone in East Africa.
 The EAR began developing around the onset of the Miocene, 22–25 million years
ago.
 In the past, it was considered to be part of a larger Great Rift Valley.
 The rift is a narrow zone that is a developing divergent tectonic plate boundary, in
which the African Plate is in the process of splitting into two tectonic plates, called
the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate (African Plate), at a rate of 6–7 mm
annually.

 As extension continues, lithospheric rupture will occur within 10 million years, the
Somalian plate will break off, and a new ocean basin will form.
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 The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as Gregory Rift) includes the Main Ethiopian
Rift, running eastward from the Afar Triple Junction, which continues south as the
Kenyan Rift Valley.
 The Western Rift Valley includes the Albertine Rift, and farther south, the valley of
Lake Malawi.
 To the north of the Afar Triple Junction, the rift follows one of two paths: west to
the Red Sea Rift or east to the Aden Ridge in the Gulf of Aden.
 The EAR transects through Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia,
Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique.
 Prior to rifting, enormous continental flood basalts erupted on the surface and uplift
of the Ethiopian, Somalian, and East African plateaus occurred.

Volcanism and seismicity along East African Rift Valley

 The East African Rift Zone includes a number of active as well as dormant volcanoes,
among them: Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya etc..
 Although most of these mountains lie outside of the rift valley, the EAR created them.
 The EAR is the largest seismically active rift system on Earth today.
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 The majority of earthquakes occur near the Afar Depression, with the largest
earthquakes typically occurring along or near major border faults.

Great Rift Valley

 The Great Rift Valley is a geographical feature running north to south for around
6,400 kilometers from northern Syria to central Mozambique in East Africa.

 The northernmost part of the Rift forms the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
 Farther south, the valley is the home of the Jordan River which continues south
through the Jordan Valley into the Dead Sea on the Israeli-Jordanian border.
 From the Dead Sea southward, the Rift is occupied by the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red
Sea.
 The Afar Triangle of Ethiopia and Eritrea is the location of a triple junction.
 The Gulf of Aden is an eastward continuation of the rift and from this point the rift
extends southeastward as part of the mid-oceanic ridge of the Indian Ocean.
 In a southwest direction the fault continues as the Great Rift Valley, which split the
older Ethiopian highlands into two halves.
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 In eastern Africa the valley divides into the Eastern Rift and the Western Rift. The
Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift contains some of the deepest lakes in the
world (up to 1,470 meters deep at Lake Tanganyika).

Transcurrent boundary or transform edge

 A transform fault or transform boundary, also known as conservative plate boundary
since these faults neither create nor destroy lithosphere.
 Here the movement of the plates is predominantly horizontal.
 The effect of a fault is to relieve strain, which can be caused by compression,
extension, or lateral stress in the rock layers at the surface or deep in the Earth’s
subsurface.
 Most transform faults are hidden in the deep oceans. Many transform faults are
located on the continental margins as well. The best example is the San Andreas
Fault on the Pacific coast of the United States.
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In this post we will study about some of the most Important Mountain Ranges of the World.

To know about the formation of different mountains, follow these links

 Continent – Ocean Convergence – Formation of Andes, Rockies

 Continent – Continent Convergence: Formation of Himalayas

To know about types of mountains, follow these links

 Types of Mountains – Classification of Mountains

 Fold Mountains – Block Mountains

Important mountain ranges

 The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on
Mars (~26 km in elevation). It is also the highest active volcano in the Solar System.
1. Andes - 7,000 km
2. Rocky Mountains - 4,830 km
3. Great Dividing Range - 3,500 km
4. Transantarctic Mountains - 3,500 km
5. Ural Mountains - 2,500 km
6. Atlas Mountains - 2,500 km
7. Appalachian Mountains - 2,414 km
8. Himalayas - 2,400 km
9. Altai Mountains - 2,000 km (1,243 mi)
10. Western Ghats - 1,600 km
11. Alps - 1,200 km
12. Drakensberg - 1,125 km
13. Aravalli Range - 800 km
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Andes
 The Andes is the longest continental mountain range in the world.
 Formed due to Ocean-Continent collision.
 Average height of about 4,000 m.
 Spread along Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.
 The Andes is the world's highest mountain range outside of Asia.
 The highest peak, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,962 m above
sea level
 World's highest volcanoes are in the Andes. Ojos del Salado (6,893 m) on the Chile-
Argentina border is the highest volcano on earth.

Geology

 Caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate.
 Formed due to compression of western rim of the South American Plate due to the
subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate.
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Rocky Mountains
 Mountain range in western North America.
 The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles.
 Spread along northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New
Mexico, in the southwestern U.S.

Geology of the Rocky Mountains

 Formed due to Ocean - Continent collision.

 The rocks making up the mountains were formed before the mountains were raised.
 The Rocky Mountains took shape during an intense period of plate tectonic activity
that resulted in much of the rugged landscape of the western North America.
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Great Dividing Range

 The Great Dividing Range, or the Eastern Highlands, is Australia's most substantial
mountain range and the third longest land-based range in the world.
 It is also known as the Australian Alps.
 I was formed due to rifting.
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Transantarctic Mountains

Ural Mountains
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 Mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western
Russia, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the Ural River and northwestern
Kazakhstan.
 Their eastern side is usually considered the natural boundary between Europe and
Asia.
 They are rich in various deposits, including metal ores, coal, precious and semi-
precious stones.
 Since the 18th century the mountains have been a major mineral base of Russia.

Geology

 The Urals are among the world's oldest extant mountain ranges.
 Formed due to Continent – Continent collision.
 They were formed during the Uralian orogeny due to the collision of the eastern edge
of the supercontinent Laurussia with the young and weak continent of
Kazakhstania, which now underlies much of Kazakhstan. The collision lasted nearly
90 million years in the late Carboniferous – early Triassic.
 Unlike the other major orogens of the Paleozoic (Appalachians, Caledonides), the
Urals have not undergone post-orogenic extensional collapse and are unusually well
preserved for their age. For its age of 250 to 300 million years, the elevation of the
mountains is unusually high.


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Atlas Mountains
 Mountain range across the northwestern stretch of Africa extending about 2,500 km
(1,600 mi) through Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.
 The highest peak is Toubkal, with an elevation of 4,165 metres (13,665 ft) in
southwestern Morocco.
 The Atlas ranges separate the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara
Desert.
 These mountains were formed when Africa and America collided, and were once a
chain rivaling today's Himalayas.
 Some remnants can also be found in the later formed Appalachians in North
America.

Appalachian Mountains
 System of mountains in eastern North America.
 One of the major mineral bases of America.

Himalayas
 They separate the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.
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 The Himalayan range is home to the planet's highest peaks, including the highest,
Mount Everest.
 By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961
metres tall.
 The first foothills, reaching about a thousand meters along the northern edge of the
plains, are called the Shiwalik Hills or Sub-Himalayan Range. Further north is a
higher range reaching two to three thousand meters known as the Lower Himalayan
or Himachal or Mahabharat Range.
 Nepal, Bhutan, India, China, Afghanistan and Pakistan, with the first three countries
having sovereignty over most of the range.
 The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush
ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic
Plain.
 Three of the world's major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges and the Tsangpo-
Brahmaputra, all rise near Mount Kailash and cross and encircle the Himalayas.
Their combined drainage basin is home to some 600 million people.
 Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus
river, its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo
river.
 The range varies in width from 400 kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in the
east.

Geology

 The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist
mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
 According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a
continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-
Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
 The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision.
 During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-
Australian Plate was moving at about 15 cm per year.
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 About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely
closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary
rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges.
 Since both plates were composed of low density continental crust, they were thrust
faulted and folded into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the mantle
along an oceanic trench.
 An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest
is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.
 Today, the Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the
Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards.
 The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10
million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia.
 About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along
the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per
year, making them geologically active.
 The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region
seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.

Hydrology

 The Himalayas have the third largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after
Antarctica and the Arctic. The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers.
 Its glaciers include the Siachen glacier, Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand)
and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region), and Zemu (Sikkim).

Lakes

 The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at
altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude.
 Tilicho Lake in Nepal in the Annapurna massif is one of the highest lakes in the
world.

Impact on climate

 The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central
Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakan and Gobi.
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Alps
 Mountain range systems of Europe stretching approximately 1,200 kilometres and
spread across eight Alpine countries from Austria and Slovenia in the east, France,
Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and south east Germany, to the west. Monaco and Italy to
the south
 The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and
Eurasian tectonic plates collided.
 Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising
by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and the
Matterhorn.
 Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m is the highest mountain
in the Alps.
 The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4,000 m, known
as the "four-thousanders".
 The altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe; in the mountains
precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones.
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Mountain ranges By height

 Himalayas - Asia: India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan; highest point- Everest;
8848 meters above sea level.
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 Karakoram (part of Greater Himalayas) - Asia: Pakistan, India, China; highest

point- K2, 8611 meters above sea level.
 Hindu Kush - Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (claim due to Kashmir dispute);
highest point- Tirich Mir, 7708 meters above sea level.
 Pamir - Asia: Tajikistan, China, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (claim due to Kashmir
dispute); highest point - Ismail Samani Peak, 7495 meters above sea level.
 Tian Shan - Asia: China, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyztan, India, Pakistan;
highest point- Jengish Chokusu, 7439 meters above sea level.

Why are world's highest mountains are at the equator?

 Ice and glacier coverage at lower altitudes in cold climates is more important than
collision of tectonic plates. [Glacial erosion is very strong because of huge boulders of
rocks carried by the glacial ice that graze the surface. Though ice moves only few
meters a day, it can take along it huge rocks that can peal the outer layers.]
 Scientists have solved the mystery of why the world's highest mountains sit near the
equator.
 Colder climates are better at eroding peaks. In colder climates, the snowline on
mountains starts lower down, and erosion takes place at lower altitudes.
 In general, mountains only rise to around 1,500m above their snow lines, so it is the
altitude of these lines — which depends on climate and latitude — which ultimately
decides their height.
 At low latitudes, the atmosphere is warm and the snowline is high. Around the
equator, the snowline is about 5,500m at its highest so mountains get up to 7,000m.
 There are a few exceptions [that are higher], such as Everest, but extremely few.
 When you then go to Canada or Chile, the snowline altitude is around 1,000m, so the
mountains are around 2.5km.

Highest mountain peaks of the world

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In this post we will study about Volcanism – Causes and Distribution, Andesitic and
Basaltic Lava and Geysers and Hot Water Springs.

Volcanism
 A volcano is a vent in the earth's crust from which molten rock material (magma),
explosive bursts of gases and volcanic ashes erupt..

or

 A mountain or hill having a crater or vent through which lava, rock fragments, hot
vapour, and gas are or have been erupted from the earth's crust.

Fissure Vent
 A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure or eruption fissure, is a linear
volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive activity.
 The vent is often a few meters wide and may be many kilometers long.

Causes of Volcanism
 The chemical reactions of radioactive substances deep within the interior of the
earth generate tremendous amount of heat. Some heat is already present in the form
of residual heat (heat captured at the center during earth’s formation) is already
present at the earth’s interior.
 There is a huge temperature difference between the inner layers and the outer
layers of the earth due to differential amount of radioactivity. This temperature
difference gives rise to convectional currents in the outer core as well as the mantle.
 The convectional currents in the mantle create convergent and divergent boundaries.
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Know more – Follow links below

See Floor Spreading – Paleomagnetism – Convectional Current Theory

Plate Tectonics – Indian Plate Movement – Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor
Spreading – Plate Tectonics

 At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-molten and sometimes gaseous material

appears on earth at the first available opportunity (the best available weak zone –
usually a plate margin). The earthquakes may expose fault zones through which
magma may escape (This happens in fissure type volcano).
 At the convergent boundary, the subduction of denser plate creates magma at high
pressure which will escape to the surface. Because of high pressure, the magma and
gases escape with great velocity as the pressure is released through eruptions.

Volcanism at convergent boundary: Ocean – Ocean Convergence – Island Arc Formation

Volcanism at divergent boundary: Divergent Boundary – African Rift System Formation

Lava types in Volcanism

Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcanic lava
 These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point.
 They are light-colored, of low density, and have a high percentage of silica.
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 They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying. The resultant cone is
therefore steep sided.
 The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava,
resulting in loud explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
 Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they form a spine or plug at the crater like
that of Mt. Pelee in Martinique.

Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava

 These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000°C. (1,830°F.) and are highly fluid.
 They are dark colored like basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica.
 They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are not very explosive.
 Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour.
 They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before
they solidify (This is how Deccan Traps were formed).
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 The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms a flattened
shield or dome.

Destructive Effects of Volcanoes

 Volcanism can be a greatly damaging natural disaster. The damage is caused by
advancing lava which engulfs whole cities.
 Showers of cinders and bombs can cause damage to life.
 Violent earthquakes associated with the volcanic activity and mudflows of volcanic
ash saturated by heavy rain can bury nearby places.
 Sometimes ash can precipitate under the influence of rain and completely cover
whole cities.
 In coastal areas, seismic sea waves (called tsunamis in Japan) are an additional
danger which are generated by submarine earth faults where volcanism is active.

Positive Effects of Volcanoes

 Volcanism creates new landforms like islands, plateaus, volcanic mountains etc.
 The volcanic ash and dust are very fertile for farms and orchards.
 Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon weathering and decomposition.
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 Although steep volcano slopes prevent extensive agriculture, forestry operations on

them provide valuable timber resources.
 Mineral resources, particularly metallic ores are brought to the surface by volcanoes.
Sometimes copper and other ores fill the gas-bubble cavities. The famed Kimberlite
rock of South Africa, source of diamonds, is the pipe of an ancient volcano.
 In the vicinity of active volcanoes, waters in the depth are heated from contact with
hot magma giving rise to springs and geysers. The heat from the earth's interior in
areas of volcanic activity is used to generate geothermal electricity. Countries
producing geothermal power include USA, Russia, Japan, Italy, New Zealand and
Mexico.
 The Puga valley in Ladakh region and Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) are
promising spots in India for the generation of geothermal electricity.
 Geothermal potential can also be used for space heating.
 As scenic features of great beauty, attracting a heavy tourist trade, few landforms
outrank volcanoes.
 At several places, national parks have been set up, centered around volcanoes.
 As a source of crushed rock for concrete aggregate or railroad ballast, and other
engineering purposes, lava rock is often extensively used.

Geysers and Hot Springs

 Almost all the world’s geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland, New
Zealand and Yellowstone Park of U.S.A.
 Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Some of them have been harnessed to heat
houses, swimming pools and for other domestic purposes.
 Hot springs and geysers have become tourist attractions e.g. in Japan and Hawaii.
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Geysers and Hot Water Springs

 Water that percolated into the porus rock is subjected to intense heat by the
underlying hard rock which is in contact with hot magma in the mantle or the lower
part of crust.
 Under the influence of intense heat the water in the capillaries and narrow roots in
the porous rock undergoes intense expansion and gets converted to steam resulting
in high pressure.
 When this steam or water at high pressure finds a path to the surface through
narrow vents and weak zones, appear at the surface as geysers and hot water
springs.

Geyser Hot water spring

 Steam or water at high pressure, along  Steam or water at high pressure
its path, gets accumulated in small smoothly flows to the top through the
reservoirs, fissures and fractures. Once vent and condense at the surface giving
the pressure exceeds the threshold limit, rise to a spring.
the steam bursts out to the surface
disrupting the water at the mouth.
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Hence the name geyser.

 Usually a carter like structure is created  Usually a carter like structure is created
at the mouth. at the mouth of the spring.
 Silicate deposits at mouth gives them  Some springs are very colorful because
their distinct colours of the presence of cyanobacteria of
different colors.
 Found in very few regions. Iceland is  Found all across the world
famous for its geysers.

Distribution of Volcanoes across the World

 Since the 16th century, around 480 volcanoes have been reported to be active.
 Of these, nearly 400 are located in and around the Pacific Ocean and 80 are in the
mid-world belt across the Mediterranean Sea, Alpine-Himalayan belt and in the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
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 The belts of highest concentration are Aleutian-Kurile islands arc, Melanesia and
New Zealand-Tonga belt.
 Only 10 per cent to 20 per cent of all volcanic activity is above sea and terrestrial
volcanic mountains are small when compared to their submarine counterparts.
 Most known volcanic activity and the earthquakes occur along converging plate
margins and mid-oceanic ridges.
 There is a strikingly close agreement between volcanic and earthquake zones of the
earth.

Pacific Ring of Fire

 Circum-Pacilic region, popularly termed the 'Pacific Ring of Fire', has the greatest
concentration of active volcanoes. Volcanic belt and earthquake belt closely overlap
along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'.
 'Pacific Ring of Fire' is estimated to include two-thirds of the world’s volcanoes.

Regions with active volcanism along 'Pacific Ring of Fire'

 Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan,

 the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra in particular),
 Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and North Island, New Zealand.
 Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua),
Mexico and right up to Alaska.
 It is said that there are almost 100 active volcanoes in the Philippines, 40 in the
Andes, 35 in Japan, and more than 70 in Indonesia.

Along the Atlantic coast

 In contrast, the Atlantic coasts have comparatively few active volcanoes but many
dormant or extinct volcanoes, e.g. St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and Canary Islands
etc..
 But the volcanoes of Iceland and the Azores are active.

Great Rift region

 In Africa some volcanoes are found along the East African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt.
Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya, both probably extinct. The only active volcano of West
Africa is Mt. Cameroon.
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 There are some volcanic cones in Madagascar, but active eruption has not been
known so far.

The West Indian islands

 The West Indian islands have experienced some violent explosions in recent times.
E.g. Mt. Pelee.
 The Lesser Antilles (Part of West Indies Islands) are made up mainly of volcanic
islands and some of them still bear signs of volcanic liveliness.

Mediterranean volcanism
 Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly associated with the Alpine folds,
e.g. Vesuvius, Stromboli (Light House of the Mediterranean) and those of the
Aegean islands.
 A few continue into Asia Minor (Mt. Ararat, Mt. Elbruz). The Himalayas have,
surprisingly, no active volcano at all.

Why? Know Here: Continent – Continent Convergence: Formation of Himalayas

 The volcanism of this broad region, stretching from Spain to the Caucasus, is largely
the result of convergence between the Eurasian Plate and the northward-moving
African Plate.
 This type of volcanism is mainly due to breaking up of Mediterranean plate into
multiple plates due to interaction of African and Eurasian plate
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Other regions
 Elsewhere in the interiors of continents—Asia, North America, Europe and Australia,
active volcanoes are rare.
 There are no volcanoes in Australia.

The Distribution of Earthquakes

 The world’s distribution of earthquakes coincides very closely with that of volcanoes.
 Regions of greatest seismicity are Circum-Pacific areas, with the epicentres and the
most frequent occurrences along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire.
 It is said that as many as 70 per cent of earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific
belt.
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 Another 20 per cent of earthquakes take place in the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt

including Asia Minor, the Himalayas and parts of north-west China.
 Elsewhere, the earth’s crust is relatively stable and is less prone to earthquakes,
though nowhere can be said to be immune to earth tremors.
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Volcanos in India
 There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or in the Indian peninsula.
 Barren Island, lying 135 km north-east of Port Blair became active again in 1991
and 1995. After its activity in the nineteenth century, it passed through a mild
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solfataric stage as evidenced by the sublimations of sulphur on the walls of the

crater.
 The other volcanic island in Indian territory is Narcondam, about 150 km north-east
of Barren Island; it is probably extinct. Its crater wall has been completely destroyed.

Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes

 Before a volcano becomes extinct, it passes through a waning stage during which
steam and other hot gases and vapours are exhaled. These are known as fumaroles
or solfataras.
 The Barren Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, Vesuvius (Italy) and
Krakatao (Indonesia) which were thought to be extinct, erupted recently and stayed
active for few years and are now in dormant stage.
 Krakatao volcano became active in 1883, killing 36,000 people in West Java. Today,
Krakatao is no more than a low island with a caldera lake inside its crater.

Some significant Volcanic Eruptions

 In the history of mankind perhaps the most disastrous eruptions were those of Mt.
Vesuvius, Mt. Krakatau and Mt. Pelee.

Mt. Vesuvius
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 Mt. Vesuvius is a Stratovolcano (composite volcano) in Italy.

 Mt. Vesuvius, standing 4,000 feet above the Bay of Naples, erupted violently in A.D.
79.
 The city of Pompeii, located to the south-west, was buried beneath twenty feet of
volcanic ashes cemented by the torrential downpours of heavy rain.
 Fertility of the solidified Volcanic ashes tempted many farmers to begin anew on the
slopes of Vesuvius.
 Then came the catastrophic eruption of December 1631, ruined fifteen towns and
killed inhabitants.

Mt. Krakatau
 The greatest volcanic explosion known to men is perhaps that of Mt. Krakatau in
August 1883.
 Krakatau is a small volcanic island in the Sunda Straits, between Java and Sumatra.
 The explosion could be heard in Australia, almost 3,000 miles away.
 Though Krakatau itself was not inhabited and nobody was killed by the lava flows,
the vibration set up enormous waves over 100 feet high which drowned 36,000
people in the coastal districts of Indonesia.

Mt. Pelee
 The eruption of Mt. Pelee of the West Indies in May 1902 was the most catastrophic
of modem times.
 St. Pierre, the capital of Martinique, lying on the path of the lava, was completely
destroyed within minutes.
 Its entire population of 30,000 was killed almost instantly.
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Volcanic Landforms
 Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms based on
weather magma cools within the crust or above the crust.
 Rocks formed by cooling of magma within the crust are called ‘Plutonic rocks’.
 Rocks formed by cooling of lava above the surface are called ‘Igneous rocks’.
 In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to refer all rocks of volcanic origin.

Extrusive Volcanic Landforms

 Extrusive landforms are formed from material thrown out during volcanic activity.
 The materials thrown out during volcanic activity includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris,
volcanic bombs, ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur
compounds and minor amounts of chlorine, hydrogen and argon.

Conical Vent and Fissure Vent

 A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent through which magma flows out violently.
Conical vents are common in andesitic (composite or stratovolcano) volcanism.
 A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure or eruption fissure, is a narrow, linear
volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive activity.
The vent is often a few meters wide and may be many kilometers long. Fissure vents are
common in basaltic volcanism.

Read more: Volcanism – Andesitic, Basaltic-Geyser, Hot Water Spring

Mid-Ocean Ridges
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 These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more
than 70,000 km long that stretches through all the ocean basins. The central portion of
this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.
 The lava is basaltic in nature (Less silica and hence less viscous).
 Cools slowly and flows through longer distances.
 The lava here is responsible for see floor spreading.

Read more: See Floor Spreading – Paleomagnetism – Convectional Current Theory

Composite Type Volcanic Landforms

 They are conical or central type volcanic landforms.
 Along with andesitic lava, large quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes find their
way to the ground.
 Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic material accumulates in the vicinity of the vent
openings leading to formation of layers, and this makes the mounts appear as composite
volcanoes.
 The highest and most common volcanoes have composite cones.
 They are often called strato - volcanoes.
 Mt. Stromboli 'Lighthouse of the Mediterranean’, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji etc. are
examples.

Shield Type Volcanic Landforms

 The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous examples.
 These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when
erupted.
 These volcanoes are not steep.
 They become explosive if somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, they are less
explosive.
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 Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii).

Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms [Lava Plateaus]

 Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures in the earth's
surface and flows after intervals for a long time, spreading over a vast area, finally
producing a layered, undulating (wave like), flat surface.
 Example: Deccan traps (peninsular India), Snake Basin, U.S.A, Icelandic Shield,
Canadian Shield etc..
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Caldera Lake
 After the eruption of magma has ceased, the crater frequently turns into a lake at a later
time. This lake is called a 'caldera'. Examples: Lonar in Maharashtra and Krakatao in
Indonesia.

Cinder cone
 A cinder cone is a steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as either
volcanic clinkers, cinders, volcanic ash, or scoria that has been built around a volcanic
vent.

Intrusive Volcanic Landforms

 Intrusive landforms are formed when magma cools within the crust [Plutonic rocks
(intrusive igneous rock)].
 The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives rise to various forms.

Batholiths
 These are large rock masses formed due to cooling down and solidification of hot magma
inside the earth.
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 They appear on the surface only after the denudation processes remove the overlying
materials.
 Batholiths form the core of huge mountains and may be exposed on surface after
erosion.
 These are granitic bodies.

Laccoliths
 These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies connected by a pipe-like conduit from
below.
 These are basically intrusive counterparts of an exposed domelike batholith.
 The Karnataka plateau is spotted with dome hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now
exfoliated, are examples of laccoliths or batholiths.

Lapolith
 As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a
horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get rested in different forms.
In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called Lapolith.

Phacolith
 A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top
of anticline in folded igneous country.
 Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of magma
chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths). These are called the Phacoliths.

Sills
 These are solidified horizontal lava layers inside the earth.
 The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet,
depending on the thickness of the material.
 The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.

Dykes
 When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it
solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
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 It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are
called dykes.
 These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the
Deccan traps.
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In this post we will study about Volcanism Types – Exhalative, Effusive, Explosive and
Subaqueous Volcanism.

 Basically, four types of volcanism can be identified.

1. Exhalative (vapor or fumes)
2. Effusive (Lava outpouring)
3. Explosive (Violent ejection solid material)
4. Subaqueous Volcanism

Exhalative (vapor or fumes)

This includes the discharge of material in gaseous form, such as

 steam, fumes and

 Hydrochloric acid
 Ammonium chloride
 Sulphur dioxide
 Carbon dioxide
 Carbon monoxide.
 Hydrogen sulphide
 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 These gases may escape through vents which are in the form of hot springs, geysers,
fumaroles and solfataras.
 This kind of volcanism indicates the volcano is reaching its extinction.
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 Associated landforms ==> sinter mounds, cones of precipitated minerals and mud
volcanoes.

Effusive (Lava outpouring)

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 Effusive: Geology relating to or denoting igneous rocks poured out as lava and later
solidified.
 This type of activity refers to abundant outpourings of lava from a vent or fissure.
 Lava is silica poor basic one like basalt. Hence flows through larger distances.
 The Deccan traps, which are composed of such lavas today, cover an area of 5,00,000
square km. The original extent of the formation must have been at least 14 lakh square
km.
 Columnar structure is sometimes developed in fine-grained plateau basalts.
 Columnar basalts are seen in the Deccan traps near Bombay.
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Explosive (Violent ejection of solid material)

 This type of activity results in fragmentation and ejection of solid material through
vents.
 Volcanic eject that settle out of air or water are sometimes called pyroclastic sediments.
 Tephra: all fragmented ejects from the volcanoes.
 Ash: The finest sand-sized tephra
 Lappilli: These are gravel sized particles either in molten or solid state.
 Blocks: Cobble or boulder-sized solid ejecta.
 Bombs: a lump of lava thrown out by a volcano.
 Tuff: Layers of volcanic dust and ashes
 Smaller particles like lapilli and ash travel through air for many kilometres and may
remain suspended in the air for a long time.
 The heavier particles like bombs and blocks fall only as far from the vent or fissure as
the explosive force is able to hurl them.
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Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction

 The volcanic gases that pose the greatest potential hazard to people, animals,
agriculture, and property are sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
fluoride etc..
 Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can lead to acid rain and air pollution downwind from a
volcano.
 Globally, large explosive eruptions that inject a tremendous volume of sulfur aerosols
into the stratosphere can lead to lower surface temperatures and promote depletion
of the Earth's ozone layer.
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Subaqueous Volcanism
 This type of volcanic activity takes places below the surface of water.
 When lava flows over the deep ocean floor or is otherwise in contact with water, it
consolidates to produce a structure like that of a heap of pillows
 Pillow lava of Pre-Cambrian Age are found in parts of Karnataka.
 Highly viscous lavas erupted at lesser depths develop glassy margins on pillows. The
related volcanic product is hyaloclastite. Most hyaloclastites identified are in Iceland.
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Eruptive Volcanism Types

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 Based on the typical pattern or mode of eruptions:

Hawaiian Eruption or Icelandic Eruption

 It involves the effusive outpouring of basalt lava from craters, lava lakes or fissures.
 A single flow spreads widely over open slopes or flows down the valleys as lava rivers.
 Little gas or tephra is produced.
 Examples: The great basalt plateaus of Columbia and Iceland.

Strombolian Eruption
 In this case, more viscous lava is ejected upward in a fountain like fashion from a lava
lake in the crater at regular intervals of around 15 minutes.
 Stromboli lies in the Lipari Islands near Italy.
 It is called the ‘lighthouse of the Mediterranean’.

Vulcanian Eruption
 The eruption in this mode is explosive.
 The molten lava which fills the crater solidifies and is explosively ejected as a great
cauliflower cloud of dark tephra.
 Bombs, blocks, lapilli and other ejecta fall in the surrounding area.
 Only minor lava flows result.
 After each eruption cycle, the volcano is dormant for decades or for centuries.

Pelean Eruption
 This type of eruption is the result of very viscous, gas-rich, acidic lava flowing violently
over the crater rim or breaking out laterally.
 Hot gas and lava mixture is not carried skyward to become cold tephra but spreads
downslope as a nuce ardente, continuing to evolve gas that cushions the flowing
fragments.

Icelandic volcano
 The Icelandic type is characterized by effusions of molten basaltic lava that flow from
long, parallel fissures. Such outpourings often build lava plateaus.
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Types of Volcanoes based on frequency of eruptions

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Active volcano Dormant volcano Extinct or Ancient volcano

Erupt fairly 1. Eruption has not occurred

regularly recently.
1. Eruption has been
frequently 2. Undergo long intervals of
recorded in historic
repose times

Vesuvius in Italy; Fujiyama in Japan; Mt Kenya and Klimanjaro, in Eastern

1. Mount St Helens in US Washington Krakatao in Indonesia, and the part of Africa; Chimborajo in Equador;
2. Mount Merapi in Indonesia Narcondam Island of the Andaman & Popa in Myanmar; and Aconcagua in
Nicobar Andes mountains.

In this post we will study about Hotspot Volcanism. Understanding Hotspot volcanism is
important to understand the Formation of Hawaiian Islands and Islands of Indian Ocean
such as the Lakshadweep islands, Reunion islands, Chagos archipelago etc.

Previous posts on Volcanism:

Volcanism – Andesitic, Basaltic-Geyser, Hot Water Spring

Volcanic Landforms – Extrusive and Intrusive

Volcanism Types – Exhalative, Effusive, Explosive, Subaqueous

Hotspot Volcanism
 In the previous posts, we have studied about volcanism at convergent and divergent
boundaries.

Ocean – Ocean Convergence – Island Arc Formation

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Continent – Ocean Convergence – Formation of Andes, Rockies

Continent – Continent Convergence: Formation of Himalayas

Divergent Boundary – African Rift System Formation

 Hotspot Volcanism is somewhat different from the other types because this type of
volcanism occurs not at the margins but at the interior parts of the lithospheric plates.
 Well known examples include Hawaiian Hotspot Volcanism, Yellowstone Hotspot
Volcanism and Reunion Hotspot Volcanism.

Hot spot
 A hot spot is a region within the Earth’s mantle from which heat rises through the
process of convection.
 This heat facilitates the melting of rock at the base of the lithosphere, where the brittle,
upper portion of the mantle meets the Earth’s crust.
 The melted rock, known as magma, often pushes through cracks in the crust to form
volcanoes.

Mantle plumes
 Hot spot volcanism is unique because it does not occur at the boundaries of Earth’s
tectonic plates, where all other volcanism occurs.
 Instead it occurs at abnormally hot centers known as mantle plumes. Mantle plumes are
exceptionally hot areas fixed deep below the Earth’s crust.

Hotspot volcano chain

 A volcano above a hot spot does not erupt forever. Attached to the tectonic plate below,
the volcano moves and is eventually cut off from the hot spot.
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 Without any source of heat, the volcano becomes extinct and cools. This cooling causes
the rock of the volcano and the tectonic plate to become more dense.
 Over time, the dense rock sinks and erodes. A new and active volcano develops over the
hot spot creating a continuous cycle of volcanism, forming a volcanic arc.

Hotspot volcanic landforms

 Volcanic activity at hot spots can create submarine mountains known as seamounts.
 Hot spot seamounts that reach the surface of the water can create entire chains of
islands, such as the U.S. state of Hawaii.
 Reunion islands near Madagascar is also an example of volcanic hotspot.
 Hot spots can also develop beneath continents. The Yellowstone hot spot, for example,
has produced a series of volcanic features that extend in a northeastern direction.

Reunion Hotspot Volcanism

 The Reunion hotspot is a volcanic hotspot which currently lies under the Island of
Reunion in the Indian Ocean.
 The Chagos-Laccadive Ridge (Lakshadweep is a part of this ridge) and the southern
part of the Mascarene Plateau are volcanic traces of the Reunion hotspot.
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 The hotspot is believed to have been active for over 66 million years. A huge eruption
of this hotspot 66 million years ago is thought to have laid down the Deccan Traps, a
vast bed of basalt lava that covers part of central India, and opened a rift which
separated India from the Seychelles Plateau.
 As the Indian plate drifted north, the hotspot continued to punch through the plate,
creating a string of volcanic islands and undersea plateaus.
 The Laccadive Islands, the Maldives, and the Chagos Archipelago are atolls resting on
former volcanoes created 60-45 million years ago that subsequently submerged below
sea level.
 About 45 million years ago the mid-ocean rift crossed over the hotspot, and the
hotspot passed under the African Plate.
 The hotspot appears to have been relatively quiet from 45-10 million years ago, when
activity resumed, creating the Mascarene Islands, which include Mauritius, Reunion,
and Rodrigues.

Distribution of Hotspot Volcanism

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In this post we will study about Earthquakes – Types of Seismic Waves or Earthquake
waves.

Earthquakes

 An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the sudden
movement of a part of the earth’s crust. They result from the sudden release of energy in
the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves or earthquake waves.
 About 50,000 earthquakes large enough to be noticed without the aid of instruments
occur annually over the entire Earth. Of these, approximately 100 are of sufficient size
to produce substantial damage if their centers are near areas of habitation.

Terms associated with earthquakes

Focus

 The place of origin of an earthquake inside the earth.

Epicenter

 Point on the earth’s surface vertically above the focus.

 Maximum damage is caused at the epicenter.

Wave Velocity

 5 to 8 km per second through the outer part of the crust but travel faster with depth.

Isoseismic Line

 A line connecting all points on the surface of the earth where the intensity is the same.
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Causes of Earthquakes
 Most earthquakes are causally related to compressional or tensional stresses built up at
the margins of the huge moving lithospheric plates.
 The immediate cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along
a fault, or fracture in the earth's crust.
 Sudden slipping of rock formations along faults and fractures in the earth’s crust
happen due to constant change in volume and density of rocks due to intense
temperature and pressure in the earth’s interior.
 Volcanic activity also can cause an earthquake but the earthquakes of volcanic origin
are generally less severe and more limited in extent than those caused by fracturing of
the earth’s crust.
 Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults, narrow zones where rock masses
move in relation to one another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the
fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust.
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 Plate tectonics: Slipping of land along the fault line along, convergent, divergent and
transform boundaries cause earthquakes. Example: San Andreas Fault is a transform
fault where Pacific plate and North American plate move horizontally relative to each
other causing earthquakes along the fault lines.

Human Induced Earthquakes

 Some earthquakes are human induced.
 Earthquakes in the reservoir region, mining sites etc. are human induced.

Some Earthquake inducing human activities

 Deep mining
 Underground nuclear tests
 Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS)
 Extraction of fossil fuels
 Groundwater extraction
 Artificial induction
 In fluid injection, the slip is thought to be induced by premature release of elastic strain,
as in the case of tectonic earthquakes, after fault surfaces are lubricated by the liquid.

Volcanic Earthquakes
 A separate type of earthquake is associated with volcanic activity and is called a volcanic
earthquake.
 Yet it is likely that even in such cases the disturbance is the result of a sudden slip of
rock masses adjacent to the volcano and the consequent release of elastic strain energy.
 The stored energy, however, may in part be of hydrodynamic origin due to heat provided
by magma moving in reservoirs beneath the volcano or to the release of gas under
pressure.
 There is a clear correspondence between the geographic distribution of volcanoes and
major earthquakes, particularly in the Circum-Pacific Belt and along oceanic ridges.
 Volcanic vents, however, are generally several hundred kilometres from the epicenters of
most major shallow earthquakes, and many earthquake sources occur nowhere near
active volcanoes.
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 Even in cases where an earthquake’s focus occurs directly below structures marked by
volcanic vents, there is probably no immediate causal connection between the two
activities; most likely both are the result of the same tectonic processes.

Seismic Waves or Earthquake Waves

 The slipping of land generates seismic waves and these waves travel in all directions.
 Earthquake is any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic
waves through Earth’s rocks. (Earthquake is caused by vibrations in rocks. And the
vibrations in rocks are produced by seismic waves)
 Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is
suddenly released, usually when masses of rock straining against one another suddenly
fracture and “slip.”

Types of Seismic Waves

 Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.
 Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all
directions travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called
surface waves. These waves move along the surface.
 The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different elasticity
(stiffness) (Generally density with few exceptions). The more elastic the material is, the
higher is the velocity. Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming
across materials with different densities.
 There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.
1. Primary waves or P waves (longitudinal)(fastest)
2. Secondary waves or S waves (transverse)(least destructive)
3. Surface waves or L waves (transverse)(slowest)(most destructive)
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Primary Waves (P waves)

 Also called as the longitudinal or compressional waves.
 Analogous to sound waves.
 Particles of the medium vibrate along the direction of propagation of the wave.
 P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface.
 These waves are of high frequency.
 They can travel in all mediums.
 Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases.
 Their velocity depends on shear strength or elasticity of the material.

[We usually say that the speed of sound waves depends on density. But there are few
exceptions. For example: Mercury (liquid metal) has density greater than Iron but speed of
sound in mercury is lesser compared to that in iron. This is because the shear strength of
mercury is very low (this is why mercury is liquid) compared to that of iron.]

Secondary Waves (S waves)

 Also called as transverse or distortional waves.
 Analogous to water ripples or light waves.
 S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag.
 A secondary wave cannot pass through liquids or gases.
 These waves are of high frequency waves.
 Travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid part of the
Earth's crust, mantle.

Surface Waves (L waves)

 Also called as long period waves.
 They are low frequency, long wavelength, and transverse vibration.
 Generally affect the surface of the Earth only and die out at smaller depth.
 Develop in the immediate neighborhood of the epicenter.
 They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.
 These waves are the most destructive.
 Recoded last on the seismograph.

Earthquakes based on the depth of Focus

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 Wadati Benioff zone is a zone of subduction along which earthquakes are common.
 A Wadati–Benioff zone is a zone of seismicity corresponding with the down-going slab
in a subduction zone (Convergent Boundary).
 Differential motion along the zone produces numerous earthquakes.
 Shallow focus earthquakes (most common at submarine ridges. Hardly felt)
 Intermediate focus earthquakes (somewhat severe)
 Deep focus earthquakes (Occurs at trenches – convergent boundary. Very powerful.
Japan lies along trench line. Hence it faces devastating earthquakes)

 Shallow focus earthquakes are called crustal earthquakes as they exist in the earth’s
crustal layer.
 Deep focus earthquakes are known as intra plate earthquakes, as they are triggered off
by collision between plates.
 Shallow-focus earthquakes occur at depths less than 70 km, while deep-focus
earthquakes occur at greater focal depths of 300 – 700 km.
 Shallow focus earthquakes are found within the earth’s outer crustal layer, while deep
focus earthquakes occur within the deeper subduction zones of the earth.
 Shallow focus earthquakes are of smaller magnitudes, of a range 1 to 5, while deep
focus earthquakes are of higher magnitudes, 6 to 8 or more.

Distribution of Earthquakes
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 Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic
plates.
 The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many
populated coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean—for example, those of New Zealand,
New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and
South America.
 The seismic activity is by no means uniform throughout the belt, and there are a
number of branches at various points. Because at many places the Circum-Pacific Belt
is associated with volcanic activity, it has been popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring of
Fire.” The Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for about 68 per cent of all earthquakes.
 A second belt, known as the Alpine Belt (Himalayas and Alps). The energy released in
earthquakes from this belt is about 15 percent of the world total. The mid-world
mountain belt (Alpine Belt) extends parallel to the equator from Mexico across the
Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea from Alpine-Caucasus ranges' to the Caspian,
Himalayan mountains and the adjoining lands. This zone has folded mountains, large
depressions and active volcanoes.
 There also are striking connected belts of seismic activity, mainly along oceanic ridges—
including those in the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the western Indian Ocean—
and along the rift valleys of East Africa.
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Effects of Earthquakes
 Earthquakes cause landslides, damming of rivers, depressions which form lakes.
 They can cause submergence and emergence of landforms along coastal regions.
Example: Coastline of Kutch.
 Lead to change in surface drainage and underground circulation of water.
 More devastating features of earthquakes are fires and seismic waves (tsunamis).
 Formation of cracks or fissures especially in the region of the epicenter is common.

Post 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the word “Tsunami” took a center stage among all
natural calamities. Though their number is small compared to other calamities, the havoc
they cause is considerable. The latest is the Japan Earthquake & Tsunami of 2011 which
caused a death of more than 15,000 individuals. The tsunami caused nuclear accidents,
primarily the meltdowns at three reactors in the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant
complex, raising questions about nuclear safety in the events of natural calamities.

Tsunami
 Tsunami is a Japanese word for “Harbour wave”. They are also known as seismic sea
waves.
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 They are very long-wavelength water waves in oceans or seas. They are commonly
referred to as tidal waves because of long wavelengths, although the attractions of the
Moon and Sun play no role in their formation.
 They sometimes come ashore to great heights – tens of metres above mean tide level –
and may be extremely destructive.

What causes Tsunami?

 A tsunami can be caused by any disturbance that displaces a large water mass from
its equilibrium position.
 The usual immediate cause of a tsunami is sudden displacement in a seabed due to
submarine earthquakes sufficient to cause the sudden raising or lowering of a large
body of water. The tsunami on December 26, 2004 was caused after an earthquake
displaced the seabed off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
 Large volcanic eruptions along shorelines, such as Krakatoa (1883 CE), have also
produced notable tsunamis.
 A marine volcanic eruption can generate an impulsive force that displaces the water
column and gives birth to a tsunami.
 During a submarine landslide, the equilibrium sea-level is altered by sediment
moving along the floor of the sea. Gravitational forces then propagate a tsunami.
 Landslides along the coast, high intensity explosions can also cause tsunami.
 Most destructive tsunamis can be caused due to the fall of extra-terrestrial objects on
to the earth.

Mechanism in Earthquake induced Tsunami’s

 An undersea earthquake causes buckling of the sea floor, something that occurs at
subduction zones, places where drifting plates that constitute the outer shell of the
earth converge and the heavier oceanic plate subducts below the lighter continents.
 As a plate plunges into the interior of the earth it gets stuck against the edge of a
continental plate for a while, when stresses build up, then the locked zone gives way.
Parts of the ocean floor then snap upward and other areas sink downward.
 In the instant after the quake, the sea surface shape resembles the contours of the
seafloor. But then gravity acts to return the sea surface to its original shape. The
ripples then race outward and a tsunami is caused.
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Propagation of tsunami waves

 The long gravity tsunami waves are caused by two interacting processes.
1. There is the slope of the sea surface which creates a horizontal pressure force.
2. Then there is the piling up or lowering of sea surface as water moves in varying
speeds in the direction that the wave form is moving. These processes together create
propagating waves.
 As a tsunami leaves deep waters and propagates into the shallow waters, it
transforms. This is because as the depth of the water decreases, the speed of the
tsunami reduces. But the change of total energy of the tsunami remains constant.
 With decrease in speed, height of the tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which was
imperceptible in deep water may grow to many metres high and this is called the
‘shoaling’ effect.
 Sometimes, the sea seems to at first draw a breath but then this withdrawal is
followed by arrival of the crest of a tsunami wave. Tsunamis have been known to
occur suddenly without warning.
 In some cases there are several great waves separated by intervals of several minutes
or more. The first of these waves is often preceded by an extraordinary recession of
water from the shore, which may commence several minutes or even half an hour
beforehand.
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Properties of Tsunami Waves

 Tsunamis are a series of waves of very, very long wavelengths and period created in
oceans by an impulsive disturbance.
 Tsunamis are different from the wind-generated waves which usually have a period of
five to twenty seconds.
 Tsunamis behave as shallow-water waves because of their long wavelengths. They
have a period in the range of ten minutes to two hours and a wavelength exceeding
500 km.
 The rate of energy loss of a wave is inversely related to its wavelength. So tsunamis
lose little energy as they propagate because of their very large wavelength.
 So they will travel at high speeds in deep waters and travel great distances as well
losing little energy. A tsunami that occurs 1000 metres deep in water has a speed of
356 km per hour.
 At 6000 m, it travels at 873 km per hour.
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 It travels at different speeds in water: it travels slow in water that is shallow and fast
in deep water.

Normal waves vs Tsunami waves

Tsunami waves are not noticed by ships far out at sea

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 As tsunami waves are long wavelength waves, they cannot be perceived in deep oceans.
Their amplitude is negligible when compared with their wavelength and hence the waves
go unnoticed in deep oceans.
 When tsunamis approach shallow water, however, the wave amplitude increases
(conservation of energy). The waves may occasionally reach a height of 20 to 30 metres
above mean sea level in U- and V-shaped harbours and inlets (funneling effect).

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

 Tsunami or the Harbour wave struck havoc in the Indian Ocean on the 26th of
December 2004.
 The wave was the result of earthquake that had its epicenter near western boundary
of Sumatra.
 The magnitude of the earthquake was 9.0 on the Richter scale.

Plate tectonics
 Indian plate went under the Burma plate, there was a sudden movement of the sea
floor, causing the earthquake.
 The ocean floor was displaced by about 10 – 20m and tilted in a downwardly
direction.
 A huge mass of ocean water flowed to fill in the gap that was being created by the
displacement.
 This marked the withdrawal of the water mass from the coastlines of the landmasses
in the south and Southeast Asia.
 After thrusting of the Indian plate below the Burma plate, the water mass rushed
back towards the coastline as tsunami.

Tsunami waves
 Tsunami traveled at a speed of about 800 km. per hour, comparable to speed of
commercial aircraft and completely washed away some of the islands in the Indian
ocean.
 The Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar islands that marked the southernmost
point of India got completely submerged.
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 As the wave moved from earthquake epicenter from Sumatra towards the Andaman
Islands and Sri Lanka the wave length decreased with decreasing depth of water.
The travel speed also declined from 700-900 km. per hour to less than 70 km. per
hour.
 Tsunami waves traveled up to a depth of 3 km from the coast killing more than
10,000 people and affected more than lakh of houses.
 In India, the worst affected were the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Pondicherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
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Occurrence
 Subduction zones off Chile, Nicaragua, Mexico and Indonesia have created killer
tsunamis.
 The Pacific among the oceans has witnessed most number of tsunamis (over 790
since 1990).

Shifts in Geography
 Tsunamis and earthquakes can cause changes in geography.
 The December 26 earthquake and tsunami shifted the North Pole by 2.5 cm in the
direction of 145 degrees East longitude and reduced the length of the day by 2.68
microseconds.
 This in turn affected the velocity of earth’s rotation and the Coriolis force which plays
a strong role in weather patterns.
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 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands may have (moved by about 1.25 m owing to the
impact of the colossal earthquake and the tsunami.

Warning Systems
 While the earthquake cannot be predicted in advance, it is possible to give a three-
hour notice of a potential tsunami.
 Such early warning systems are in place across the Pacific Ocean. Post 2004, they
were installed in Indian Ocean as well.
 In 1965, early warning system was started by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). The member states of the NOAA include the major Pacific
Rim countries.
 NOAA has developed the ‘Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis’
(DART) gauge.
 Each gauge has a very sensitive pressure recorder on the sea floor. Data is generated
whenever changes in water pressure occur.
 The data is transmitted to a surface buoy which then relays it over satellite.
 Computer systems at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) in Hawaii
monitors data.
 Based on the data, warnings are issued.
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India’s preparedness
 The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian
Ocean post 2014.
 The Indian government plans to set up a network with Indonesia, Myanmar and
Thailand etc..
 A National Tsunami Early Warning Centre, which has the capability to detect
earthquakes of more than 6 magnitude in the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in
2007 in India.
 Set up by the Ministry of Earth Sciences in the Indian National Centre for Ocean
Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad, the tsunami warning system would
take 10-30 minutes to analyze the seismic data following an earthquake.
Tsunami

 Tsunami or harbor waves are high energy waves caused due to submarine earthquakes.
 These waves cause a lot of destruction in the coastal areas.

What causes Tsunamis

 A tsunami can be caused by any disturbance that displaces a large water mass from its
equilibrium position.
 An undersea earthquake causes buckling of the sea floor, something that occurs at
subduction zones, places where drifting plates that constitute the outer shell of the
earth converge and the heavier oceanic plate dips below the lighter continents.
 As a plate plunges into the interior of the earth it gets stuck against the edge of a
continental plate for a while, when stresses build up, then the locked zone gives way.
 Parts of the ocean floor then snap upward and other areas sink downward. In the
instant after the quake, the sea surface shape resembles the contours of the seafloor.
But then gravity acts to return the sea surface to its original shape. The ripples then
race outward and a tsunami is caused.
Other factors

 During a submarine landslide, the equilibrium sea-level is altered by sediment moving

along the floor of the sea. Gravitational forces then propagate a tsunami.
 Again, a marine volcanic eruption can generate an impulsive force that displaces the
water column and gives birth to a tsunami.
 Above water, landslides and objects in space are capable of disturbing the water when
the falling debris, like meteorites, displace the water from its equilibrium position.
Propagation of tsunami waves

 The long gravity tsunami waves are caused by two interacting processes.
 There is the slope of the sea surface which creates a horizontal pressure force.
 Then there is the piling up or lowering of sea surface as water moves in varying speeds
in the direction that the wave form is moving. These processes together create
propagating waves.
 As a tsunami leaves deep waters and propagates into the shallow waters, it transforms.
This is because as the depth of the water decreases, the speed of the tsunami reduces.
But the change of total energy of the tsunami remains constant. With decrease
in speed, height of the tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which was imperceptible in
deep water may grow to many metres high and this is called the ‘shoaling’ effect.
 Sometimes, the sea seems to at first draw a breath but then this withdrawal is followed
by arrival of the crest of a tsunami wave. Tsunamis have been known to occur suddenly
without warning.
Properties of Tsunami Waves

 Tsunamis are a series of waves of very, very long wavelengths and period created in
oceans by an impulsive disturbance.
 Tsunamis are shallow-water waves different from the wind-generated waves which
usually have a period of five to twenty seconds which refers to the time between two
successional waves of about 100 to 200 metres.
 Tsunamis behave as shallow-water waves because of their long wavelengths. They
have a period in the range of ten minutes to two hours and a wavelength exceeding 500
km.
 The rate of energy loss of a wave is inversely related to its wavelength. So
tsunamis lose little energy as they propagate as they have a very large wavelength.
  So they will travel at high speeds in deep waters and travel great distances as well losing
little energy. A tsunami that occurs 1000 metres deep in water has a speed of 356 km
per hour.
 At 6000 m, it travels at 873 km per hour.
 It travels at different speeds in water: it travels slow in water that is shallow and fast in
deep water.
 As an average ocean depth of 5000 m is assumed, one talks of tsunamis as having an
average speed of about 750 km per hour.

Normal waves vs Tsunami waves

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

 Tsunami or the harbour wave struck havoc in the Indian Ocean on the 26 December
2004.
 The wave was the result of earthquake that had its epicenter near western boundary of
Sumatra.
 The magnitude of the earthquake was 9.0 on the Richter scale.
Plate tectonics

 Indian plate went under the Burma plate, there was a sudden movement of the sea
floor, causing the earthquake.
 The ocean floor was displaced by about 10 – 20m and tilted in a downwardly direction.
 A huge mass of ocean water flowed to fill in the gap that was being created by the
displacement.
 This marked the withdrawal of the water mass from the coastlines of the landmasses
in the south and Southeast Asia.
 After thrusting of the Indian plate below the Burma plate, the water mass rushed back
towards the coastline.
Tsunami waves

 Tsunami travelled at a speed of about 800km. per hour, comparable to speed of

commercial aircraft and completely washed away some of the islands in the Indian
ocean.
 The Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar islands that marked the southernmost
point of India got completely submerged.
 As the wave moved from earthquake epicenter from Sumatra towards the Andaman
Islands and Sri Lanka the wave length decreased with decreasing depth of water.
The travel speed also declined from 700-900km. per hour to less than 70km. per
hour.
  Tsunami waves travelled upto a depth of 3 km from the coast killing more than 10,000
people and affected more than lakh of houses.
 In India, the worst affected were the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Pondicherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Occurrence

 Subduction zones off Chile, Nicaragua, Mexico and Indonesia have created killer
tsunamis.
 The Pacific among the oceans has witnessed most number of tsunamis (over 790 since
1990).

Effects

Shifts in Geography

 Tsunamis and earthquakes can cause changes in geography.

 The December 26 earthquake and tsunami shifted the North Pole by 2.5 cm in the
direction of 145 degrees East longitude and reduced the length of the day by 2.68
microseconds.
 This in turn affected the velocity of earth’s rotation and the Coriolis force which plays a
strong role in weather patterns.
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands may have (moved by about 1.25 m owing to the
impact of the colossal earthquake and the tsunami.

Warning Systems

 While the earthquake cannot be predicted in advance, it is possible to give a three-hour

notice of a potential tsunami.
 Such early warning systems are in place across the Pacific Ocean, but not in the Indian
Ocean.
 The first indication that tsunami is approaching is the rapid withdrawal of water from
the coastal region, followed by destructive wave.
 1965, warning system started by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA).
 The member states of the NOAA include the major Pacific Rim countries
  Computer systems at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) in Hawaii monitor
data
 NOAA has developed the ‘Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis’ (DART)
gauge.
 Each gauge has a very sensitive pressure recorder on the sea floor
 The data is transmitted to a surface buoy which then relays it over satellite

India’s preapredness

 The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) will be set up.
 The Indian government plans to set up a network with Indonesia, Myanmar and
Thailand.
 DART- type gauges will be installed by the government and it will join 26 countries in a
network
 A National Tsunami Early Warning Centre, which has the capability to detect
earthquakes of more than 6 magnitude in the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in 2007
in India.
 Set up by the Ministry of Earth Sciences in the Indian National Centre for Ocean
Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad, the tsunami warning system would take
10-30 minutes to analyse the seismic data following an earthquake.
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ROCKS
 Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.
 Petrology is science of rocks.

Different kinds of rocks

 Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava.
 Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks.
 Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallization.

Igneous Rocks
 Formed out of magma and lava and are known as primary rocks.
 If molten material is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.
 Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in small and smooth grains.
 Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, etc.are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
 There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive rocks (Granite) and extrusive rocks
(Basalt-Deccan Traps).
 Having their origin under conditions of high temperatures, the igneous rocks are
Unfossiliferous.
 Acid igneous rocks, such as granite, are less dense and are lighter in colour than basic
rocks.

Based on place and time taken in cooling of the molten matter, igneous rocks can be
divided into Plutonic and Volcanic rocks.

Plutonic Rocks or intrusive rocks

 Sometimes, the molten matter is not able to reach the surface and instead cools down
very slowly at great depths.
 Slow cooling allows big-sized crystals (large grains) to be formed.
 Granite is a typical example. These rocks appear on the surface only after being uplifted
and denuded.

Lava or Volcanic Rocks or Extrusive rocks

 These are formed by rapid cooling of the lava thrown out during volcanic eruptions.
 Rapid cooling prevents crystallization, as a result such rocks are fine-grained.
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 Basalt is a typical example. The Deccan traps in the peninsular region is of basaltic
origin.
 Basic rocks contain a greater proportion of basic oxides, e.g. of iron, aluminium or
magnesium, and are thus denser and darker in colour.

Plutonic rocks Volcanic rocks

Intrusive rocks Extrusive rocks
Granite Basalt
Slow cooling allows big-sized crystals (large Rapid cooling prevents crystallization, as a
grains) result such rocks are fine-grained
Less dense and are lighter in colour than Denser and Darker in colour
basic rocks

Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or Intermediate rocks

 These rocks occupy an intermediate position between the deep-seated plutonic bodies
and the surface lava flows.
 Dyke rocks are semi-crystalline in structure.

Based on the presence of acid forming radical, silicon, igneous rocks are divided into
Acid Rocks and Basic Rocks.

Acid Rocks
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 These are characterized by high content of silica—up to 80 per cent, while the rest is
divided among aluminium, alkalis, magnesium, iron oxide, lime etc..
 These rocks constitute the sial portion of the crust.
 Due to the excess of silicon, acidic magma cools fast and it does not flow and spread far
away.
 High mountains are formed of this type of rock.
 These rocks have a lesser content of heavier minerals like iron and magnesium and
normally contain quartz and feldspar.
 Add rocks are hard, compact, massive and resistant to weathering.

Basic Rocks
 These rocks are poor in silica (about 40 per cent); magnesia content is up to 40 per cent
and the remaining 40 per cent is spread over iron oxide, lime, aluminium, alkalis,
potassium etc.
 Due to low silica content, the parent material of such rocks cools slowly and thus, flows
and spreads far away. This flow and cooling gives rise to plateaus.
 Presence of heavy elements imparts to these rocks a dark colour.
 Basalt is a typical example, others being gabbro and dolerite.
 Not being very hard, these rocks are weathered relatively easily.

Acidic rocks Basic rocks

High content of silica—upto 80 per Poor in silica; magnesia content (40 per
cent cent)
Due to the excess of silicon, acidic Due to low silica content, the parent
magma cools fast material of such rocks cools slowly
High Volcanic mountains are formed Forms plateaus. Deccan Traps
of this type of rock. Mt Fuji, Japan
Lesser content of heavier minerals like Presence of heavy elements imparts to
iron and magnesium and normally these rocks a dark colour.
contain quartz and feldspar. Hence
they are lighter in colour
Granite, quartz, feldspar etc. Basalt, gabbro, dolerite etc..
Add rocks are hard, compact, massive Not being very hard, these rocks are
and resistant to weathering. weathered relatively easily.
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Economic Significance of Igneous Rocks

 Since magma is the chief source of metal ores, many of them are associated with
igneous rocks.
 The minerals of great economic value found in igneous rocks are magnetic iron, nickel,
copper, lead, zinc, chromite, manganese, gold, diamond and platinum.
 Amygdales are almond-shaped bubbles formed in basalt due to escape of gases and are
filled with minerals.
 The old rocks of the great Indian peninsula are rich in these crystallised minerals or
metals.
 Many igneous rocks like granite are used as building material as they come in beautiful
shades.

Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary or detrital rocks.
 Formed as a result of denudation (weathering and erosion).
 These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.
 Cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust but volumetrically occupy only 5 per cent.
 They are layered or stratified of varying thickness. Example: sandstone, shale etc.
 Till or Tillite == Ice deposited sedimentary rocks.
 Loess == Wind deposited sediments.

Depending upon the mode of formation, they are classified into

 mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc.

 organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal etc.
 chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite, potash etc..

Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

 Formed by mechanical agents like running water, wind, ocean currents, ice, etc.
 Arenaceous rocks == More sand and big sized particles, and are hard. E.g. sandstone.
 Argillaceous rocks == More clay and are fine-grained, softer, impermeable and non-
porous. They are easily weathered and eroded. E.g. shale.

Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

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 Water containing minerals evaporate at the mouth of springs or salt lakes and give rise
to Stalactites and stalagmites (deposits of lime left over by the lime-mixed water as it
evaporates in the underground caves.

Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

 The remains of plants and animals are buried under sediments and due to heat and
pressure from overlying layers, their composition undergoes a change.
 Coal and limestone are well-known examples.
 Plant remains give rise to coals of different grades depending upon the proportion of
carbon and the degree of overlying pressure.
 The peat and lignite (brown coal) is the first stage of coal having below 45 per cent of
carbon; the bituminous variety is the next stage with 60 per cent carbon.
 Limestone is composed of shells and skeletons of dead marine animals that once lived in
shallow, warm and clear waters of a sea or lake.
 Depending on the predominance of calcium content or the carbon content, sedimentary
rocks may be calcareous (limestone, chalk, dolomite) or carbonaceous (coal).

Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks

 These rocks consist of a number of layers or strata
 These rocks are characterized by marks left behind by water currents and waves etc..
 These rocks have fossils of plants and animals.
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 These rocks are generally porous and allow water to percolate through them.
 Spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India
 Alluvial deposits in the Indo-Gangetic plain and coastal plains is of sedimentary
accumulation.
 These deposits contain loam and clay.
 Different varieties of sandstone are spread over Madhya Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan,
parts of Himalayas, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.
 The great Vindhyan highland in central India consists of sandstones, shales, limestones.
 Coal deposits occur in river basins of the Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari in the
Gondwana sedimentary deposits.

Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks

 Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in minerals of economic value as the igneous rocks.
 But important minerals such as hematite iron ore, phosphates, building stones, coals,
petroleum and material used in cement industry are found.
 The decay of tiny marine organisms yields petroleum. Petroleum occurs in suitable
structures only.
 Important minerals like bauxite, manganese, tin are derived from other rocks but are
found in gravels and sands carried by water. Sedimentary rocks also yield some of the
richest soils.

Metamorphic Rocks
 The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.
 Form under the action of pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes.
 Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes
or when molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the crustal
rocks.
 Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated rocks undergo
recrystallization and reorganization of materials within original rocks.
 In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers
or lines. Such an arrangement is called foliation or lineation.
 Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to
thick layers. Such a structure in is called banding.
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 Gneissoid, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.

Causes of Metamorphism
Orogenic (Mountain Building) Movements

 Such movements often take place with interplay of folding, warping, crumpling and high
temperatures. These processes give existing rocks a new appearance.
 Lava Inflow The molten magmatic material inside the earth’s crust brings the
surrounding rocks under the influence of intense temperature pressure and causes
changes in them.

Geodynamic Forces

 The omnipresent geodynamic forces such as plate tectonics also play an important role
in metamorphism.

On the basis of the agency of metamorphism, metamorphic rocks can be of two types

Thermal Metamorphism
 The change of form or re-crystallisation of minerals of sedimentary and igneous rocks
under the influence of high temperatures is known as thermal metamorphism.
 There may be various sources of the'high temperatures—hot magma, hot gases, vapours
and liquids, geothermal heat etc.
 A magmatic intrusion causing thermal metamorphism is responsible for the peak of Mt.
Everest consisting of metamorphosed limestone.
 As a result of thermal metamorphism, sandstone changes into quartzite and limestone
into marble.

Dynamic Metamorphism
 This refers to the formation of metamorphic rocks under the stress of pressure.
 Sometimes high pressure is accompanied by high temperatures and the action of
chemically charged water.
 The combination of directed pressure and heat is very powerful in producing
metamorphism because it leads to more or less complete recrystallisation of rocks and
the production of new structures. This is known as dynamothermal metamorphism.
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 Under high pressure, granite is converted into gneiss; clay and shale are transformed
into schist.

Some examples of Metamorphosis

Igneous or Sedimentary rock Influence Metamorphosed rock
Granite Pressure Gneiss
Clay, Shale Pressure Schist
Sandstone Heat Quartzite
Clay, Shale Heat Slate ==> Phyllite
Coal Heat Anthracite ==> Graphite
Limestone Heat Marble
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
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Metamorphic Rocks in India

 The gneisses and schists are commonly found in the Himalayas, Assam, West Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
 Quartzite is a hard rock found over Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
areas surrounding Delhi.
 Marble occurs near Alwar, Ajmer, Jaipur, Jodhpur in Rajasthan and parts of Narmada
Valley in Madhya Pradesh.
 Slate, which is used as a roofing material and for writing in schools, is found over
Rewari (Haryana), Kangra (Himachal Pradesh) and parts of Bihar.
 Graphite is found in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

Rock cycle
 Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new
ones.
 Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other rocks form from these rocks.
 Igneous rocks can be changed into sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
 The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary
rocks.
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 Sedimentary and igneous rocks themselves can turn into metamorphic rocks
 The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) may be carried down into the
mantle (interior of the earth) through subduction process and the same melt down and
turn into molten magma, the original source for igneous rocks

Some Rock-Forming Minerals

 Feldspar: Half the crust is composed of feldspar. It has a light colour and its main
constituents are silicon, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium.
 Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline structure.
It is uncleavaged, white or colorless. It cracks like glass and is present in sand and
granite. It is used in manufacture of radio and radar.
 Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it is the Ore of aluminium. It is non-crystalline
and occurs in small pellets.
 Cinnabar: It is mercury sulphide and mercury is derived from it. It has a brownish
colour.
 Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. It is used in cement and iron
and steel industries. It is white in colour.
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 Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate and is used in cement, fertilizer and chemical
industries.
 Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
 Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron oxide) of iron.

Multiple choice questions.

1. Which one of the following are the two main constituents of granite? (a) Iron and nickel
(c) Silica and aluminium (b) Iron and silver (d) Iron Oxide and potassium
2. Which one of the following is the salient feature of metamorphic rocks? (a) Changeable
(c) Crystalline (b) Quite (d) Foliation
3. Which one of the following is not a single element mineral? (a) Gold (c) Mica (b) Silver (d)
Graphite
4. Which one of the following is the hardest mineral? (a) Topaz (c) Quartz (b) Diamond (d)
Feldspar
5. Which one of the following is not a sedimentary rock? (a) Tillite (c) Breccia (b) Borax (d)
Marble
Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms created by the erosional activity of rivers.

Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

 Fluvial landforms and Cycle of Erosion – Deposition Landforms [This Post] and Erosional
Landforms [Next Post].
 Glacial landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Marine landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Arid landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Karst landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

 The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion) or aggradational
work (deposition) of running water are called fluvial landforms.
 The fluvial processes may be divided into three physical phases – erosion, transportation
and deposition.

Fluvial Erosional Landforms

Various Aspects of Fluvial Erosive Action
 Corrasion or abrasion == solid river load striking against rocks and wearing them down.
 Hydration == force of running water wearing down rocks.
 Attrition == river load particles striking, colliding against each other and breaking down
in the process.
 Downcutting == Erosion in vertical direction (downcutting leads to valley deepening) or
 Lateral erosion == Erosion in horizontal direction, especially the walls of the stream.
 Corrosion == Chemical action that leads to weathering.

River Valley Formation

 The extended depression on ground through which a stream flows throughout its course
is called a river valley.
 At different stages of the erosional cycle the valley acquires different profiles.
 At a young stage, the valley is deep, narrow with steep wall-like sides and a convex
slope. The erosional action here is characterized by predominantly vertical
downcutting nature. The profile of valley here is typically ‘V’ shaped.
 A deep and narrow ‘V’ shaped valley is also referred to as gorge and may result due to
downcutting erosion and because of recession of a waterfall. Most Himalayan rivers
pass through deep gorges (at times more than 500 metres deep) before they descend to
the plains.
 An extended form of gorge is called a canyon. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado river
in Arizona (USA) runs for 483 km and has a depth of 2.88 km.
 A tributary valley lies above the main valley and is separated from it by a steep slope
down which the stream may flow as a waterfall or a series of rapids.
 As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion becomes prominent and the valley
floor flattens out. The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’ shaped with a broad base
and a concave slope.


River course
 Youth
 Young rivers (A) close to their source tend to be fast-flowing, high-energy environments
with rapid headward erosion, despite the hardness of the rock over which they may flow.
 Steep-sided "V-shaped' valleys, waterfalls, and rapids are characteristic features.

Maturity
 Mature rivers (B) are lower-energy systems. Erosion takes place on the outside of bends,
creating looping meanders in the soft alluvium of the river plain. Deposition occurs on
the inside of bends and on the river bed.

Old Age
 At a river's mouth (C), sediment is deposited as the velocity of the river slows. As the
river becomes shallower more deposition occurs, forming islands and braiding the main
channel into multiple, narrower channels.
 As the sediment is laid down, the actual mouth of the river moves away from the source
into the sea or lake, forming a delta.
 Head ward erosion == Erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the
origin to move back away from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the
stream channel to lengthen.

Waterfalls
 A waterfall is simply the fall of an enormous volume of water from a great height.
 They are mostly seen in youth stage of river.
 Relative resistance of rocks, relative difference in topographic reliefs, fall in the sea level
and related rejuvenation, earth movements etc. are responsible for the formation of
waterfalls.
 For example, Jog or Gersoppa falls on Sharavati (a tributary of Cauveri) has a fall of
260 metres.
 Pot Holes
 The kettle-like small depressions in the rocky beds of the river valleys are called pot
holes which are usually cylindrical in shape.
 Potholing or pothole-drilling is the mechanism through which the grinding tools
(fragments of rocks, e.g. boulders and angular rock fragments) when caught in the water
eddies or swirling water start dancing in a circular manner and grind and drill the rock
beds of the valleys like a drilling machine.
 They thus form small holes which are gradually enlarged by the repetition of the said
mechanism. The potholes go on increasing in both diameter and depth.

Terraces
 Stepped benches along the river course in a flood plain are called terraces.
 Terraces represent the level of former valley floors and remnants of former (older) flood
plains.

Gulleys/Rills
 Gulley is an incised water-worn channel, which is particularly common in semi-arid
areas.
 It is formed when water from overland-flows down a slope, especially following heavy
rainfall, is concentrated into rills, which merge and enlarge into a gulley.
 The ravines of Chambal Valley in Central India and the Chos of Hoshiarpur in Punjab
are examples of gulleys.

Meanders
 A meander is defined as a pronounced curve or loop in the course of a river channel.
 The outer bend of the loop in a meander is characterized by intensive erosion and
vertical cliffs and is called the cliff-slope side. This side has a concave slope.
 The inner side of the loop is characterized by deposition, a gentle convex slope, and is
called the slip-off side.
 Morphologically, the meanders may be wavy, horse-shoe type or ox-bow/ bracelet type.

Ox-Bow Lake
 Sometimes, because of intensive erosion action, the outer curve of a meander gets
accentuated to such an extent that the inner ends of the loop come close enough to get
disconnected from the main channel and exist as independent water bodies. These water
bodies are converted into swamps in due course of time.
 In the Indo-Gangetic plains, southwards shifting of Ganga has left many ox-bow lakes to
the north of the present course of the Ganga.
 Peneplane (Or peneplain)
 This refers to an undulating featureless plain punctuated with low-lying residual hills of
resistant rocks. It is considered to be an end product of an erosional cycle.
 Peneplain, gently undulating (wave like), almost featureless plain that, in principle,
would be produced by fluvial erosion that would, in the course of geologic time, reduce
the land almost to baselevel (sea level), leaving so little gradient that essentially no more
erosion could occur.
Drainage Patterns
 The typical shape of a river course as it completes its erosional cycle is referred to as the
drainage pattern of a stream.
 A drainage pattern reflects the structure of basal rocks, resistance and strength, cracks
or joints and tectonic irregularity, if any.

Dendric or Pinnate
 This is an irregular tree branch shaped pattern.
 Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi, Cauvery, Krishna.

Trellis
 In this type of pattern the short subsequent streams meet the main stream at right
angles, and differential erosion through soft rocks paves the way for tributaries.
 Examples: Seine and its tributaries in Paris basin (France).
 Rectangular
 The main stream bends at right angles and the tributaries join at right angles creating
rectangular patterns.
 This pattern has a subsequent origin (subsequent drainage – you will study this in
Indian drainage systems). Example: Colorado river (USA).

Angular
 The tributaries join the main stream at acute angles.
 This pattern is common in Himalayan foothill regions.

Parallel
 The tributaries seem to be running parallel to each other in a uniformly sloping region.
 Example: rivers of lesser Himalayas.

Radial
 The tributaries from a summit follow the slope downwards and drain down in all
directions.
 Examples: streams of Saurashtra region and the Central French Plateau, Mt.
Kilimanjaro etc..

Annular
 When the upland has an outer soft stratum, the radial streams develop subsequent
tributaries which try to follow a circular drainage around the summit.
 Example: Black Hill streams of South Dakota.
 Centripetal
 In a low lying basin the streams converge from all sides.
 Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and the Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.

Fluvial Depositional Landforms are landforms created by the depositional activity of rivers.

Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Fluvial landforms and Cycle of Erosion – Erosional Landforms [Previous Post: Fluvial
Erosional Landforms – Drainage Patterns – River Valley] and Depositional Landforms [This
Post].

 Glacial landforms and Cycle of Erosion

 Marine landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Arid landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Karst landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion) or aggradational
work (deposition) of running water are called fluvial landforms.
 The fluvial processes may be divided into three physical phases – erosion, transportation
and deposition.

Fluvial Depositional Landforms

 The depositional action of a stream is influenced by stream velocity and the volume of
river load.
 The decrease in stream velocity reduces the transporting power of the streams which are
forced to leave some load to settle down.
 Increase in river load is effected through accelerated rate of erosion in the source
catchment areas consequent upon deforestation.
 Various landforms resulting from fluvial deposition are as follows:

Alluvial Fans and Cones

 When a stream leaves the mountains and comes down to the plains, its velocity
decreases due to a lower gradient.
 As a result, it sheds a lot of material, which it had been carrying from the mountains, at
the foothills.
 This deposited material acquires a conical shape and appears as a series of continuous
fans. These are called alluvial fans.
 Such fans appear throughout the Himalayan foothills in the north Indian plains.
Natural Levees
 These are narrow ridges of low height on both sides of a river, formed due to deposition
action of the stream, appearing as natural embankments.
 These act as a natural protection against floods but a breach in a levee causes sudden
floods in adjoining areas, as it happens in the case of the Hwang Ho river of China.

Delta
 A delta is a tract of alluvium at the mouth of a river where it deposits more material
than can be carried away.
 The river gets divided into distributaries which may further divide and rejoin to form a
network of channels.

A delta is formed by a combination of two processes:

1. load-bearing capacity of a river is reduced as a result of the check to its speed as it
enters a sea or lake, and
2. clay particles carried in suspension in the river coagulate in the presence of salt water
and are deposited.
 The finest particles are carried farthest to accumulate as bottom-set beds.
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 Depending on the conditions under which they are formed, deltas can be of many types.

Arcuate or Fan-shaped
 This type of delta results when light depositions give rise to shallow, shifting
distributaries and a general fan-shaped profile. Examples: Nile, Ganga, Indus.

Bird’s Foot Delta

 This type of delta emerges when limestone sediment deposits do not allow downward
seepage of water.
 The distributaries seem to be flowing over projections of these deposits which appear as
a bird’s foot.
 The currents and tides are weak in such areas and the number of distributaries lesser
as compared to an arcuate delta. Example: Mississippi river.
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Estuaries
 Sometimes the mouth of the river appears to be submerged. This may be due to a
drowned valley because of a rise in sea level.
 Here fresh water and the saline water get mixed. When the river starts ‘filling its mouth’
with sediments, mud bars, marshes and plains seem to be developing in it.
 These are ideal sites for fisheries, ports and industries because estuaries provide
access to deep water, especially if protected from currents and tides. Example: Hudson
estuary.

Cuspate Delta
 This is a pointed delta formed generally along strong coasts and is subjected to strong
wave action. There are very few or no distributaries in a cuspate delta.
 Example: Tiber river on west coast of Italy.
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Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

 Karst is a landscape which is underlain by limestone which has been eroded by
dissolution, producing towers, fissures, sinkholes, etc.
 It is so named after a province of Yugoslavia on the Adriatic sea coast where such
formations are most noticeable.
 Karst topography is a landscape formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as
limestone, dolomite, and gypsum.
 It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes, caves etc..

Conditions Essential for Full Development of Karst Topography

 Presence of soluble rocks, preferably limestone at the surface or sub-surface level.

 These rocks should be dense, highly jointed and thinly bedded.

Cavern
 This is an underground cave formed by water action by various methods in a
limestone or chalk area.

Arch/Natural Bridge
 When a part of the cavern collapses the portion which keeps standing forms an arch.

Sink Hole/Swallow Hole

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 Sink holes are funnel-shaped depressions having an average depth of three to nine
metres.
 These holes are developed by enlargement of the cracks found in such rocks, as a
result of continuous solvent action of the rainwater.
 The surface streams which sink disappear underground through swallow holes.

Karst Window
 When a number of adjoining sink holes collapse, they form an open, broad area
called a karst window.

Sinking Creeks/Bogas
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 In a valley, the water often gets lost through cracks and fissures in the bed. These are
called sinking creeks, and if their tops are open, they are called bogas.

Stalactite and Stalagmite

 The water containing limestone in solution, seeps through the roof in the form of a
continuous chain of drops.
 A portion of the roof hangs on the roof and on evaporation of water, a small deposit of
limestone is left behind contributing to the formation of a stalactite, growing
downwards from the roof.
 The remaining portion of the drop falls to the floor. This also evaporates, leaving
behind a small deposit of limestone aiding the formation of a stalagmite, thicker and
flatter, rising upwards from the floor.
 Sometimes, stalactite and stalagmite join together to form a complete pillar known as
the column.
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Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

 Sea waves, aided by winds, currents, tides and storms carry on the erosional and
depositional processes.
 The erosive work of the sea depends upon size and strength of waves, slope, height of
the shore between low and high tides, shape of the coast, composition of rocks, depth of
water, human activity etc.
 The wave pressure compresses the air trapped inside rock fissures, joints, faults, etc.
forcing it to expand and rupture the rocks along weak points. This is how rocks undergo
weathering under wave action.
 Waves also use rock debris as instruments of erosion (glaciers are quite good at this).
These rock fragments carried by waves themselves get worn down by striking against the
coast or against one another.
 The solvent or chemical action of waves is another mode of erosion, but it is pronounced
only in case of soluble rocks like limestone and chalk.

Marine Erosional Landforms

Chasms
 These are narrow, deep indentations (a deep recess or notch on the edge or surface of
something) carved due to headward erosion (downcutting) through vertical planes of
weakness in the rocks by wave action.
 With time, further headward erosion is hindered by lateral erosion of chasm mouth,
which itself keeps widening till a bay is formed.
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Wave-Cut Platform
 When the sea waves strike against a cliff, the cliff gets eroded (lateral erosion) gradually
and retreats.
 The waves level out the shore region to carve out a horizontal plane or a wave-cut
platform.
 The bottom of the cliff suffers the maximum intensive erosion by waves and, as a result,
a notch appears at this position.
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Sea Cliff
 Shoreline marked by a steep bank (escarpment, scarp).

Sea Caves
 Differential erosion by sea waves through a rock with varying resistance across its
structure produces arched caves in rocks called sea caves.

Sea Arches
 When waves from opposite directions strike a narrow wall of rock, differential erosion of
the rock leaves a bridge like structure called Sea arch.

Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock
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 When a portion of the sea arch collapses, the remaining column-like structure is called a
stack, skarry or chimney rock.

Hanging Valleys
 If the fluvial erosion of a stream at the shore doesn’t match the retreat of the sea, the
rivers appear to be hanging over the sea. These river valleys are called hanging valleys.

Blow Holes or Spouting Horns

 The burst of water through a small hole on a sea cave due to the compression of air in
the cave by strong waves. They make a peculiar noise.

Plane of Marine Erosion/Peneplain

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 The eroded plain left behind by marine action is called a plain of marine erosion. If the
level difference between this plain and the sea level is not much, the agents of
weathering convert it into a peneplain.

Marine Depositional Landforms

Beach
 This is the temporary covering of rock debris on or along a wave-cut platform.

Bar
 Currents and tidal currents deposit rock debris and sand along the coast at a distance
from the shoreline.
 The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars.
 The enclosed water body so created is called a lagoon.

Barrier
 It is the overwater counterpart of a bar.

Spit and Hook

 A spit is a projected deposition joined at one end to the headland, with the other end
free in the sea.
 The mode of formation is similar to a bar or barrier.
 A shorter spit with one end curved towards the land is called a hook.

Tombolos
 Sometimes, islands are connected to each other by a bar called tombolo.
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Coastlines
 The boundary between the coast (the part of the land adjoining or near the sea) and the
shore (the land along the edge of a sea) is known as the coastline.

Coastlines can be divided into the following classes:

1. Coastline of Emergence
2. Coastline of Submergence
3. Neutral coastline
4. Compound coastline
5. Fault coastline
 Coastline are modified either due to rise or fall in sea levels or upliftment or subsidence
of land, or both.

Coastlines of Emergence
 These are formed either by an uplift of the land or by the lowering of the sea level.
 Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the typical
features.
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 The east coast of India, especially its south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears
to be a coast of emergence.
 The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent. The
northern portion of the coast is submerged as a result of faulting and the southern
portion, that is the Kerala coast, is an example of an emergent coast.
 Coramandal coast == Tamil Nadu Coast == Coastline of emergence
 Malabar coast == Kerala Coast == Coastline of emergence
 Konkan coast == Maharashtra and Goa Coast == Coastline of submergence.
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Coastlines of Submergence
 A submerged coast is produced either by subsidence of land or by a rise in sea level.
 Ria, fjord, Dalmatian and drowned lowlands are its typical features.
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Ria
 When a region is dissected by streams into a system of valleys and divides, submergence
produces a highly irregular shoreline called ria coastline.
 The coast of south-west Ireland is a typical example of ria coastline.

Fjord
 Some coastal regions have been heavily eroded by glacial action and the valley glacier
troughs have been excavated below sea level.
 After the glaciers have disappeared, a fjord coastline emerges.
 These coasts have long and narrow inlets with very steep sides.
 The fjord coasts of Norway are a typical example.
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Dalmatian
 The Dalmatian coasts result by submergence of mountain ridges with alternating crests
and troughs which run parallel to the sea coast.
 The Dalmatian coast of Yugoslavia is a typical example.

Drowned lowland
 A drowned lowland coast is low and free from indentations, as it is formed by the
submergence of a low-lying area.
 It is characterized by a series of bars running parallel to the coast, enclosing lagoons.
 The Baltic coast of eastern Germany is an example of this type of coastline.

Neutral Coastlines
 These are coastlines formed as a result of new materials being built out into the water.
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 The word ‘neutral’ implies that there need be no relative change between the level of sea
and the coastal region of the continent.
 Neutral coastlines include the alluvial fan shaped coastline, delta coastline, volcano
coastline and the coral reef coastline.

Compound Coastlines
 Such coastlines show the forms of two of the previous classes combined, for example,
submergence followed by emergence or vice versa.
 The coastlines of Norway and Sweden are examples of compound coastlines.

Fault Coastlines
 Such coastlines are unusual features and result from the submergence of a downthrown
block along a fault, such that the uplifted block has its steep side (or the faultline)
standing against the sea forming a fault coastline.
Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Fluvial Erosional Landforms [Done]
 Fluvial Depositional Landforms [Previous Post]
 Glacial landforms and Cycle of Erosion [This Post]
 Marine landforms and Cycle of Erosion [Next Post]
 Arid landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Karst landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

 A glacier is a moving mass of ice at speeds averaging few meters a day.
 Types of Glaciers: continental glaciers, ice caps, piedmont glaciers and valley
glaciers.
 The continental glaciers are found in the Antarctica and in Greenland. The biggest
continental ice sheet in Iceland.
 Ice caps are the covers of snow and ice on mountains from which the valley or
mountain glaciers originate.
 The piedmont glaciers form a continuous ice sheet at the base of mountains as in
southern Alaska.
 The valley glaciers, also known as Alpine glaciers, are found in higher regions of the
Himalayas in our country and all such high mountain ranges of the world.
 The largest of Indian glaciers occur in the Karakoram range, viz. Siachen (72 km),
while Gangotri in Uttar Pradesh (Himalayas) is 25.5 km long.
 A glacier is charged with rock debris which are used for erosional activity by moving
ice.
 A glacier during its lifetime creates various landforms which may be classified into
erosional and depositional landforms.
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Glacial Erosional Landforms

Cirque/Corrie
 Hollow basin cut into a mountain ridge.
 It has steep sided slope on three sides, an open end on one side and a flat bottom.
 When the ice melts, the cirque may develop into a tarn lake.

Glacial Trough
 Original stream-cut valley, further modified by glacial action.
 It is a ‘U’ Shaped Valley. It at mature stage of valley formation.
 Since glacial mass is heavy and slow moving, erosional activity is uniform –
horizontally as well as vertically.
 A steep sided and flat bottomed valley results, which has a ‘U’ shaped profile.

Hanging Valley
 Formed when smaller tributaries are unable to cut as deeply as bigger ones and
remain ‘hanging’ at higher levels than the main valley as discordant tributaries.
 A valley carved out by a small tributary glacier that joins with a valley carved out by a
much larger glacier.
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Arete
 Steep-sided, sharp-tipped summit with the glacial activity cutting into it from two
sides.

Horn
 Ridge that acquires a ‘horn’ shape when the glacial activity cuts it from more than
two sides.

D-Fjord
 Steep-sided narrow entrance-like feature at the coast where the stream meets the
coast.
 Fjords are common in Norway, Greenland and New Zealand.

Glacial Depositional Landforms

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Outwash Plain
 When the glacier reaches its lowest point and melts, it leaves behind a stratified
deposition material, consisting of rock debris, clay, sand, gravel etc. This layered
surface is called till plain or an outwash plain.

Esker
 Winding ridge of un-assorted depositions of rock, gravel, clay etc. running along a
glacier in a till plain.
 The eskers resemble the features of an embankment and are often used for making
roads.

Kame Terraces
 Broken ridges or un-assorted depositions looking like hump in a till plain.

Drumlin
 Inverted boat-shaped deposition in a till plain caused by deposition.
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Kettle Holes
 Formed when the deposited material in a till plain gets depressed locally and forms a
basin.

Moraine
 General term applied to rock fragments, gravel, sand, etc. carried by a glacier.
 Depending on its position, the moraine can be ground moraine and end moraine.

Glacial Cycle of Erosion

Youth
 The stage is marked by the inward cutting activity of ice in a cirque.
 Aretes and horns are emerging. The hanging valleys are not prominent at this stage.

Maturity
 Hanging valleys start emerging. The opposite cirques come closer and the glacial
trough acquires a stepped profile which is regular and graded.

Old Age
 Emergence of a ‘U’-shaped valley marks the beginning of old age.
 An outwash plain with features such as eskers, kame terraces, drumlins, kettle holes
etc. is a prominent development.
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Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

 Arid regions are regions with scanty rainfall. Deserts and Semi-arid regions fall under
arid landforms.

Erosional Arid Landforms

Water Eroded Arid Landforms
Rill
 In hill slope geomorphology, a rill is a narrow and shallow channel cut into soil by the
erosive action of flowing water.

Gully
 A gully is a landform created by running water. Gullies resemble large ditches or small
valleys, but are metres to tens of metres in depth and width.

Ravine
 A ravine is a landform narrower than a canyon and is often the product of stream
cutting erosion. Ravines are typically classified as larger in scale than gullies, although
smaller than valleys.
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Badland Topography
 In arid regions occasional rainstorms produce numerous rills and channels which
extensively erode weak sedimentary formations.
 Ravines and gullies are developed by linear fluvial erosion leading to the formation of
badland topography.
 Example: Chambal Ravines.
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Bolsons
 The intermontane basins in dry regions are generally known as bolsons.

Playas
 Three unique landforms viz. pediments, bajadas and playas are typically found in
bolsons.
 Small streams flow into bolsons, where water is accumulated. These temporary lakes
are called playas.
 After the evaporation of water, salt-covered playas are called salinas.
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Pediments
 In form and function there is no difference between a pediment and an alluvial fan;
however, pediment is an erosional landform while a fan is a constructional one.
 A true pediment is a rock cut surface at the foot of mountains.

Bajada
 Bajadas are moderately sloping depositional plains located between pediments and
playa.
 Several alluvial fans coalesce to form a bajada.
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Wind Eroded Arid Landforms

 The wind or Aeolian erosion takes place in the following ways, viz. deflation, abrasion,
and attrition.
 Deflation == removing, lifting and carrying away dry, unsorted dust particles by winds. It
causes depressions known as blow outs.
 Abrasion == When wind loaded with sand grains erodes the rock by grinding against its
walls is called abrasion or sandblasting.
 Attrition == Attrition refers to wear and tear of the sand particles while they are being
transported.

Following are the major landforms produced by wind erosion.

Deflation basins
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 Deflation basins, called blowouts, are hollows formed by the removal of particles by
wind. Blowouts are generally small, but may be up to several kilometers in diameter.

Mushroom rocks
 A mushroom rock, also called rock pedestal or a pedestal rock, is a naturally
occurring rock whose shape, as its name implies, resembles a mushroom.
 The rocks are deformed in a number of different ways: by erosion and weathering,
glacial action, or from a sudden disturbance. Mushroom rocks are related to, but
different from, yardang.

Inselbergs
 A monadnock or inselberg is an isolated hill, knob, ridge, outcrop, or small mountain
that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain.
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Demoiselles
 These are rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks above soft rocks as a result of
differential erosion of hard and soft rocks.

Zeugen
 A table-shaped area of rock found in arid and semi-arid areas formed when more
resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate than softer rocks around it.
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Yardangs
 Ridge of rock, formed by the action of the wind, usually parallel to the prevailing wind
direction.
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Wind bridges and windows

 Powerful wind continuously abrades stone lattices, creating holes. Sometimes the holes
are gradually widened to reach the other end of the rocks to create the effect of a
window—thus forming a wind window. Window bridges, are formed when the holes are
further widened to form an arch-like feature.

Arid Depositional Landforms

 Landforms are also created by the depositional force of wind. These are as follows.

Ripple Marks
 These are depositional features on a small scale formed by saltation (he transport of
hard particles over an uneven surface in a turbulent flow of air or water).
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Sand dunes
 Sand dunes are heaps or mounds of sand found in deserts. Generally their heights vary
from a few metres to 20 metres but in some cases dunes are several hundred metres
high and 5 to 6 km long.

Some of the forms are discussed below:

Longitudinal dunes
 Formed parallel to the wind movement. The windward slope of the dune is gentle
whereas the leeward side is steep. These dunes are commonly found at the heart of
trade-wind deserts like the Sahara, Australian, Libyan, South African and Thar deserts.

Transverse dunes
 Dunes deposited perpendicular (transverse) to the prevailing wind direction.

Barchans
 Crescent shaped dunes. The windward side is convex whereas the leeward side is
concave and steep.

Parabolic dunes
 They are U-shaped and are much longer and narrower than barchans.

Star dunes
 Have a high central peak, radically extending three or more arms.
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Loess
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 In some parts of the world, windblown dust and silt blanket the land. This layer of fine,
mineral-rich material is called loess.
 Extensive loess deposits are found in northern China, the Great Plains of North
America, central Europe, and parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.
 The thickest loess deposits are near the Missouri River in the U.S. state of Iowa and
along the Yellow River in China.
 Loess accumulates, or builds up, at the edges of deserts. For example, as wind blows
across the Gobi, a desert in Asia, it picks up and carries fine particles. These particles
include sand crystals made of quartz or mica. It may also contain organic material, such
as the dusty remains of skeletons from desert animals.
 Loess often develops into extremely fertile agricultural soil. It is full of minerals and
drains water very well. It is easily tilled, or broken up, for planting seeds.
 Loess usually erodes very slowly – Chinese farmers have been working the loess around
the Yellow River for more than a thousand years.
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In this post: Lakes – Classification of Lakes.

Next Post: Important Lakes.

Lakes
 A lake is a body of water of considerable size, localized in a basin, that is surrounded
by land apart from a river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake.
 Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from
lagoons, and are also larger and deeper than ponds.
 Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with
ongoing glaciation.
 Most lakes have at least one natural outflow in the form of a river or stream, which
maintain a lake's average level by allowing the drainage of excess water
 Other lakes are found in endorheic basins. Some lakes do not have a natural outflow
and lose water solely by evaporation or underground seepage or both. They are
termed endorheic lakes.
 The majority of lakes on Earth are fresh water, and most lie in the Northern
Hemisphere at higher latitudes. Canada, Finland and Siberia contain most of the
fresh water lakes.
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Classification of Lakes
Temporary lakes
 Lakes may exist temporarily filling up the small depressions of undulating ground
after a heavy shower.
 In this kind of lakes, Evaporation > Precipitation.
 Example: Small lakes of deserts.
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Permanent lakes
 In this kind of lakes, Evaporation < Precipitation.
 These lakes are deep and carry more water than could ever be evaporated.
 Example: Great Lakes of North America, East African Rift Lakes.

Divergent Boundary – African Rift System Formation

Fresh water lakes

 Most of the lakes in the world are fresh-water lakes fed by rivers and with out-flowing
streams e.g. Great Lakes of North America.

Saline lakes
 Salt lakes (also called saline lakes) can form where there is no natural outlet or where
the water evaporates rapidly and the drainage surface of the water table has a
higher-than-normal salt content.
 Because of the intense evaporation (negative freshwater balance == more water is lost
in evaporation than gained from rivers) these lakes are saline.
 Examples of salt lakes include Great Salt Lake, the Aral Sea and the Dead Sea.
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 For example the Dead Sea has a salinity (salt content) of 250 parts per thousand,
and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, U.S.A. has a salinity of 220 parts per thousand.
 Playas or salt lakes, are a common feature of deserts (recall desert landforms).

Lakes Formed by Earth Movement

Tectonic lakes
 Due to the warping (simple deformation), subsidence (sliding downwards), bending and
fracturing (splitting) of the earth’s crust, tectonic depressions occur. (We have studied all
these terms in previous posts)
 Such depressions give rise to lakes of immense sizes and depths.
 They include Lake Titicaca, and the Caspian Sea.

Rift valley lakes

 A rift valley is formed when two blocks of earth move apart letting the ‘in between’ block
slide downwards. Or, it’s a sunken land between two parallel faults.
 Rift valleys are deep, narrow and elongated. Hence the lakes formed along rift valleys are
also deep, narrow and very long.
 Water collects in troughs (Valley in the rift) and their floors are often below sea level.
 The best known example is the East African Rift Valley which runs through Zambia,
Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia, and extends along the Red Sea to Israel and
Jordan over a total distance of 3,000 miles.
 It includes such lakes as Lakes Tanganyika, Malawi, Rudolf, Edward, Albert, as well
as the Dead Sea 1,286 feet below mean sea level, the world’s lowest lake.
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Lakes Formed by Glaciation

Cirque lakes or tarns
 Cirque is a hollow basin cut into a mountain ridge. It has steep sided slope on three
sides, an open end on one side and a flat bottom.
 When the ice melts, the cirque may develop into a tarn lake.
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Rock-hollow lakes
 The advance and retreat of glaciers can scrape depressions in the surface where water
accumulates; such lakes are common in Scandinavia, Patagonia, Siberia and Canada.
 These are formed by ice-scouring (eroding) when ice sheets scoop out (dig) hollows on
the surface.
 Such lakes of glacial origin are abundant in Finland - Land of Lakes. It is said that there
are over 35,000 glacial lakes in Finland.

Lakes due to morainic damming of valleys

 Valley glaciers often deposit morainic debris across a valley so that lakes are formed
when water accumulates behind the barrier.

Lakes Formed by Volcanic Activity

Crater and caldera lakes
 During a volcanic explosion the top of the cone may be blown off leaving behind a
natural hollow called a crater.
 This may be enlarged by subsidence into a caldera.
 In dormant or extinct volcanoes, rain falls straight into the crater or caldera which
has no superficial outlet and forms a crater or caldera lake.
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 Examples: Lonar in Maharashtra and Krakatao in Indonesia.

Others are Lava-blocked lakes and Lakes due to subsidence of a volcanic land surface.

Lakes Formed by Erosion

Karst lakes
 The solvent action of rain-water on limestone carves out solution hollows. When
these become clogged with debris lakes may form in them.
 The collapse of limestone roofs of underground caverns may result in the exposure of
long, narrow- lakes that were once underground.

Wind-deflated lakes
 The winds in deserts creates hollows. These may reach ground water which seeps out
forming small, shallow lakes. Excessive evaporation causes these to become salt
lakes and playas. Example: Great Basin of Utah, U.S.A.

Lakes Formed by Deposition

Lakes due to river deposits
 Ox-bow lake, e.g. those that occur on the flood-plains of Lower Mississippi, Lower
Ganges etc..

Lakes due to Marine deposits

 Also called Lagoons.
 Example: Lake Chilka
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Lakes due to damming of water

 Lakes formed by these processes are also known as barrier lakes. Landslides,
avalanches may block valleys so that rivers are dammed. Such lakes are short-lived.
 Example: Lakes that are formed in Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas). Dehradun (all Duns)
were lakes few centuries ago.

Man-made lakes
 Besides the natural lakes, man has now created artificial lakes by erecting a concrete
dam across a river valley so that the river water can be kept back to form reservoirs.
 Example: Lake Mead above the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River, U.S.A.
 Man’s mining activities, e.g. tin mining in West Malaysia, have created numerous
lakes. Inland fish culture has necessitated the creation of many fishing-lakes.

Lakes and Man

 In countries where they are found in abundance, such as Finland, Canada, U.S.A.,
Sweden and the East African states, lakes are used as inland waterways.

Means of communication
 Large lakes like the Great Lakes of North America provide a cheap and convenient
form of transport for heavy and bulky goods such as coal, iron, machinery, grains
and timber.
 The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways penetrate more than 1,700 miles into the
interior. They are thus used as the chief arteries of commerce.

Economic and industrial development

 The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways were responsible for the development of the
interior wheat farms and lakeside industries.

Water storage
 Example: Kolleru lake in Andhra Pradesh.

Hydro-electric power generation

 Artificial lakes like Hirakud.
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Agricultural purposes
 Many dams are built across artificial lakes.
 Bhakra Nangal Dam. Its reservoir, known as the “Gobind Sagar Lake” and Hirakud
Dam (Madhya Pradesh) on the Mahanadi in India.

Regulating river flows

 Hoover Dam on the River Colorado and the Bhakra and Nangal Dams on the
Sutlej in India.
 The Hirakud dam was originally conceived as a flood control measure. But the project
is criticized for doing more damage than good.

Moderation of climate
 Land and see breeze (we will see this in future posts).

Source of food
 Many large lakes have important supplies of protein food in the form of freshwater
fish. Sturgeon is commercially caught in the Caspian Sea, salmon and sea trout in
the Great Lakes.

Source of minerals
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 Salt lakes provide valuable rock salts. In the Dead Sea, the highly saline water is
being evaporated and produces common salt. Borax is mined in the salt lakes of the
Mojave Desert.

Tourist attraction and health resorts

 Lake Chilka, Leh, Dead Sea etc..

No lake is permanent over geologic time

 Lakes are only temporary features of the earth’s crust; they will eventually be
eliminated by the double process of draining and silting up.
 The process of lake elimination may not be completed within our span of life, it takes
place relatively quickly in terms of geological time.

Important Lakes on Earth

Note 1: Black Sea is not a lake since Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits connect it to the
Mediterranean Sea. Many big rivers fall into the Black Sea, making the salinity of its surface
water half that of the ocean: 17‰.

Note 2: Caspian Sea and Dead Sea are lakes. The surface and shores of the Dead Sea
are 423 metres below sea level, making it Earth’s lowest elevation on land.

Note 3: While writing facts about lakes, people ignore Caspian Sea because for them it is too
big to be considered a lake. But it is still a lake.
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Note 4: Just like everybody else, even I have ignored Caspian Sea while stating the below
facts.

Lake Baikal [Deepest]

 Located in Siberia, Russia.
 The deepest lake in the world [1,637 metres deep]
 It is the world's largest lake by volume.
 It is the second longest.

Lake Tanganyika [Longest]

 The longest lake in the world. [660 kilometres long]
 It is also the second largest by volume.
 It is the second deepest lake in the world, after lake Baikal.

World’s Highest and Lowest Lakes

 The world's highest lake, if size is not a criterion, may be the crater lake of Ojos del
Salado, at 6,390 metres. It is in Andes.
 The highest large lake in the world is the Pumoyong Tso (Pumuoyong Tso), in the
Tibet Autonomous Region of China. [5,018 metres above sea level]
 The world's highest commercially navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in Peru and
Bolivia border at 3,812 m. It is also the largest lake in South America.
 The world's lowest lake is the Dead Sea, bordering Israel and Jordan at 418 metres
below sea level. It is also one of the lakes with highest salt concentration.

The largest lakes (surface area) by continent

 Australia – Lake Eyre (salt lake)
 Africa – Lake Victoria, also the third-largest freshwater lake on Earth. It is one of
the Great Lakes of Africa.
 Antarctica – Lake Vostok (subglacial)
 Asia – Lake Baikal (if the Caspian Sea is considered a lake, it is the largest in
Eurasia, but is divided between the two geographic continents)
 Europe – Lake Ladoga, followed by Lake Onega, both located in northwestern
Russia.
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 North America – Lake Superior.

 South America – Lake Titicaca, which is also the highest navigable body of water on
Earth at 3,812 metres above sea level. The much larger Lake Maracaibo is a
contiguous body of water with the sea, so it is ignored. ,

Great Lakes
 Great Lakes of North America are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes which
connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
 Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario [in the order of
west to east]. Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario [In the order of largest
to smallest].
 Lake Superior is the largest continental lake in the world by area, and Lake
Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country.

Shipping
 The Great Lakes are today used as a major water transport corridor for bulk goods.
 The Great Lakes Waterway connects all the lakes; the smaller Saint Lawrence
Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic oceans.
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Dead Sea
 Also called the Salt Sea.
 Lake bordering Jordan to the east, and Palestine and Israel to the west.
 It Earth's lowest elevation on land.

Aral Sea
 It was a lake lying between Kazakhstan in the north and Uzbekistan, in the south.
 Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were
diverted by Soviet irrigation projects.

The Aral Sea in 1989 (left) and 2008 (right)

African Great Lakes

 Series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East
African Rift.
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 They include Lake Victoria, the second largest fresh water lake in the world, and Lake
Tanganyika, the world's second largest in volume as well as the second deepest.

Largest Lakes by Surface Area

1. Caspian Sea - Asia
2. Lake Superior - North America
3. Lake Victoria - Africa
4. Lake Huron - North America
5. Lake Michigan - North America

Largest Lakes by Volume

1. Baikal - Asia
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2. Tanganyika - Africa
3. Superior - North America

Deepest Lakes in the World

1. Lake Baikal - Asia
2. Lake Tanganyika
3. Caspian Sea
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This post: Plateau – Types – Major Plateaus of The World.

Previous Post:

Plateau
 A plateau is a flat-topped table land.
 Plateaus occur in every continent and take up a third of the Earths land.
 They are one of the four major landforms, along with mountains, plains, and hills.

 Plateaus, like mountains may be young or old. The Deccan plateau in India is one of the
oldest plateaus.
 Valleys form when river water cuts through the plateau. The Columbia Plateau, between
the Cascade and Rocky mountains in the northwestern United States, is cut through by
the Columbia River.
 Sometimes, a plateau is so eroded that it is broken up into smaller raised sections called
outliers. Many outlier plateaus are composed of very old, dense rock formations. Iron
ore and coal often are found in plateau outliers.
 Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in mineral deposits. As a result, many of
the mining areas in the world are located in the plateau areas.

Model question on Plateaus

Plateaus are of great economic significance. Comment with reference to India And
World.

 The plateaus are famous for minerals. The plateau of France [Massif Central], the
Deccan plateau of India, Katanga plateau of Congo [Copper mines], Western Australian
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plateau [Kimberly Plateau – Diamond mines] and Brazilian plateau [Brazilian Highlands]
are very good sources of minerals. Iron, copper, gold, diamonds, Manganese, coal, etc.,
are found in these plateaus.
 East African plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining.
 In India huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese are found in the Chotanagpur
plateau.
 In the plateau areas, there may be several waterfalls as the river falls from a great
height. In India, the Hundru Falls in the Chotanagpur plateau on the river
Subarnarekha and the Jog Falls in Karnataka are examples of such waterfalls. These
sites are ideal for hydro-electric power generation. Angel falls in Venezuela is also a
waterfall that descends down a plateau.

[Plateaus are not very useful from the point of view of agriculture. The hard rocks on
plateaus cannot form fertile soil but agricultural activities are promoted where lava soils
have developed. It is difficult to dig wells and canals in plateaus. This hampers irrigation.]

 The lava plateaus like Deccan traps are rich in black soil that is fertile and good for
cultivation. Example: Maharashtra has good cotton growing soils called regurs.
 Loess plateau in China has very fertile soils that are good for many kind of crops.
 Many plateaus have scenic spots and are of great attraction to tourists. (Grand Canyon,
USA, many waterfalls)

Plateau Formation
 Tectonic plateaus are formed from processes that create mountain ranges – volcanism
(Deccan Plateau), crustal shortening (thrusting of one block of crust over another, and
folding occurs. Example: Tibet), and thermal expansion (Ethiopian Highlands).

Thermal expansion
 Thermal expansion of the lithosphere means the replacement of cold mantle lithosphere
by hot asthenosphere).
 Those caused by thermal expansion of the lithosphere are usually associated with hot
spots. The Yellowstone Plateau in the United States, the Massif Central in France,
and the Ethiopian Plateau in Africa are prominent examples.
 When the lithosphere underlying a broad area is heated rapidly – e.g., by an upwelling of
hot material in the underlying asthenosphere – the consequent warming and thermal
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expansion of the uppermost mantle causes an uplift of the overlying surface. The high
plateaus of East Africa and Ethiopia were formed this way.

Crustal shortening
 The great heights of some plateaus, such as the Plateau of Tibet is due to crustal
shortening.
 Crustal shortening, which thickens the crust as described above, has created high
mountains along what are now the margins of such plateaus.
 Plateaus that were formed by crustal shortening and internal drainage lie within major
mountain belts and generally in arid climates. They can be found in North Africa,
Turkey, Iran, and Tibet, where the African, Arabian, and Indian continental masses have
collided with the Eurasian continent.

Volcanic Flood Basalts - Traps

 A third type of plateau can form where extensive lava flows (called flood basalts or
traps) and volcanic ash bury preexisting terrain, as exemplified by the Columbia
Plateau in the northwestern United States, Deccan Traps of peninsular India,
Laurentian plateau or The Canadian Shield and the Siberian Traps of Russia.
 Volcanic plateaus are commonly associated with eruptions that occurred during the
Cenozoic or Mesozoic.
 Eruptions on the scale needed to produce volcanic plateaus are rare, and none seems to
have taken place in recent time.
 The volcanism involved in such situations is commonly associated with hot spots. The
lavas and ash are generally carried long distances from their sources, so that the
topography is not dominated by volcanoes or volcanic centers.
 The thickness of the volcanic rock can be tens to even hundreds of metres, and the top
surface of flood basalts is typically very flat but often with sharply incised canyons and
valleys.
 The volcanic eruptions that produce lava plateaus tend to be associated with hot spots.
For example, the basalts of the Deccan Traps, which cover the Deccan plateau in India,
were erupted 60–65 million years ago when India lay in the Southern Hemisphere,
probably over the same hot spot that presently underlies the volcanic island of Reunion.
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 In North America the Columbia River basalts may have been ejected over the same hot
spot that underlies the Yellowstone area today. Lava plateaus of the scale of those three
are not common features on Earth.

Others
 Some plateaus, like the Colorado Plateau, the Ordos Plateau in northern China, or the
East African Highlands, do not seem to be related to hot spots or to vigorous upwelling
in the asthenosphere but appear to be underlain by unusually hot material. The reason
for localized heating beneath such areas is poorly understood, and thus an explanation
for the distribution of plateaus of that type is not known.
 There are some plateaus whose origin is not known. Those of the Iberian Peninsula and
north-central Mexico exhibit a topography that is largely high and relatively flat.

Plateau Types
 There are two kinds of plateaus: dissected plateaus and volcanic plateaus.

Dissected plateau
 A dissected plateau forms as a result of upward movement in the Earth’s crust.
 The uplift is caused by the slow collision of tectonic plates. The Colorado Plateau, in the
western United States, Tibetan plateau etc. are examples.

Volcanic plateau
 A volcanic plateau is formed by numerous small volcanic eruptions that slowly build up
over time, forming a plateau from the resulting lava flows.
 The Columbia Plateau in the northwestern United States of America and Deccan Traps
are two such plateaus.
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Others
 Intermontane plateaus are the highest in the world, bordered by mountains. The
Tibetan Plateau is one such plateau.
 Continental plateaus are bordered on all sides by the plains or seas, forming away from
mountains.

Major plateaus of the World

Tibetan Plateau
 Highest and largest plateau in the world and hence called the ‘roof of the world’.
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 Formed due to collision of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian tectonic plates.

 The plateau is sufficiently high enough to reverse the Hadley cell convection cycles and
to drive the monsoons of India towards the south. [We will learn this in future posts]
 It covers most of the Autonomous Tibetan Region, Qinghai Province of Western China,
and a part of Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir.
 It is surrounded by mountains to the south by the Himalayan Range, to the northeast
by the Kunlun Range, and to the west by the Karakoram Range.

Columbia – Snake Plateau

 River Columbia and its tributary Snake meet in this plateau.
 It is bordered by the Cascade Range and Rocky Mountains and divided by the
Columbia River.
 This plateau has been formed as the result of volcanic eruptions with a consequent
coating of basalt lava (Flood Basalt Plateau).

Colorado Plateau
 It is lying to western part of U.S.A. It is the largest plateau in America.
 It is divided by the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon.
 This plateau is an example of intermontane plateau. Mesas and buttes are found here at
many places [Arid Landforms].
 The plateau is known for the groundwater which is under positive pressure and causes
the emergence of springs called Artesian wells.

Deccan Plateau
 Deccan Plateau is a large plateau which forms most of the southern part of India.
 It is bordered by two mountain ranges, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
 The plateau includes the Deccan Traps which is the largest volcanic feature on Earth.
 Made of multiple basalt layers or lava flows, the Deccan Traps covers 500,000 square
kilometers in area.
 The Deccan Traps are known for containing some unique fossils.
 The Deccan is rich in minerals. Primary mineral ores found in this region are mica and
iron ore in the Chotanagpur region, and diamonds, gold and other metals in the
Golconda region.
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Kimberley Plateau
 Lies in the northern part of Australia.
 This plateau is made of volcanic eruption.
 Many minerals like iron, gold, lead, zinc, silver and diamond are found here.
 Diamond is also found here.

Katanga Plateau
 It is lying in Congo.
 It is famous for copper production.
 Other minerals like Cobalt, Uranium, Zinc, Silver, Gold and Tin are also mined here.

Mascarene Plateau
 Plateaus also form in the ocean, such as the Mascarene Plateau in the Indian Ocean.
 It extends between the Seychelles and Mauritius Islands.

Laurentian Plateau
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 Lying in the eastern part of Canada, it is a part of Canadian Shield.

 Fine quality of iron-ore is found here.

Mexican Plateau
 It is called as ‘Mineral Store’. Different types of metallic minerals like silver, copper
etc. are obtained from here.
 World’s biggest silver mine Chihuahua is situated in the plateau.

Patagonian Plateau
 It is a Piedmont plateau (Arid Landforms) lying in southern part of Argentina.
 It is a rain shadow desert plateau.
 It is an important region for sheep rearing.

Altiplano Plateau or Bolivian Plateau

 It is an intermontane plateau which is located between two ranges of Andes
Mountain.
 It is a major area of Tin reserves.

Massif Central
 This plateau lies in the central France.
 It is famous for Grapes cultivation.

Anatolian Plateau
 Also known as Asia Minor, most of Turkey lies on this plateau.
 It is an intermontane plateau lying between Pontiac and Taurus Mountain ranges.
 Tigris – Euphrates Rivers flow through this plateau.
 Precious wool producing Angora goats are found here.

Others
 Spanish Plateau or Iberian Plateau: It is situated in the middle of Spain. It is a lava
plateau. It is rich in minerals like Iron.
 Loess Plateau: It is in China. The soil here is made of fine particles brought by the
wind. This fine loamy soil is extremely productive. Crops grown in this soil along the
Yellow River give great yields.
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 Potwar Plateau: It is situated in northern plateau (Punjab) region of Pakistan. Its

average ‘Salt Range’ is located to the south-west of the plateau.
 Bavarian Plateau: Southern part of Germany.
 Ahaggar Plateau: A small plateau located in Algeria, Sahara.