Oceanography: Prelims + Mains

L-1 : Ocean Relief Features)

L-2: Important Seas Of The World
L-3 : Ocean Waves
L-4 : Tides
L-5 : Ocean Current
L-6 : Ocean Salinity
L-7 : Temperature Distribution of Oceans
L-8 : Oceanic Resources And Deposits
L-9 : El Nino And La Nina
L-10 : Coral Reefs & Coral Bleaching
L-11 : Sea level Changes
L-12 : Oceans Issues and Threats
L-13 : Ocean Pollution (Marine Pollution)
L-14 : United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features – UPSC

ByLotusAriseNovember 11, 2020
4 Comments
Ocean
 The Ocean Relief Features are quite different from the continental features because
the Oceanic crust is less than 60-70- million years old whereas continental features are of
Proterozoic age (Over 1 Billion years old).
 While there is only one global ocean, the vast body of water that covers 71 percent of
the Earth is geographically divided into distinct named regions. The boundaries
between these regions have evolved over time for a variety of historical, cultural,
geographical, and scientific reasons.
 Historically, there are four named oceans: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic.
However, a new ocean has now been recognized as the Southern (Antarctic) ocean as
the fifth ocean. The Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian are known as the three major oceans.
 They are the source of food– fish, mammals, reptiles, salt, and other marine foodstuffs.
 The tides can be harnessed to provide power.
 Oceanography is the branch of science that deals with the physical and biological
properties and phenomena of the sea.
 Earlier echo-sounding techniques were used, now radar soundings and electrical
Echo devices are used to find the precise depths of ocean floors and map the relief
of oceans.

Ocean Relief Features

 The oceans, unlike the continents, merge so naturally into one another that it is hard to
demarcate them.
 The geographers have divided the oceanic part of the earth into five oceans, namely the
Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, Southern, and the Arctic.
 The various seas, bays, gulfs, and other inlets are parts of these four large oceans.
 A major portion of the ocean floor is found between 3-6 km below the sea level.
  The floors of the oceans are rugged with the world’s largest mountain ranges,
deepest trenches, and the largest plains. These features are formed, like those of the
continents, by the factors of tectonic, volcanic, and depositional processes.

Major Ocean Relief Features

The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions:

 the Continental Shelf

 the Continental Slope
 the Deep Sea Plain
 the Oceanic Deeps

Continental Shelf
  Continental Shelf is the gently sloping seaward extension of continental plate.
 These extended margins of each continent are occupied by relatively shallow seas and
gulfs.
 Continental Shelf of all oceans together cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans.
 Gradient of continental is of 1° or even less.
 The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
 The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of sediments brought down
by rivers, glaciers etc..
 Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental shelves,
become the source of fossil fuels [Petroleum].
 Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia, Great Banks around Newfoundland,
Submerged region between Australia and New Guinea.
 The shelf is formed mainly due to
 submergence of a part of a continent
 relative rise in sea level
 Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers
 There are various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin —
 glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland),
 coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia),
 shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta),
 shelf with dendritic valleys (At the Mouth of Hudson River)
 shelf along young mountain ranges (Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).

Continental Slope
 A continental slope is the slope between the outer edge of the continental shelf and
the deep ocean floor. 
 The continental slope is cut by submarine canyons in many locations.
 The continental slope marks the seaward edge of the continental shelf.
 The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
 It extends between the depth of 180 to 3600 metres.
 In some places, for example, off the shore of Philippines, the continental slope extends to a
great depth.
 Continental slopes, mainly due to their steepness and increasing distance from the land
have very little deposits of sediments on them.
 Sea life is also far less here than on the shelf.
 Along the base of the continental slope is a deposit of sediments. This belt of sedimentary
deposits form the continental rise.
 In some regions the rise is very narrow but in others it may extend up to 600 km in width.

Continental Rise
 The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.
 When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the
continental rise.
 With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal
plain.

Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain

 Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
 These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world because of terrigenous
[denoting marine sediment eroded from the land] and shallow water sediments that
buries the irregular topography.
  It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
 The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
 These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
 It has extensive submarine plateaus, ridges, trenches, beams, and oceanic
islands that rise above sea level in the midst of oceans.
 E.g. the Azores, Ascension Island

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

 The trenches are relatively steep-sided, narrow basins (Depressions). These areas are
the deepest parts of the oceans.
 They are of tectonic origin and are formed during ocean – ocean convergence and
ocean-continent convergence.
 They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
 The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea plain at the bases of continental slopes
and along island arcs.
 The trenches run parallel to the bordering-fold mountains or the island chains.
 The trenches are very common in the Pacific Ocean and form an almost continuous ring
along the western and eastern margins of the Pacific.
 The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench
with, a depth of more than 11 kilometers.
 Other ocean deeps –
 Mindanao deep (35000 feet)
 Tonga trench (31000 feet)
 Japanese trench (28000 feet) (all 3 in the Pacific Ocean)
 They are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes (Deep Focus
Earthquakes like in Japan). This makes them very significant in the study of plate
movements.
 As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean; 19
in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.
Minor Ocean Relief Features
Apart from the above mentioned major relief features of the ocean floor, some minor but significant
features predominate in different parts of the oceans.

 Ridges,
 Hills,
 Seamounts,
 Guyots,
 Trenches,
 Canyons,
 Fracture zones,
 Island arcs,
 Atolls,
 Coral reefs,
 Submerged volcanoes and
 Sea-scarps.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges
 A mid-ocean ridge is a seafloor mountain system formed by plate tectonics.
 It typically has a depth of about 2,600 meters and rises about 2,000 meters above the
deepest portion of an ocean basin.
 This feature is where seafloor spreading takes place along a divergent plate boundary.

Seamount
 A seamount is an underwater mountain formed by volcanic activity. 
 seamount does not reach the surface of the ocean.
 These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
 Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is a
good example.
Submarine Canyons
 A submarine canyon is a steep-sided valley cut into the seabed of the continental
slope, sometimes extending well onto the continental shelf, having nearly vertical walls,
and occasionally having canyon wall heights of up to 5 km, from canyon floor to canyon rim,
as with the Great Bahama Canyon.
 The Hudson Canyon is the best-known submarine canyon in the world.

Guyots
 Guyot also known as a tablemount, is an isolated underwater volcanic mountain with
a flat top more than 200 m below the surface of the sea.
 They show evidence of gradual subsidence through stages to become flat-topped
submerged mountains.
 It is estimated that more than 10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the Pacific
Ocean alone.
Atoll
 An atoll, sometimes known as a coral atoll, is a ring-shaped coral reef, including a
coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely.
 There may be coral islands or cays on the rim. Atolls are located in warm tropical or
subtropical oceans and seas where corals can grow.

Bank
 These marine features are formed as’ a result of the erosional and depositional activity.
 A bank is a flat-topped elevation located in the continental margins.
 The depth of water here is shallow but enough for navigational purposes.
  The Dogger Bank in the North Sea and Grand Bank in the north-western Atlantic,
Newfoundland are famous examples.
 The banks are sites of some of the most productive fisheries of the world.

Shoal
A shoal is a detached elevation with shallow depths. Since they project out of water with moderate
heights, they are dangerous for navigation.

Reef
 A reef is a predominantly organic deposit made by living or dead organisms that form a
mound or rocky elevation like a ridge.
 Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of the Pacific Ocean where they are associated
with seamounts and guyots.
 The largest reef in the world is found off the Queensland coast of Australia. [We will study
coral reefs in future posts]
 Since the reefs may extend above the surface, they are generally dangerous for
navigation.

Significance of Study of Oceanic Relief

 Ocean relief controls the motion of sea-water.
 The oceanic movement in the form of currents, in turn, causes many variations in both
oceans and in the atmosphere.
 The bottom relief of oceans also influences navigation and fishing.

Estuary vs Delta
The estuary is an area where saltwater of sea mixes with fresh water of rivers. It is formed by
a tidal bore. 

Delta is a low triangular area of alluvial deposits where a river divides before entering a larger
body of water.
BASIS FOR
ESTUARY DELTA
COMPARISON

Estuary refers to the waterbody, along the Delta connotes a landform that
Meaning coast, that are formed when fresh water of river-borne sediments deposited
river meets salt water of ocean. mouth when it joins the sea.

Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishn

Rivers Narmada and Tapi form estuary.
Ganga and Brahmaputra form d

Shape Funnel Triangular

Tide High tides Low tides

Region Region near estuary are not fertile. Delta are fertile lands.

Suitable for Fishing activity Agriculture activities

Lagoon and Estuary

An estuary refers to a coastal body of water that is partially enclosed having a river or a
stream, or several of them flowing into an estuary while at the same time having a free link
to the ocean or the sea.

They are generally a transition zone between the river environment and ocean
environment, and therefore they experience the influence of both the river and the ocean.

On the other hand, a lagoon refers to a shallow body of water that is alienated by a reef or
barrier from the larger body of water, and they are common coastal landforms in different
regions around the world. There are two types of lagoons and include atoll lagoons and coastal
lagoons.

An atoll lagoon is normally a circular coral reef or a string of coral islands which surround a
lagoon. Atoll lagoons are always much deeper than coastal lagoons and occasionally could
have depths of about 65 feet deep.

Reference: oceanservice.noaa.gov

GEOGRAPHY

Important Seas of the world – UPSC

ByLotusAriseNovember 12, 2020
2 Comments
In this article, You can read about Important seas of the world for UPSC Exam. Locations of
seas will help you in understanding topics related to the geographical area.

Important Seas Of The World

In terms of geography, Seas are smaller than oceans and are usually located where the land
and ocean meet. Typically, Seas are partially enclosed by land. Seas have great geographical,
Political, and Economical significance.

In oceanography, a marginal sea is a sea partially enclosed by islands, archipelagos, or

peninsulas.

Some of the major marginal seas include the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of Bengal, Bering
Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea,  and all four
of the Siberian Seas (Barents, Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian).

The primary differences between marginal seas and open oceans are associated with depth and
proximity to landmasses. Marginal seas, which are generally shallower than open oceans, are
more influenced by human activities, river runoff, climate, and water circulation.
Major (Important) Seas of the world
1. Arabian Sea
2. South China Sea
3. East China Sea
4. Coral Sea
5. Caribbean Sea
6. Mediterranean Sea
7. Ionian Sea
8. Bay of Bengal
9. Arabian Sea
10. Bering Sea
11. Sea of Okhotsk
12. Gulf of Mexico
13. Tasman Sea
14. Hudson Bay
15. Sea of Japan
16. Sea of Azov
17. Caspian Sea
18. Adriatic Sea
19. Baltic Sea
20. Red Sea
21. Yellow Sea
22. Dead Sea
23. Black Sea
24. Tyrrhenian Sea
25. Ligurian Sea
26. Balearic Sea
27. Alboran Sea
28. Sargasso Sea
29. The Aegean Sea…

Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran,
and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel, and the Arabian
Peninsula, on the southeast by the Laccadive Sea, on the southwest by the Somali Sea, and on
the east by India.

The Gulf of Aden in the west connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-
el-Mandeb, and the Gulf of Oman is in the northwest, connecting it to the Persian Gulf.
Andaman Sea
The Andaman Sea (historically also known as the Burma Sea) is a marginal sea of northeastern
Indian Ocean bounded by the coastlines of Myanmar and Thailand along the Gulf of
Martaban and west side of the Malay Peninsula and separated from the Bay of Bengal to its west
by the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands.

Its southernmost end is defined by Breueh Island, an island just north of Sumatra, and
communicates with the Malacca Strait.
South China Sea
Places here are China, Vietnam, Hainan, Malaysia, and the Philippines. China is involved in
disputes with many countries here. Places in dispute are Paracel, Scarborough Shoal, and The
Spratly Islands.

East China Sea

The East China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean, located directly offshore from
East China.

Towards the east of this sea are the Japanese islands of Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands, towards
the south of it is the South China Sea and to the west by the Asian continent. The sea connects
with the Sea of Japan through the Korea Strait and opens to the north into the Yellow Sea. The
countries which border the sea include South Korea, Japan, the Republic of China (Taiwan) and
the People’s Republic of China.

In recent times, tensions between China and Japan have risen over the contested
Senkaku/Diaoyu islands that lies in this sea, and both nations have raised as incursions into the
disputed waters. Both countries have increased their military capabilities, particularly their radar
and missile systems, in the region.
Sea of Okhotsk
 The Sea of Okhotsk is a marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean.
 It is located between Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula on the east, the Kuril Islands on
the southeast, Japan’s island of Hokkaido on the south, the island of Sakhalin along the
west, and a stretch of eastern Siberian coast along the west and north.
 Kuril Islands
 The Kuril Islands are stretched from the Japanese island of Hokkaido to the southern tip
of Russia’s the Kamchatka Peninsula separating the Okhotsk Sea from the North Pacific
ocean.
 It consists of 56 islands and minor rocks.
 The chain is part of the belt of geologic instability circling the Pacific and contains at least
100 volcanoes, of which 35 are still active, and many hot springs.
 Earthquakes and tidal waves are common phenomena over these islands.
Adriatic Sea
 The Adriatic Sea is a part of the Mediterranean Sea positioned between the eastern
coastline of Italy, and countries of the Balkan Peninsula, from Slovenia, South through
Croatia, Montenegro, and to Albania.
 The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan
Peninsula.
 The countries with coasts on the Adriatic are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,
Italy, Montenegro, and Slovenia.
Dalmatian coastline

 Dalmatia is one of the four historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper, Slavonia,
and Istria. Dalmatia is a narrow belt of the east shore of the Adriatic Sea, stretching
from the island of Rab in the north to the Bay of Kotor in the south.
Black Sea
The Black Sea is an inland sea located between far-southeastern Europe and the far-western
edges of the continent of Asia and the country of Turkey. It’s bordered by Turkey, and by Bulgaria,
Romania, Ukraine, Russia, and Georgia.
The Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is an enclosed body of water between Asia and Europe. It is bordered by Iran,
Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Russia.

Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by
the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern
Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant.

Sargasso Sea
 While all other seas in the world are defined at least in part by land boundaries,
the Sargasso Sea is defined only by ocean currents.
 It is bounded on the west by the Gulf Stream, north, by the North Atlantic Current, east, by
the Canary Current, and south, by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current.
 This system of ocean currents forms the North Atlantic Gyre.
 It is the only sea on Earth which has no coastline.

Caribbean Sea
  The Caribbean Sea is a tropical sea in the Western Hemisphere, part of the Atlantic
Ocean, southeast of the Gulf of Mexico.
 The Caribbean Sea is bordered by Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama to the south,
Central American countries (Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, and Belize) on
the west; with the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto
Rico) on the north and the Lesser Antilles on the east.
 Anguilla
 It is an island in the eastern Caribbean Sea and a British overseas territory.

Gulf of Mexico
 Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked body of water on the
southeastern periphery of the North American continent.
 It is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Straits of Florida, running between the
peninsula of Florida and the island of Cuba, and to the Caribbean Sea by the Yucatán
Channel, which runs between the Yucatán Peninsula and Cuba.
 Dead Zone
 Dead zones are hypoxic (low-oxygen) areas in the world’s oceans and large lakes.
 The dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico, fueled by the nutrient-laden water spilling from
the mouth of the Mississippi River, is the second-largest in the world.
  It blooms every summer when warming waters accelerate the metabolisms of
microorganisms, and it is expected to get even worse as the climate continues to change.

Red Sea
 The Red Sea (Erythraean Sea) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying
between Africa and Asia.
 The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf
of Aden.
 To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to
the Suez Canal).
 The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.

The six countries bordering the Red Sea are:

 Saudi Arabia
 Yemen
 Egypt
 Sudan
 Eritrea
 Djibouti
The Ionian Sea
 The Ionian Sea is an elongated bay of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea.
 It is bounded by Southern Italy to the west, southern Albania to the north, and the west
coast of Greece.
Coral Sea
 The Coral Sea takes its name from its coral formations of the Great Barrier Reef, the
largest known reef system in the world.
Tasman Sea
 The Tasman Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean, situated between
Australia and New Zealand.
 The Tasman Sea was named after the Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman, who
was the first recorded European to encounter New Zealand and Tasmania.
 The British explorer Captain James Cook later extensively navigated the Tasman Sea
in the 1770s as part of his first voyage of exploration.
View or Download High Resolution Image

Marginal Seas of the Arctic Ocean

 Barents Sea
 The Irish Sea

Marginal Seas of the Atlantic Ocean

 Argentine Sea
 Caribbean Sea
 English Channel
 Gulf of Mexico
 Hudson Bay
 Irish Sea
 Labrador Sea
 Mediterranean Sea
 North Sea
 Norwegian Sea
 Scotia Sea

Marginal Seas of the Indian Ocean

 Andaman Sea
 Arabian Sea
 Bay of Bengal
  Java Sea
 Persian Gulf
 Red Sea
 Sea of Zanj

Marginal Seas of the Mediterranean Sea

 Adriatic Sea
 Aegean Sea

Marginal Seas of the Pacific Ocean

 Bering Sea
 Celebes Sea
 Coral Sea
 East China Sea
 Philippine Sea
 Sea of Japan
 Sea of Okhotsk
 South China Sea (another important conflict zone)
 Tasman Sea (between Australia and New Zealand)
 Yellow Sea (by the Korean Peninsula)

Other Seas
 The Caribbean Sea is sometimes defined as a marginal sea, sometimes as a
Mediterranean sea.
 The Caspian Sea is also sometimes defined as a marginal sea, and also the Dead Sea.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Ocean Waves & Movements of Ocean Water –

UPSC
ByLotusAriseNovember 12, 2020
9 Comments
You all know that ocean water is never still. There are different types of movements of ocean
water under the influence of different physical characteristics like temperature, salinity, density,
etc. Movements of ocean water are also affected by external forces like the sun, moon, and winds.

Motion of Ocean water can be classified in two direction –

 HORIZONTAL
 VERTICAL

Horizontal movements of the ocean waters can be classified into two –

 WAVES
 CURRENTS

Vertical movements of the ocean waters can be classified into two –

  TIDES
 UPWELLING

Ocean Waves
Wave is a rhythmic movement that carries energy through matter or space.

Ocean Waves are the undulatory motion of a water surface.

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 Waves are nothing but the oscillatory movements that result in the rise and fall of the
water surface.
 Waves are a kind of horizontal movement of ocean water.
 They are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean
surface.
 This energy for the waves is provided by the wind.
 In a wave, the movement of each water particle is in a circular manner.
 A wave has two major parts: the raised part is called the crest while the low-point is
called the trough.

Parts of a wave
 Wave crest and The highest point of a wave is called
trough The lowest point of a wave is called trough.

It is the perpendicular distance from the bottom of a trough to the top o

Wave height
wave.

Wave amplitude It is one-half of the wave height.

It is merely the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs

Wave period
a fixed point.

Wavelength It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.

It is the rate at which the wave moves through

Wave speed
It is measured in knots.

the number of complete waves (or oscillations) that occur over a giv
Frequency
time. Usually measured in cycles per second.
Most of the waves present on the ocean’s surface are wind-generated waves.

Friction from the wind moving over the water causes the water to move along with the wind. If the
wind speed is high enough, the water begins to pile up and a wave is formed.
As wind velocity increases: Wavelength, Wave period, Height Increase.

Water molecules move in an orbital motion as the wave passes.

Particles of water move around in circles. The farther below the surface, the smaller the circle.
The diameter of the orbit: increases with increasing wave size.
The diameter of the orbit: decreases with depth below the water surface.

As the wave slows, its crest and trough come closer together. The top of the wave is not
slowed by friction and moves faster than the bottom.

Wave types
Wave Cut action

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Tides: Spring & Neap Tide, Tidal Bulge, Tidal

Bore – UPSC
ByLotusAriseNovember 13, 2020
6 Comments
Tides
 The periodic short term rise and fall in the sea level is known as Tide. It is produced
due to the gravitational interaction of earth, sun, and moon.
 It is caused by the combined effects of :
 The gravitational force exerted on Earth by the Sun
 The gravitational force exerted on Earth by the Moon
 Rotation of the Earth
 Tides occur due to a balance between all these forces.
 Energy of tides is much more than the rogue waves or storm breakers.
 Rogue waves are very high and limited in area; Tides are relatively low waves but
stretch across the entire ocean.
 When the highest part, or crest, of the wave, reaches a particular location, high tide occurs;
low tide corresponds to the lowest part of the wave, or its trough. The difference in height
between the high tide and the low tide is called the tidal range.
 The highest tide in the World occurs in the Bay of Funday (Canada).
 The highest tide in India is recorded at Okha, Gujarat.
 The greatest tidal range in the world is found at the upper end of the Bay of Fundy in
eastern Canada.
 Oscillating currents produced by tides are known as tidal streams. The moment that the
tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses direction
and is said to be turning. Slack water usually occurs near high water and low water.
 Tides are commonly semi-diurnal (two high waters and two low waters each day),
or diurnal (one tidal cycle per day). The two high waters on a given day are typically not
the same height (the daily inequality); these are the higher high water and the lower high
water in tide tables. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the higher low water and the
lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent and is generally small when the Moon
is over the equator.
Tide changes proceed via the following stages:

 Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone; flood tide.
 The water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide.
 Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone; ebb tide.
 The water stops falling, reaching low tide.
Types of Tides
Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and also from time to
time.

Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in one day or 24
hours or based on their height.

Tides based on Frequency

1. Semi-diurnal tide
2. Diurnal tide
3. Mixed tide

Semi-diurnal tide
  The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day
(Actually it varies between 3 tides to 4 tides –– 3 tides in rare cases but 4 is normal).
The successive high or low tides are approximate of the same height.

Although tides occur twice a day, their interval is not exactly 12 hours. Instead, they occur
at regular intervals of 12 hours and 25 minutes.

 This is because the moon revolves around the earth from west to east, and each day it
moves a bit to the east if observed from the same place on earth at the same time on two
consecutive days.
 This time lag explains the tide interval of 12 hours and- 25 minutes, as tides occur twice a
day.
 A place in England—Southampton—experiences tides 6-8 times a day (2 high tides
from North Sea + 2 high tides from English Channel + 2 neap tides from the North
Sea + 2 neap tides from the English Channel). This happens because the North
Sea and the English Channel push the water at different intervals.

Diurnal tide
 There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high and low
tides are approximately of the same height.
Mixed tide
 Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally occur
along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions

The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of the sun
and moon with respect to the earth. Spring tides and neap tides come under this category.

Spring tides
 The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has a direct bearing on
tide height.
 When the sun, the moon, and the earth are in a straight line(a configuration known as
a syzygy), the height of the tide will be higher.
 These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on the full moon
period and another during the new moon period.
Neap tides
 When the Moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the Sun and Moon are separated by
90° when viewed from the Earth, and the solar tidal force partially cancels the Moon’s.
 The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the
counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational pull.
 At these points in the lunar cycle, the tide’s range is at its minimum; this is called the neap
tide, or neaps.
 Neap is an Anglo-Saxon word meaning “without the power”, as in forđganges nip
(forthgoing without-the-power).
 Normally, there is a seven-day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.
 Like spring tides, these tides also occur twice a month.
The magnitude of tides based on Perigee and apogee of moon
 Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high
and low tides occur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal.
 Two weeks later, when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee), the moon’s gravitational
force is limited and the tidal ranges are less than their average heights.

Magnitude of tides based on Perigee and Apogee of earth

 When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal
ranges are also much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides.
 When the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges
are much less than average.

Apogee is the point, in an orbit about the earth, that is furthest from the earth..

Aphelion is the point in the elliptical orbit of a planet, comet, etc, where it is farthest from the
sun.

Importance of Tides
Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun positions which are known accurately, the tides can
be predicted well in advance. This helps the navigators and fishermen plan their activities.

Navigation
 Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours near rivers and within estuaries having
shallow ‘bars’ [Marine Landforms] at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from
entering into the harbour.
 High tides help in navigation. They raise the water level close to the shores. This helps the
ships to arrive at the harbour more easily.
 Tides generally help in making some of the rivers navigable for ocean-going
vessels. London and Calcutta [Tidal Ports] have become important ports owing to the
tidal nature of the mouths of the Thames and Hooghly respectively.
Fishing
 The high tides also help in fishing. Many more fish come closer to the shore during the high
tide. This enables fishermen to get a plentiful catch.

Desilting
 Tides are also helpful in desilting the sediments and in removing polluted water from river
estuaries.

Other
 Tides are used to generate electrical power (in Canada, France, Russia, and China).
 A 3 MW tidal power project was constructed at Durgaduani in Sunderbans of West
Bengal.

Characteristics of Tides
 The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves have greater heights.
 In the open ocean, tidal currents are relatively weak.
 When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they become low.
 The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify the intensity of
tides.
 Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes.
 Example: the Bay of Fundy –– Highest tidal range.
 The large continents on the planet, however, block the westward passage of the tidal
bulges as the Earth rotates.
 Tidal patterns differ greatly from ocean to ocean and from location to location.

Tidal bore
  A tidal bore is a large wave or bore caused by the constriction of the spring tide as it
enters a long, narrow, shallow inlet. These waves are resultant of the forces and turbulence
in the whelps which causes a rumble roar.
 Tides also occur in gulfs. The gulfs with wide fronts and narrow rears experience higher
tides.
 The in and out the movement of water into a gulf through channels called a tidal
current.
 When a tide enters the narrow and shallow estuary of a river, the front of the tidal wave
appears to be vertical owing to the piling up of water of the river against the tidal wave and
the friction of the river bed.
 The steep-nosed tide crest looks like a vertical wall of water rushing upstream and is known
as a tidal bore.
 The favorable conditions for tidal bore include the strength of the incoming tidal wave, the
slim and depth of the channel, and the river flow.
 There are exceptions – the Amazon River is the largest river in the world. It empties
into the Atlantic Ocean. The mouth of the Amazon is not narrow, but the river still
has a strong tidal bore. A tidal bore develops here because the mouth of the river is
shallow and dotted by many low-lying islands and sand bars.
 In India, tidal bores are common in the Hooghly river. The most powerful tidal bores
occur in the Qiantang River in China.
 The name ‘bore’ is because of the sound the tidal current makes when it travels through
narrow channels.
  Bores occur in relatively few locations worldwide, usually in areas with a large tidal
range, typically more than 6 meters (20 ft) between high and low water.
 A tidal bore takes place during the flood tide and never during the ebb tide (Tidal bores
almost never occur during neap tides. Neap tides happen during quarter moons when tides
are weakest).

Impact of Tidal Bore

 Tides are stable and can be predicted. Tidal bores are less predictable and hence can
be dangerous.
 The tidal bores adversely affect the shipping and navigation in the estuarine zone.
 Tidal bores of considerable magnitude can capsize boats and ships of considerable size.
 Strong tidal bores disrupt fishing zones in estuaries and gulfs.
 Tidal bores have an adverse impact on the ecology of the river mouth. The tidal-bore
affected estuaries are the rich feeding zones and breeding grounds of several forms of
wildlife.
 Animals slammed by the leading edge of a tidal wave can be buried in the silty water. For
this reason, carnivores and scavengers are common sights behind tidal bores.

Reference: oceanservice.noaa.gov

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Ocean Currents: Types of Ocean Currents –

UPSC
ByLotusAriseNovember 12, 2020
14 Comments
This article talks about the Ocean Currents, Types Of Ocean Currents, forces responsible for
ocean currents, and effects of Ocean Currents for UPSC.

Ocean Currents
 Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater. It is a
massive movement of ocean water that is caused and influenced by various forces. They
are like river flows in oceans.
 Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically.
 Horizontal movements are referred to as currents, while vertical changes are called
upwellings or downwellings.
 Ocean currents impact humankind and the biosphere due to their influence on climate.
Types of Ocean Currents
Based on depth
 The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface currents and deep
water currents:
1. surface currents constitute about 10 percent of all the water in the ocean, these waters
are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
2. deep water currents make up the other 90 percent of the ocean water. These waters
move around the ocean basins due to variations in density and gravity.
 The density difference is a function of different temperatures and salinity
 These deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes where the
temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.

Based on temperature
 Ocean currents are classified based on temperature: as cold currents and warm
currents:
1. Cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas [from high latitudes to low
latitudes]. These currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents (currents
flow in the clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and in anti-clockwise direction in
the southern hemisphere) in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on
the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere;
2. Warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas[low to high latitudes] and are
usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in
both hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere, they are found on the west coasts of
continents in high latitudes.
Forces Responsible For Ocean Currents
Primary Forces
Influence of insolation
 Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is why, near the equator the
ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes.
 This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope. The flow is
normally from east to west.

Influence of wind (atmospheric circulation)

 Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the
wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course.
 Winds are responsible for both magnitude and direction [Coriolis force also affects direction]
of the ocean currents. Example: Monsoon winds are responsible for the seasonal reversal
of ocean currents in the Indian ocean.
 The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric circulation
pattern.
 The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly anticyclonic [Sub-
tropical High Pressure Belt] (more pronounced in the southern hemisphere than in the
northern hemisphere due to differences in the extent of landmass). The oceanic circulation
pattern also corresponds with the same.
 At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic [Sub-polar Low Pressure Belt],
the oceanic circulation follows this pattern.
 In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow [Northern Indian Ocean], the monsoon winds
influence the current movements which change directions according to seasons.

Influence of gravity
 Gravity tends to pull the water down to pile and create gradient variation.
Influence of Coriolis force
 The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
 These large accumulations of water and the flow around them are called Gyres. These
produce large circular currents in all the ocean basins. One such circular current is
the Sargasso Sea.

Secondary Forces
 Temperature differences and salinity differences are secondary forces.
 Differences in water density affect the vertical mobility of ocean currents (vertical
currents).
 Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the same way cold
water is denser than warm water.
 Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.
 Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves
towards the equator.
 Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface, flowing towards the
poles to replace the sinking cold water.

Important ocean currents

It is important for you to remember cold and warn ocean currents.
NOTE- Major Fishing grounds of the World exist where warm and cold Ocean Current
meets.

Causes of Ocean Currents

Planetary Winds
 Planetary winds are one of the most important causes of ocean currents. The planetary
winds blow continuously in a particular direction and drag the surface water due to the force
of friction. This leads to the formation of ocean currents. Most of the ocean currents of the
world follow the direction of prevailing or planetary winds.
 For example, equatorial currents flow westward under the influence of northeast and
southeast trade winds. The North Atlantic Drift in the Atlantic and the North Pacific current
in the Pacific move in the northeast direction under the influence of westerlies.
Variation in seawater temperatures
 There are marked variations in the horizontal and vertical distribution of the temperatures in
the ocean. The temperatures are higher at the equator than at the poles. Thus, in the
equatorial region, the density of water decreases due to high temperatures and more
rainfalls. As a result of this, the lighter water from the equatorial region moves
towards the colder and denser water of the polar areas.
Variation in water salinity
 The amount of salts contained in seawater does vary from one part of the ocean to another.
The high salinity water tends to subside and move below the water of low salinity. Ocean
currents on the water surface are generated from the areas of low salinity to the areas of
high salinity. There is a marked variation in the salinity of the Atlantic Ocean and the
Mediterranean sea. Do you know what is salinity?
 Salinity is the saltiness of an ocean. Because of this variation, the ocean current flows from
the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea.

Rotation of Earth
 The earth rotates on its axis from west to east. This rotation is the cause of deflective force
known as Coriolis force which deflects the general direction of the winds and that of the
ocean currents. For example, the currents flowing from the Equator towards the North and
South Poles are deflected to their right in the Northern Hemisphere and towards their left in
the Southern Hemisphere. The counter-equatorial currents are also the result of the rotation
of the earth.

Configuration of the coastline

 The shape and configuration of the coastlines also have a close influence on the
direction and movement of the ocean currents.
 For example, the equatorial current after being obstructed by the Brazilian coast is
bifurcated into two branches. The Northern Branch is called the Caribbean current while
the Southern branch is called the Brazilian current.
 In the Indian Ocean, the monsoon currents closely follow the coastlines.
Desert Formation and Ocean Currents
Major hot deserts are located between 20-30 degree latitudes and on the western side of the
continents. Why?

 The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds,
hence they are also called Trade Wind Deserts.
 The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between
latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S (Question asked in Previous Mains Exam).
 They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles). The next biggest desert
is the Great Australian Desert. The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian
Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari, and Namib Deserts.
 The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts
where the air is descending, a condition least favorable for precipitation of any kind to take
place.
 The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow
outside the desert limits.
 Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative
humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
 There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely
low, decreasing from 60 percent in coastal districts to less than 30 percent in the desert
interiors. Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are
thus regions of permanent drought. Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
 On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling
the on-coming air. This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rainfalls.
 The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so
pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.
Atlantification
 Streams of warmer water from the Atlantic Ocean flow into the Arctic at the Barents
Sea. This warmer, saltier Atlantic water is usually fairly deep under the more buoyant Arctic
water at the surface. Lately, however, the Atlantic water has been creeping up. That heat in
the Atlantic water is helping to keep ice from forming and melting existing sea ice from
below. This process is called “Atlantification”.
 The ice is now getting hit both from the top by a warming atmosphere and at the bottom by
a warming ocean.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Salinity of Ocean water – UPSC

ByLotusAriseNovember 12, 2020
8 Comments
This article talks about the Salinity of ocean waters – for UPSC.

Salinity of Ocean Water

 Salinity means the total content of dissolved salts in Sea or Ocean.
 Salinity is calculated as the amount of salt dissolved in 1,000 gm of seawater.
 It is generally expressed as ‘parts per thousand’ (ppt).
 A salinity of 24.7 % has been regarded as the upper limit to fix ‘brackish water’.
 It is a significant factor in deciding several characteristics of the chemistry of natural waters
and biological processes.
 Isohalines are used on maps to show the salinity of different places.
 Isohalines – lines joining places having an equal degree of salinity.
 The average salinity of the ocean – 3.5% or 35 parts of salt in 1000 parts of water.
The salinity of the Great Salt Lake, (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea, and the Lake Van in
Turkey are 220, 240, and 330 respectively.

Role of Ocean Salinity

 Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density, absorption of
insolation, evaporation, and humidity.
 It also influences the composition and movement of the sea: water and the distribution of
fish and other marine resources.

Share of different salts is as shown below—

  sodium chloride — 77.7%
 magnesium chloride—10.9%
 magnesium sulphate —.4.7%
 calcium sulphate — 3.6%
 potassium sulphate — 2.5%

Factors Affecting Salinity of Ocean Water

 There are sections of the ocean where there is little rain yet there is a lot
of evaporation due to the warm, dry breezes.
 This evaporation removes water; but, because water vapor leaves salt behind when it rises
into the atmosphere, the saltiness of the saltwater grows.
 The ocean becomes denser as a result of this.
 High salinity can be found in the north and south Atlantic, which are locations with strong
winds and little rain.

Rate of evaporation

 The ocean between 20°N and 30°N latitudes has more salinity than the temperate latitude
ocean due to a higher rate of evaporation (because of high temperature).
 However, due to the considerations indicated in the next paragraph, this does not entail
that tropical oceans will have more salinity.

Amount of Freshwater Added

 The places having high daily rainfall, high relative humidity, and addition by
freshwater have low salinity.
 E.g. Oceans into which huge rivers like Amazon, Congo, Ganges, Irrawaddy, and Mekong
drain have lower salinity.
 The Baltic, Arctic, and Antarctic waters have a salinity of <32 ppt because much freshwater
is added from the melting of icebergs, as well as by several large poleward bound rivers.
The degree of water mixing by currents

 As there is no mixing of freshwater and continual evaporation in land-locked (enclosed by

lands) areas, the salinity is higher.
 For example, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf.
 Where there is free mixing of water by surface and subsurface currents, the salinity range is
small.


Sea Salinity (in ppt)

Baltic Sea 7

Red sea 39

Caspian Sea 180

Dead Sea 250

Lake Van 330

Horizontal distribution of salinity

To make life easier, I will remove the symbol o/oo and place only the number.

 The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 and 37.

High salinity regions

 In the landlocked Red Sea (don’t confuse this to the Dead Sea which has much greater
salinity), it is as high as 41.
 In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches 70.

Comparatively Low salinity regions

 In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river where fresh and saline water get mixed) and
the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 – 35, seasonally (freshwater coming from ice
caps).

Pacific
 The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger areal extent.

Atlantic
 The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36-37.
 The equatorial region of the Atlantic Ocean has a salinity of about 35.
 Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness, and calm air of
the doldrums.
 The polar areas experience very little evaporation and receive large amounts of freshwater
from the melting of ice. This leads to low levels of salinity, ranging between 20 and 32.
 Maximum salinity (37) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W – 60° W. It
gradually decreases towards the north.
Indian Ocean
 The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35.
 The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to the influx of river water by the
river Ganga.
 On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and a low
influx of fresh water.

Marginal seas
 The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to
more saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
 Baltic Sea records low salinity due to the influx of river waters in large quantities.
 The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.
 Salinity is, however, very low in the Black Sea due to the enormous freshwater influx by
rivers.

Inland seas and lakes

 The salinity of the inland Seas and lakes is very high because of the regular supply of
salt by ‘ the rivers falling into them.
 Their water becomes progressively more saline due to evaporation.
 For instance, the salinity of the Great Salt Lake, (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea, and the Lake
Van in Turkey are 220, 240, and 330 respectively.
 The oceans and salt lakes are becoming saltier as time goes on because the rivers dump
more salt into them, while freshwater is lost due to evaporation.
Cold and warm water mixing zones
 Salinity decreases from 35 – 31 in the western parts of the northern hemisphere
because of the influx of melted water from the Arctic region.

Sub-Surface Salinity
 With depth, the salinity also varies, but this variation again is subject to latitudinal
difference. The decrease is also influenced by cold and warm currents.
 In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases up to 35
metres and then it decreases. At the equator, surface salinity is lower.

Vertical Distribution of Salinity

 Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of the sea.
 Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation or decreased by
the input of freshwaters, such as from the rivers.
 Salinity at depth is very much fixed because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or the salt is
‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface zones and the
deep zones of the oceans.
 The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
 Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called
the halocline (compare this with thermocline), where salinity increases sharply.
 Other factors being constant, increasing the salinity of seawater causes its density to
increase. High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads
to stratification by salinity.
Salt Budget
It is also known as the salt cycle. It involves all the processes through which salt moves
from the ocean into the lithosphere, to a certain extent into the atmosphere, and back into
the oceans.

 Moving water, including groundwater, leaches minerals from the rocks through the process
of surface erosion. The mineral-laced water joins the rivers and streams which finally reach
the oceans. These minerals add to the salinity levels of the ocean waters.
 Some of the salts in the ocean waters accumulate at the ocean bottom through the process
of sedimentation turning into mineralized rocks. Over a period of millions of years, some of
these rocks get raised above the ocean surface due to plate tectonics, or due to volcanic
activity. This brings the salt back to the lithosphere in the form of minerals (rocks).
 Salt from the oceans also gets sprayed into the atmosphere due to the action of wind. This
salt returns to the lithosphere mixed with precipitation. However, this constitutes a tiny
fraction of salt moving from the land to the sea and vice versa.
 Salt cycle operates over a very long period of time.

Every year, around 3 billion tons of salt get added to the oceans from the land. A tiny
fraction of this salt is extracted by humans for daily consumption.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Vertical & Horizontal Temperature Distribution of

Oceans
ByLotusAriseDecember 22, 2021
2 Comments

 Oceans absorb more than 80 percent of the solar radiation that reaches the earth.
Moreover, water has a remarkable capacity for absorbing heat.
 The uppermost 10 percent of the oceans contain more heat than the entire
atmosphere.
 The temperature of the oceans is not uniform. It differs from latitude to latitude and from
the surface to the bottom.
 The major determinants of ocean temperature are:
 Latitude: The surface temperature of the oceans declines from the equator towards the
poles as the Sun’s rays are vertical on the equator and become slanting as one move
towards the poles
 Prevailing Winds: Direction of the prevailing winds such as the Trade Winds, Westerlies
etc., determines the surface temperature of ocean waters at a point. For instance, eastern
edges of the ocean along the trade wind belt have cooler waters due to the pushing of the
warm waters by the trade winds away from the coast causing the upwelling of bottom
waters.
 Unequal distribution of Land and Water: The Northern Hemisphere has more land area
than that of the Southern Hemisphere. Consequently, the oceans of the Northern are
warmer than that of the Southern Oceans.
 Evaporation Rate: The volume of water that evaporates from the ocean surface is around
350,000 cubic kilometres per annum. However, the rate of evaporation is not uniform
across different latitudes. Warmer tropical ocean waters have higher evaporation rate than
the cooler temperate ocean waters.
 The density of water: The density of ocean water is mostly a function of its temperature
and salinity. The density of waters also varies from latitude to latitude. In the areas of high
salinity, the ocean waters are of a relatively higher temperature and vice versa.
 Ocean Currents: Surface temperature of oceans is also controlled by cold and warm
currents. The presence of warm water increases the temperature and consequently the rate
of evaporation. Consequently, the region records more rainfall, while the cold current
 reduces the temperature of the moisture-laden wind. The coast along which a cold water
current flows records more fog, but less precipitation.
 Local Factors: Submarine ridges, local weather conditions like storms, cyclones, winds,
fogs, cloudiness, the rate of evaporation, lapse rate, condensation, and precipitation also
affect the distribution of temperature of the oceans.
 The study of the temperature of the oceans is important for determining the
 movement of large volumes of water (vertical and horizontal ocean currents),
 type and distribution of marine organisms at various depths of oceans,
 climate of coastal lands, etc.
 Source of Heat in Oceans
 The sun is the principal source of energy (Insolation).
 The ocean is also heated by the inner heat of the ocean itself (earth’s interior is hot. At the
sea surface, the crust is only about 5 to 30 km thick). But this heat is negligible compared to
that received from sun.

Vertical Distribution of Temperature:

 Both energy and sunlight decrease with depth in the oceans.
 Only about 45 percent of light energy striking the ocean surface reaches a depth of
about one meter, and only 16 percent reaches a depth of 10 meters.
 On the basis of the temperature, the ocean depths may be divided into the following three
zones:
 Surface Zone or Mixed Zone: This is also known as the Photic zone or Euphoric zone. It
is the upper layer of the ocean. In this layer, the temperature and salinity are relatively
constant. It contains about 2 percent of the total volume of water in the ocean. It is limited to
a depth of about 100 meters.
 Thermocline: It lies between 100 metres and 1000 metres. It contains about 18 percent of
the total volume of water in the ocean. There is a steep fall in temperature in this zone. The
density of water increases with increasing depth.
 Deep Zone: This zone lies below 1000 metres in the mid-latitudes. This zone contains
about 80 percent of the total volume of water in the ocean. The temperature in this zone
remains constant. The ocean bottom always has a temperature which is one or two
degrees Celsius above the freezing point.

Thermocline

 The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and the
deeper layers.
 The boundary usually begins around 100 – 400 m below the sea surface and extends
several hundred of meters downward.
 This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is called
the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found below the
thermocline in the deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures approach 0° C.
Horizontal Temperature Distribution of Oceans
 In general, the temperature of the surface water in the lower latitudes is about 26
degrees Celsius which decreases towards poles.
 The oceans of the Northern Hemisphere record an average temperature of 19.4
degrees Celsius. However, the average temperature recorded at various latitudes also
varies with 22 degrees Celsius recorded at 20 degrees latitude, and 14 degrees
Celsius recorded at 40 degrees latitude in the Northern Hemisphere.
 At the poles, the temperature drops to 0 degrees Celsius.
 The maximum and minimum annual temperatures of ocean water in the Northern
Hemisphere are in the months of August and February respectively.
 The average annual range of temperature is about 12 degrees Celsius.
 The highest annual range of temperature is recorded in the North Atlantic
Ocean. Moreover, the annual range of temperature is higher for the inland seas as
compared to the open oceans.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Ocean Resources: Biotic and Abiotic – UPSC

Geography
ByLotusAriseNovember 13, 2020
7 Comments
In this article, you can read about the Ocean Resources: Biotic And Abiotic (marine mineral
resources) that the structure of the Earth is composed of – for UPSC Geography.

Ocean Resources
The Ocean is one of Earth’s most valuable natural resources. It provides food in the form of
fish and shellfish—about 200 billion pounds are caught each year.

Ocean resources provide jobs, goods, and services for billions of people around the world
and have immense economic importance. Their resources include food, fuel, renewable
energy, minerals, sand and gravel, and tourism.

It is mined for minerals (salt, sand, gravel, and some manganese, copper, nickel, iron, and
cobalt can be found in the deep sea) and drilled for crude oil.
The ocean plays a critical role in removing carbon from the atmosphere and providing oxygen. It
regulates Earth’s climate.

Typically Ocean Resources can be classified in to two broad categories –

1. Biotic Resources
 Planktons
 Nektons
 Benthos
2. Abiotic Resources
 Mineral
 Energy

Biotic Resources
 Biotic means alive and Abiotic means nonliving.
 Biotic resources of the seas include fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, corals, reptiles and
mammals etc.

Planktons
Plankton are the diverse collection of organisms found in water that are unable to propel
themselves against a current.

 Phytoplanktons– floating and drifting micro plants.

 Autotrophs
  Eg- algae and diatoms
 Zooplanktons– floating and drifting micro animals.

Nektons
Nekton (or swimmers) are living organisms that are able to swim and move independently of
currents at various depths of seas and oceans.

Nektons –

1. fishes
 pelagic
 demersal
2. mammals
 dolphin
 Blue
 whale

Fishes

 Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of ocean or lake waters – being neither close to the
bottom nor near the shore
 Demersal fish that live on or near the bottom.
Benthos
Benthos is the community of organisms that live on, in, or near the seabed, also known as the
benthic zone. This community lives in from tidal pools along the foreshore, out to the continental
shelf, and
then down to the abyssal depths.

Benthos –

1. mobile
2. immobile
Mineral Reserves
1. Mineral dissolved in seawater
2. Continental Shelf and Slope Deposits
3. Deep ocean bottom deposits

1. Mineral dissolved in sea-water

1. Salt
2. Bromine
3. Magnesium
4. Gold
5. Zinc
6. Uranium
7. Thorium

2. Continental Shelf and Slope Deposits

 Sulfur – associated with marine volcanism.

 Ex. Gulf of Mexico – a rich source of sulfur

Magnetite reserves are found along the circum pacific volcanic belt.

 monazite sand (source of thorium) at Kerala coast

 Gold (Alaska)
 Zircon (Brazil, Australia)
 Diamond (SouthAfrica)
 Calcium-– Peruvian coast rich deposits of calcium and phosphate
 Sand and gravel – significant building materials widely found on beds of continental shelves
 Fishes are rich in nitrate and phosphate, high protein, medicinal use
 Pearls
3. Deep ocean bottom deposits

 Manganese nodules– It comprises several minerals like nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, zinc,
etc.
 The maximum percentage of Iron and Manganese.
 Cobalt-rich marine deposits associated with seamounts and guyots.
 Phosphate-in form of phosphoritic modules on shallow seabeds.
 Polymetallic nodules
 Polymetallic nodules are rounded accretions of manganese and iron hydroxides that
cover vast areas of the seafloor but are most abundant on abyssal plains.

nodule polymétallique

Energy reserves
 Renewable
 OTEC
 Wave
 Tidal
 Wind
  Non-Renewable
 Gas hydrates
 Mineral oil
 Natural gas

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) –

 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the temperature difference between a
cooler deep and warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run a heat engine and produce
useful work, usually in the form of electricity.
 However, since the temperature differential is small, the thermal efficiency is low, making its
economic feasibility a challenge.

Wave Energy –

 Wave energy is produced when electricity generators are placed on the surface of the
ocean. The energy provided is most often used in desalination plants, power plants, and
water pumps. Energy output is determined by wave height, wave speed, wavelength, and
water density.

Tidal energy –

 Tidal energy is produced through the use of tidal energy generators.

 Large underwater turbines are placed in areas with high tidal movements and are designed
to capture the kinetic motion of ocean tides in order to produce electricity.
Offshore Wind energy –

 Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy refers to the construction of wind farms in
bodies of water to generate electricity from wind. Stronger wind speeds are available
offshore compared to on land, so offshore wind power’s contribution in terms of electricity
supplied is higher.
Blue Economy
 The concept was introduced by Gunter Pauli in his 2010 book- “The Blue Economy: 10
years, 100 innovations, 100 million jobs”.
 It is the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and
jobs, and ocean ecosystem health.
 It advocates the greening of ocean development strategies for higher productivity and
conservation of the ocean’s health.
 It encompasses–
 Renewable Energy: Sustainable marine energy can play a vital role in social and economic
development.
 Fisheries: Sustainable fisheries can generate more revenue, more fish, and help restore
fish stocks.
 Maritime Transport: Over 80% of international goods traded are transported by sea.
 Tourism: Ocean and coastal tourism can bring jobs and economic growth.
 Climate Change: Oceans are an important carbon sink (blue carbon) and help mitigate
climate change.
 Waste Management: Better waste management on land can help oceans recover.
 Blue Economy emphasizes on integration of the development of ocean economy with social
inclusion, environmental sustainability, combined with an innovative business model.
 This is reflected in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14), which calls to conserve and
sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development.

Need for Blue Economy

 Oceans cover three-quarters of the Earth’s surface, contain 97% of the Earth’s water, and
represent 99% of the living area on the planet.
  Oceans protect biodiversity, keep the planet cool, and absorb about 30% of global
CO2 emissions.
 At least 3-5% of global GDP is derived from oceans.
 Blue economy, through sustainable use of oceans, has great potential for boosting
economic growth by providing opportunities for income generation and jobs, etc.
 It can support food security, and diversification to address new resources for energy, new
drugs valuable chemicals, protein food, deep-sea minerals, security, etc.
 It is the next sunrise sector.

Challenges
 The threat of sea-borne terror – piracy and armed robbery, maritime terrorism, illicit trade
in crude oil, arms, drug and human trafficking and smuggling of contraband, etc.
 Natural Disasters – every year tsunamis, cyclones, hurricanes typhoons, etc leave
thousands of people stranded and property worth millions destroyed.
 Man-Made problems – Oil spills, climate change continue to risk the stability of the
maritime domain.
 Impact of climate change – changes in sea temperature, acidity, threaten marine life,
habitats, and the communities that depend on them.
 Marine pollution – in form of excess nutrients from untreated sewerage, agricultural runoff,
and marine debris such as plastics
 Overexploitation of marine resources – illegal, unreported, and unregulated extraction of
marine resources.

Blue Economy for India

 Blue economy presents India with an unprecedented opportunity to meet its national socio-
economic objectives as well as strengthen connectivity with neighbors.
 Blue Economy can help in focusing on livelihood generation, achieving energy security,
building ecological resilience, and improving the health and living standards of coastal
communities.
 The blue economy would reinforce and strengthen the efforts of the Indian government as it
strives to achieve the SDGs of hunger and poverty eradication along with sustainable use
of marine resources by 2030.
 India has a long coastline of 7,517 km covering nine states and two union territories – with
an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 mn. sq. km.
 The marine services sector could serve as the backbone of its blue economy and help India
become 5 trillion dollar economy by 2025.
 The Indian Ocean is a major conduit of trade with as much as 80% of global oil trade
happening through it.
 Better connectivity in the region will significantly cut the transport cost and maritime
wastage of resources making the trade sustainable and cost-effective.

Developments Initiated by India

 The Sagarmala project is the strategic initiative for port-led development through the
extensive use of IT-enabled services for the modernization of ports.

 The project aims at developing Inland waterways and coastal shipping which will
revolutionize maritime logistics, creating million new jobs, reduce logistics costs, etc.
 It focuses on the development of coastal communities and people in the sustainable use of
ocean resources, modern fishing techniques, and coastal tourism.
  India has an umbrella scheme by the name of O-SMART which aims at regulated use of
oceans, marine resources for sustainable development.
 Integrated Coastal Zone Management focuses on the conservation of coastal and marine
resources and improving livelihood opportunities for coastal communities etc.
 Development of Coastal Economic Zones (CEZ) under Sagarmala would become a
microcosm of the blue economy, wherein industries and townships that depend on the sea
will contribute to global trade.
 India has a National Fisheries policy for promoting the ‘Blue Growth Initiative’ which focuses
on sustainable utilization of fisheries wealth from the marine and other aquatic resources.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

El-Nino, La-Nina, ENSO, El Nino Modoki – UPSC

Geography
ByLotusAriseNovember 13, 2020
3 Comments
In this article, You will read El-Nino, La-Nina, ENSO, El Nino Modoki, Madden-Julian
Oscillation (MJO) – for UPSC (Geography).

El-Nino and La Niña are opposite phases of what is known as the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. The ENSO is a recurring climatic pattern involving temperature
changes in the waters of the eastern and central tropical Pacific Ocean, and changes in the
patterns of upper and lower-level winds, sea level pressure, and tropical rainfall across the Pacific
Basin.

El Nino is often called the warm phase and La Nina is called the cold phase of ENSO. These
deviations from the normal surface temperatures can have a large-scale impact on the global
weather conditions and overall climate.

El Nino
The phrase “El Niño” refers to the Christ Child and was coined by fishermen along the
coasts of Ecuador and Peru to describe the warming of the central and eastern pacific.

 El Niño is the name given to the occasional development of

warm ocean surface waters along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. El
Niño events occur irregularly at intervals of 2–7 years, although the average is about once
every 3-4 years.
 When this warming occurs the usual upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich deep ocean water is
significantly reduced.
 El Niño normally occurs around Christmas and usually lasts for a few weeks to a few
months.
 Sometimes an extremely warm event can develop that lasts for much longer time periods.
In the 1990s, strong El Niños developed in 1991 and lasted until 1995, and from fall 1997 to
spring 1998.

Normal Conditions
 In a normal year, a surface low pressure develops in the region of northern Australia and
Indonesia and a high-pressure system over the coast of Peru. As a result, the trade
winds over the Pacific Ocean move strongly from east to west.
 The easterly flow of the trade winds carries warm surface waters westward,
bringing convective storms (thunderstorms) to Indonesia and coastal Australia. Along
the coast of Peru, cold bottom cold nutrient-rich water wells up to the surface to replace
the warm water that is pulled to the west.

El-Nino

Walker circulation (Occurs during Normal Years)

  The Walker circulation (walker cell) is caused by the pressure gradient force that results
from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific ocean, and a low pressure
system over Indonesia.

This cross-section of the Pacific Ocean, along the equator, illustrates the pattern of atmospheric
circulation typically found at the equatorial Pacific. Note the position of the thermocline.

 Thermocline == noun a temperature gradient in a lake or other body of water, separating

layers at different temperatures.
 The Walker cell is indirectly related to upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. This
brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks.

A halocline is most commonly confused with a thermocline – a thermocline is an area within a

body of water that marks a drastic change in temperature. A halocline can coincide with
a thermocline and form a pycnocline. The pycnocline encompasses both the halocline (salinity
gradients) and the thermocline (temperature gradients) refers to the rapid change in density with
depth. Haloclines are common in water-filled limestone caves near the ocean.
During El Nino year
 In an El Niño year, air pressure drops over large areas of the central Pacific and
along the coast of South America.
 The normal low-pressure system is replaced by a weak high in the western Pacific
(the southern oscillation). This change in pressure pattern causes the trade winds to be
reduced == Weak Walker Cell. Sometimes Walker Cell might even get reversed.
 This reduction allows the equatorial counter current (current along doldrums) to
accumulate warm ocean water along the coastlines of Peru and Ecuador.

 This accumulation of warm water causes the thermocline to drop in the eastern part of the
Pacific Ocean which cuts off the upwelling of cold deep ocean water along the coast of
Peru.
 Climatically, the development of an El Niño brings drought to the western Pacific, rains
to the equatorial coast of South America, and convective storms and hurricanes to
the central Pacific.

Effects of El Nino
 The warmer waters had a devastating effect on marine life existing off the coast of
Peru and Ecuador.
 Fish catches off the coast of South America were lower than in the normal year (Because
there is no upwelling).
 Severe droughts occur in Australia, Indonesia, India, and southern Africa.
 Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, and the Gulf of Mexico.
How El Nino impacts monsoon rainfall in India
 El Nino and Indian monsoons are inversely related.
 The most prominent droughts in India – six of them – since 1871 have been El Nino
droughts, including the recent ones in 2002 and 2009
 However, not all El Nino years led to a drought in India. For instance, 1997/98 was a strong
El Nino year but there was no drought (Because of IOD).
 On the other hand, a moderate El Nino in 2002 resulted in one of the worst droughts.
 El Nino directly impacts India’s agrarian economy as it tends to lower the production of
summer crops such as rice, sugarcane, cotton, and oilseeds.
 The ultimate impact is seen in the form of high inflation and low gross domestic product
growth as agriculture contributes around 14 percent of the Indian economy.

El Nino Southern Oscillation [ENSO]

 The formation of an El Niño [Circulation of Water] is linked with Pacific Ocean circulation
pattern known as the southern oscillation [circulation of atmospheric pressure]
 Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and climatology, is a coherent inter-
annual fluctuation of atmospheric pressure over the tropical Indo-Pacific region.
 El Nino and Southern Oscillation coincide most of the times hence their combination is
called ENSO – El Nino Southern Oscillation.

Only El Nino == [Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Cold water in Western Pacific].

Only SO == [Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific + High Pressure over Western Pacific]

ENSO = [Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific] + [Cold water in
Western Pacific + High Pressure over Western Pacific].

Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons

 SO is a see-saw pattern of meteorological changes observed between the Eastern Pacific
and Western Pacific.
 When the Pressure was high over the equatorial Eastern Pacific, it was low over the
equatorial Western Pacific and vice versa.
 The pattern of low and high pressures gives rise to vertical circulation along the
equator with its rising limb over the low-pressure area and descending limb over the
high-pressure area. This is known as Walker Circulation.
 The location of low pressure and hence the rising limb over the Western Pacific is
considered to be conducive to good monsoon rainfall in India.
 It’s shifting eastward from its normal position, such as in El Nino years, reduces
monsoon rainfall in India.
 Due to the close association between an El Nino (E.N.) and the Southern Oscillation SO the
two are jointly referred to as an ENSO event.
 The Periodicity of SO is not fixed and its period varies from two to five years.
 Southern Oscillation Index (SOD) is used to measure the intensity of the Southern
Oscillation.
 This is the difference in pressure between Tahiti in French Polynesia (Central Pacific),
representing the Central Pacific Ocean, and Port Darwin, in northern Australia
representing the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
 The positive and negative values of the SOI i.e. Tahiti minus the Port Darwin pressure are
pointers towards good or bad rainfall in India.
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is same in India)

 Although ENSO was statistically effective in explaining several past droughts in India, in
recent decades the ENSO-Monsoon relationship seemed to weaken in the Indian
subcontinent. For e.g. 1997, strong ENSO failed to cause drought in India.
 However, it was later discovered that just like ENSO was an event in the Pacific Ocean, a
similar seesaw ocean-atmosphere system in the Indian Ocean was also at play. It was
discovered in 1999 and named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature
between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian
Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of
Indonesia.
 IOD develops in the equatorial region of the Indian Ocean from April to May and
peaks in October.
 With Positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Bengal towards the Arabian Sea). This results in the Arabian Sea (the western Indian
Ocean near the African Coast) being much warmer and the eastern Indian Ocean
around Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
 In the negative dipole year (negative IOD), the reverse happens to make Indonesia
much warmer and rainier.
  It was demonstrated that a positive IOD index often negated the effect of ENSO, resulting in
increased Monsoon rains in several ENSO years like 1983, 1994, and 1997.
 Further, it was shown that the two poles of the IOD – the eastern pole (around Indonesia)
and the western pole (off the African coast) were independently and cumulatively affecting
the quantity of rains for the Monsoon in the Indian subcontinent.
 Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD was later discovered and named
as Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation [EQUINOO][Oscillation of warm water and
atmospheric pressure between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea].

Impact on IOD on Cyclonogeneis in Northern Indian Ocean

 Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than the Bay of Bengal) results in more cyclones
than usual in the Arabian Sea.
 Negative IOD results in stronger than usual cyclogenesis (Formation of Tropical
Cyclones) in the Bay of Bengal. Cyclogenesis in the Arabian Sea is suppressed.

The El Niño Modoki

 El Niño Modoki is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the tropical Pacific.
 It is different from another coupled phenomenon in the tropical Pacific namely, El Niño.
 Conventional El Niño is characterized by strong anomalous warming in the eastern
equatorial Pacific.
 Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated with strong anomalous warming in the central
tropical Pacific and cooling in the eastern and western tropical Pacific (see figure
below).
El Niño Modoki Impacts
 The El Niño Modoki phenomenon is characterized by the anomalously warm central
equatorial Pacific flanked by anomalously cool regions in both west and east.
 Such zonal gradients result in anomalous two-cell Walker Circulation over the tropical
Pacific, with a wet region in the central Pacific.

La Nina
 After an El Niño event weather conditions usually return back to normal.
 However, in some years the trade winds can become extremely strong and an abnormal
accumulation of cold water can occur in the central and eastern Pacific. This event is called
La Niña.
  A strong La Niña occurred in 1988 and scientists believe that it may have been responsible
for the summer drought over central North America. During this period, the Atlantic Ocean
has seen very active hurricane seasons in 1998 and 1999.
 One of the hurricanes that developed, named Mitch, was the strongest October hurricane
ever to develop in about 100 years of record keeping.

Effects of La Nina
Some of the other weather effects of La Niña include

 La Niña is characterized by lower-than-normal air pressure over the western

Pacific. These low-pressure zones contribute to increased rainfall.
 abnormally heavy monsoons in India and Southeast Asia,
 cool and wet winter weather in southeastern Africa, wet weather in eastern Australia,
 cold winter in western Canada and the northwestern United States,
 winter drought in the southern United States.
 La Niña conditions enhance the rainfall associated with the Southwest monsoon, it
has a negative impact on rainfall associated with the Northeast monsoon.
 Rainfall associated with the summer monsoon in Southeast Asia tends to be greater
than normal, especially in northwest India and Bangladesh. This generally benefits the
Indian economy, which depends on the monsoon for agriculture and industry.
 Strong La Niña events are associated with catastrophic floods in northern Australia.
 La Niña events are also associated with rainier-than-normal conditions are over
southeastern Africa and northern Brazil.
 Drier-than-normal conditions are observed along the west coast of tropical South
America, the Gulf Coast of the United States, and the pampas region of southern South
America.
 La Niña usually has a positive impact on the fishing industry of western South
America. Upwelling brings cold, nutrient-rich waters to the surface. Nutrients include
plankton eaten by fish and crustaceans.

Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)

Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is the largest element of the intra-seasonal variability in the
tropical atmosphere.

Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is an oceanic-atmospheric phenomenon which affects weather

activities across the globe. It brings major fluctuation in tropical weather on weekly to
monthly timescales.
The MJO can be characterized as an eastward moving ‘pulse’ of cloud and rainfall near the
equator that typically recurs every 30 to 60 days.

It’s a traversing phenomenon and is most prominent over the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Phases of Madden-Julian Oscillation

 The MJO consists of two parts or phases. Strong MJO activity often dissects the
planet into halves. One half within the enhanced convective phase and the other half in
the suppressed convective phase.
 Enhanced rainfall (or convective) phase: winds at the surface converge, and the air is
pushed up throughout the atmosphere. At the top of the atmosphere, the winds reverse
(i.e., diverge). Such rising air motion in the atmosphere tends to increase
condensation and rainfall.
 Suppressed rainfall phase: winds converge at the top of the atmosphere, forcing air
to sink and, later, to diverge at the surface. As air sinks from high altitudes, it warms
and dries, which suppresses rainfall.
 It is this entire dipole structure, that moves west to east with time in the Tropics, causing
more cloudiness, rainfall, and even storminess in the enhanced convective phase, and
more sunshine and dryness in the suppressed convective phase.

How Does MJO Affect Indian Monsoon?

 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), El Nino, and MJO are all oceanic and atmospheric
phenomena, which affect weather on a large scale. IOD only pertains to the Indian
Ocean, but the other two affect weather on a global scale-up to the mid-latitudes.
 IOD and El Nino remain over their respective positions, while MJO is a traversing
phenomenon.
 The journey of MJO goes through eight phases.
 When it is over the Indian Ocean during the Monsoon season, it brings good rainfall
over the Indian subcontinent.
  On the other hand, when it witnesses a longer cycle and stays over the Pacific
Ocean, MJO brings bad news for the Indian Monsoon.
 It is linked with enhanced and suppressed rainfall activity in the tropics and is very
important for the Indian monsoonal rainfall.
 Periodicity of MJO:
 If it is nearly 30 days then it brings good rainfall during the Monsoon season.
 If it is above 40 days then MJO doesn’t give good showers and could even lead to a dry
Monsoon.
 Shorter the cycle of MJO, better the Indian Monsoon. Simply because it then visits the
Indian Ocean more often during the four-month-long period.
 The presence of MJO over the Pacific Ocean along with an El Nino is detrimental for
Monsoon rains.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Coral Reefs & Coral Reefs Bleaching – UPSC

ByLotusAriseDecember 22, 2021
2 Comments

 Corals are nothing but calcareous rocks, formed from the skeletons of minute sea
animals, called polyps.
 The polyps extract calcium salts from seawater to form hard skeletons which protect
their soft bodies. These skeletons give rise to corals.
 The corals live in colonies fastened to the rocky seafloor. New generations develop on
skeletons of dead polyps. The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards as
a cemented calcareous rocky mass collectively called corals.
 The shallow rock created by these depositions is called a reef. These reefs, later on,
evolve into islands.
 The corals Occur in different forms and colours, depending upon the nature of salts or
constituents they are made of.
  The progressive development of corals appears over the sea surface in different forms over
a period of time. Small marine plants (algae) also deposit calcium carbonate, thus
contributing to coral growth.

Ideal conditions for coral growth

1. Corals thrive in tropical waters-between 30°N and 30°S latitudes.
2. The ideal depths for coral growth are 45 m to 55 m below sea surface, where there is
abundant sunlight available.
3. The temperature of water should be around 20°C.
4. Clear salt water is suitable for coral growth, while both fresh water and highly saline
water are harmful for polyp growth.
5. Adequate supply of oxygen and microscopic marine food, called plankton, is
essential for growth and existence. As the food supply is more abundant on the seaward
side, corals grow more rapidly on the seaward side.

Types of Coral Reefs

 Coral reefs can be classified on the basis of large-scale reef morphology; the size
and shape of a reef, and its relation to nearby land (if any).
 This is usually (but not always) sufficient to clearly distinguish one type from the others.
 There is often a great deal of overlap among the major reef types (within a given
biogeographic region) in terms of the dominant groups of animals and plants, as well as
their ecological interactions.
 There are three major types of coral reefs: Fringing Reef, Barrier Reef, and Atoll :

Lagoon

Lagoon – as used in the context of coral reef typology – refers to a comparatively wide band of
water that lies between the shore and the main area of reef development, and contains at
least some deep portions.
Fringing Reef
 It is by far the most common of the three major types of coral reefs.
 It is a coral platform attached to a continental coast or an island, sometimes separated
by a narrow, shallow lagoon or channel.
 A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt, 0.5 km to 2.5 km wide.
 This type of reef grows from the deep sea bottom with the seaward side sloping
steeply into the deep sea.
 Coral polyps do not extend outwards because of sudden and large increases in
depth.
 The surface of a fringing reef is rough, as it is covered with coral remains forming a boulder
zone or reef flat.

Barrier Reef
 This is the largest of the three reefs, runs for hundreds of kilometres and is several
kilometres wide.
 It extends as a broken, irregular ring around the coast, or an island, running almost parallel
to it.
 A barrier reef is characterized by the distant location of the reef from the coast with a
broader and deeper lagoon, which is sometimes joined with the seawater through
one or more channels cutting across the barrier reef.
 A barrier reef is very thick, going even below 180 metres from the surface with the
seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea. The surface of a barrier reef is covered with
coral debris, boulders, and sand.
 The most famous example of this type of reef is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast
of northeastern Australia, which is 1900 km long and 160 km wide.
Atolls
 It is a ring-like reef, which, partly or completely, encloses a lagoon. The lagoon may
have a level surface, but the seaward side of the reef slopes steeply into the deep sea.
 The lagoon has a depth 80-150 metres and may be joined with seawater through a
number of channels cutting across the reef.
 Atolls are located at great distances from deep-sea platforms, where the submarine
features may help in formation of atolls, such as a submerged island or a volcanic cone
which may reach a level suitable for coral growth.
 Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than any other ocean. The Fiji atoll and the
Funafuti atoll in the Ellice Island are well-known examples of atolls. A large number of
atolls also occur in the Lakshadweep islands.
 In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are common
in French Polynesia, the Caroline and Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and the Cook
Islands.
 The Indian Ocean also contains numerous atoll formations. Examples are found in
the Maldives and Chagos island groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island
group.

Formation of Lakshadweep Islands (Atoll Formation)

  The basic coral reef classification scheme described above was first proposed by Charles
Darwin, and is still widely used today.
 Darwin theorized that fringing reefs began to grow near the shorelines of new islands as
ecological conditions became ideal for hard coral growth.
 Then, as the island began to gradually subside into the sea, the coral was able to keep
pace in terms of growth and remained in place at the sea surface, but farther from shore; it
was now a barrier reef.
 Eventually, the island disappeared below the sea surface, leaving only the ring of
coral encircling the central lagoon; an atoll had formed.

Distribution of Coral Reefs

 The majority of reef-building corals are found within tropical and subtropical waters. These
typically occur between 30° north and 30° south latitudes.
 The Indonesian/Philippines archipelago has the world’s greatest concentration of
reefs and the greatest coral diversity.
 Other areas of reef concentration are the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, the Red Sea,
and the Caribbean, the latter having a much lower diversity than all major Indo-
Pacific regions.
 World’s major coral reef regions:
 Caribbean/ western Atlantic
 Eastern Pacific
 Central and western Pacific
 Indian Ocean
 Arabian Gulf
 Red Sea
Coral Reefs Bleaching
 Coral reef ecosystems worldwide have been subject to unprecedented degradation over the
past few decades. Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and
natural events.
 Recent accelerated coral reef decline seems to be related mostly to anthropogenic impacts
(overexploitation, overfishing, increased sedimentation, and nutrient overloading.
 Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, flooding,
high and low-temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, etc.
 Coral bleaching occurs when the relationship between the coral host and marine algae,
which give coral much of their colour, breaks down. Without the marine algae, the tissue of
the coral animal appears transparent and the coral’s bright white skeleton is revealed. Coral
reef bleaching is a common stress response of corals to many of the various disturbances
mentioned above.
 Corals begin to starve once they bleach. While some corals are able to feed themselves,
most corals struggle to survive without their algae. If conditions return to normal, corals
can regain their algae, return to their normal colour and survive. However, this stress is
likely to cause decreased coral growth and reproduction, and increased susceptibility to
disease.
 Bleached corals often die if the stress persists. Coral reefs that have high rates of
coral death following bleaching can take many years or decades to recover.
Causes of Coral Bleaching
 As coral reef bleaching is a general response to stress, it can be induced by a variety of
factors, alone or in combination.
 It is therefore difficult to unequivocally identify the causes for bleaching events.
 The following stressors have been implicated in coral reef bleaching events.
 Temperature
 Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin and therefore, low and high
sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching. Bleaching events occur during sudden
temperature drops accompanying intense upwelling episodes, seasonal cold-air outbreaks
etc.
 Solar Irradiance
  Bleaching during the summer months, during seasonal temperature and irradiance maxima
often occurs disproportionately in shallow-living corals and on the exposed summits of
colonies.
 Subaerial Exposure
 Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during events such as extreme low
tides, ENSO-related sea level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
 Fresh Water Dilution
 Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated precipitation and runoff has been
demonstrated to cause coral reef bleaching.
 Other causes includes the increase in the concentration of inorganic Nutrients,
sedimentation, oxygen starvation caused by an increase in zooplankton levels as a result of
overfishing, ocean acidification, changes in salinity, sea level change due to global
warming, cyanide fishing etc.

Spatialand Temporal range of Coral Reef bleaching

 Mass coral moralities in coral reef ecosystems have been reported in all major reef
provinces since the 1870s.
 The frequency and scale of bleaching disturbances has increased dramatically since the
late 70’s. This is possibly due to more observers and a greater interest in reporting in
recent years.
 More than 60 coral reef bleaching events out of 105 mass coral moralities were reported
during 1979-1990, compared with only three bleaching events among 63 mass coral
moralities recorded during the preceding 103 years.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Sea-Level Changes
ByLotusAriseDecember 22, 2021
3 Comments

 By changes in sea level, we mean the fluctuations in the mean sea level, i.e., the
average level of the sea surface. Thus, the changes in sea level may also be termed as
a relative change in sea level.
 During the relative rise in sea level, either the land or the sea surface may undergo
upliftment or subsidence, or both may rise and fall at the same time.

The Major Categories of Change in Sea Level are Mentioned Below

  Eustatic changes occur when the volume of seawater changes due to factors such
as global warming and melting of ice sheets (rise in sea level) or ice ages (fall in sea
level).
 Tectonic changes occur due to a change in the level of the land. These changes occur
due to the following factors:
 (a) Isostatic changes which take place due to addition or removal of load, e.g., during
ice ages, landmass subsided due to the tremendous load exerted by the glacial ice; as a
result, there was an apparent rise in sea level. On the other hand, the landmass of
Scandinavia is still rising as the glacial ice is being removed
 (b) Epeirogenic movement occurs due to broad-scale tilting of continents which may
result in the rise of one part of the continent in relation to the mean sea level even as the
other part may subside causing an apparent rise in sea level.
 (c) Orogenic movement is related to folding and flexuring (stretching of a part of the
earth’s crust) of the lithosphere which results in the formation of lofty mountains and an
apparent fall in sea level.

Relevance of the study of sea-level changes

 The study of sea-level changes is important. It provides key evidence regarding climate
change and also enables us to draw a benchmark for estimating the rates of tectonic
upliftment in the past geological periods.
 Sea level directly influences the rate and pattern of erosional and depositional
processes in the coastal areas.
 By studying the fluctuations of sea level it becomes possible to assess the suitability of
coastal locations for industrial development.
 The fluctuations in sea level determine the availability of land, particularly in coastal
areas, which are important for agricultural purposes.
 The submergence of land in the future could be a disaster for human civilization as it may
endanger our food security.
 By predicting climate change and the possible areas to be submerged undersea, it
becomes possible for the low-lying countries to build coastal dykes and embankments.
 The task of mapping of areas likely to be affected by storm surges and periodic flooding
becomes possible only if we know the likely areas to be affected by future sea-level rise.
The construction of tidal power generation units needs suitable locations.
 By identifying the areas of possible submergence in the near future it becomes possible for
us to set up tidal power generation plants in suitable locations.

Mechanisms of the change in sea-level

 The fluctuations of sea level involve three basic mechanisms:
 changes in ocean water volume;
 changes in ocean basin volume;
 changes in the geoid, i.e., the shape of the earth changes in the volume of ocean water:
 The present sea level would rise by about 60 to 75 m if the ice in Antarctica melts, whereas
the Greenland ice cap would contribute about 5 m rise in sea level.
 It is assumed that, in such a case, the added load of ocean water would lead to the sinking
of the ocean floor due to isostatic compensation.
 So the total rise of sea level would be about 40-50 m. However, the isostatic
adjustment of the land and the ocean is still not clear due to a lack of data.
Changes in the volume of the ocean basin
Changes in the volume of the ocean basins and the resultant changes in sea level were an
important event of the Mesozoic Era and the early Cenozoic Era.

Such changes occur due to the following factors:

1. Changes in the volume of mid-oceanic ridges: An important tectonic cause of the sea-
level rise, changes in the volume of mid-oceanic ridges may occur due to periodic
reorganization of plate boundaries which cause variations in the total length of the ridge
system. If the lithosphere is warm, the spreading rate increases causing an increase in
ridge volume and vice versa. The sea level rises when the oceanic ridge increases in
volume.
2. Accumulation of sediments on the ocean floor: Sediments are produced by the
denudation of continents and are deposited on the ocean floor. The deposition of sediments
may result in the subsidence of the ocean floor and the removal of sediments either through
subduction or upliftment. If we do not take these two factors into consideration, there will be
a rise in sea level due to the decreased volume of the ocean basin.
3. Impact of orogenesis: As orogenesis causes shortening and thickening of continental
crust and a reduction in the area of continents, the sea level falls as a result of an increase
in the volume of the ocean basin.

Short-Term Changes in Global Sea Level:

 Short-term changes occur during a year. Commonly, seasonal variations of 5-6 cm in

sea level are observed in a year. But the fluctuations of sea level reach 20-30 cm or more in
almost all coastal areas of the world. Even if the causes of such short-term changes are not
known, the fluctuations of sea level may be due to a complex interaction of the following
factors:
 1. Marine water density: Temperature and salinity control the density of seawater. Low
temperature and high salinity produce a high density of seawater and lower sea level. It is
due to a lower temperature and higher salinity that the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean
has a sea level30-50 cm higher than the Atlantic Ocean.
2. Atmospheric pressure: Low-pressure results in higher local sea level and vice versa. The
sea level rises locally in places of low pressure because water is sucked in by the upward
moving air mass.
3. Velocity of ocean currents: Fast-flowing ocean currents when taking a curved path cause
a rise in sea level on their outer fringes.
4. Ice formation and fall in sea level: During winter the ocean water trapped in the icecaps
of the northern and the southern hemispheres leads to a fall in sea level.
5. Piling up of water along windward coasts: A local rise of sea level occurs in the coastal
region as water is driven towards the coasts by an air mass, for example, the sea level rises
in the south and East Asia during the monsoon months due to landward movement of the
air mass. The twentieth century has observed short-term global sea-level rise due to the
following factors. Global warming in the last century due to anthropogenic activities have
resulted in the thermal expansion of ocean water.

Impact of the sea-level fall – changes in the base level of rivers, rejuvenated landforms,
extended shoreline, lengthening of rivers, death of coral reefs, the extension of ice caps.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Oceans Issues and Threats – UPSC Geography

ByLotusAriseNovember 13, 2020
1 Comment
Oceans Issues and Threats – Currently our Oceans are facing the following major problems:

 Over Fishing
 Predation of Top predators
 Ocean Acidification
 Coral Bleaching
 Ocean Dead Zone
 Heavy metal Pollution
 Plastic Pollution

Over Fishing
 Overfishing is having some serious impacts on our oceans. Not only does it work towards
wiping out a species, but also the other species of marine animals that are dependent upon
those fish for survival. It’s been shown that overfishing can cause marine animals to starve
since we’re taking food from their mouths in too large of numbers for them to be able to get
their fill. It is also estimated that most seas already need long term fishing bans if certain
species are to recover at all.
 Apart from it, the processes that are being used for fishing are causing more havoc. We use
some pretty destructive methods in how we pull catches, including bottom trawling which
destroys seafloor habitat and scoops up many unwanted fish and animals that are tossed
aside. We also pull far too many fish to be sustainable, pushing many species to the point
of being listed as threatened and endangered.
 The main reason for overfishing is a sudden increase in the demand for seafood. We are
trying to diversify our food sources and recently more impetus is given to seafood citing its
health benefits.

Predation of Top predators

  Sharks are killed in the tens of millions each year, mainly for their fins. It is a common
practice to catch sharks, cut off their fins, and toss them back into the ocean where they are
left to die. The fins are sold as an ingredient for soup. And the waste is extraordinary.
 Sharks are top-of-the-food-chain predators, which means their reproduction rate is slow.
Their numbers don’t bounce back easily from overfishing. On top of that, their predator
status also helps regulate the numbers of other species. When a major predator is taken
out of the loop, it’s usually the case that species lower on the food chain start to
overpopulate their habitat, creating a destructive downward spiral of the ecosystem.
 Whaling is also a major problem pushing the population of a blue whale to the brink.

Ocean Acidification
 Ocean acidification is no small issue. The basic science behind acidification is that the
ocean absorbs CO2 through natural processes, but at the rate at which we’re pumping it
into the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels, the ocean’s pH balance is dropping to the
point where life within the ocean is having trouble coping.
 “Ocean acidification is more rapid than ever in the history of the earth and if you look at the
pCO2 (partial pressure of carbon dioxide) levels we have reached now, you have to go
back 35 million years in time to find the equivalents,” said Jelle Bijma, chair of the
EuroCLIMATE program Scientific Committee and a biogeochemist at the Alfred Wegener-
Institute Bremerhaven.
 You need to understand that the pH of ocean water is basic. It is around 8.1 on average.
With ocean acidification, the pH is coming slightly less. This does not mean that is has
come less than 7. If it gets less than seven, then nothing would survive.

Coral Bleaching
What are Coral Reefs?
Coral reefs are the colonies of tiny living creatures that are found in oceans. They are the
underwater structures that are formed of coral polyps that are held together by calcium
carbonate. Coral reefs are also regarded as the tropical rainforest of the sea and occupy just
0.1% of the ocean’s surface but are home to 25% of marine species.  They are usually found
in shallow areas at a depth less than 150 feet. However, some coral reefs extend even deeper,
up to about 450 feet.

Coral polyps are the individual corals that are found on the calcium carbonate
exoskeletons of their ancestors. Corals can be found in all the oceans but the biggest coral
reefs are mostly found in the clear, shallow waters of the tropics and subtropics.

Growth conditions for Coral Reefs

1. The temperature of the water should not be below 20°C. The most favorable temperature
for the growth of the coral reefs is between 23°C to 25°C. The temperature should not
exceed 35°C.
2. Corals can survive only under saline conditions with an average salinity between 27% to
40%.
3. Coral reefs grow better in shallow water having a depth of less than 50 m. The depth of the
water should not exceed 200m.

Types of Coral Reefs

Coral Reefs are differentiated into three categories based on their shape, nature, and mode of
occurrence.
1. Fringing Reef: The coral reefs that are found very close to the land and forms a shallow
lagoon known as Boat Channel are called Fringing Coral Reefs. The Fringing Reefs
develop along with the islands and the continental margins. They grow from the deep
bottom of the sea and have their seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea. Fringing
Reefs are the most commonly found coral reefs among the three. For example Sakau
Island in New Hebrides, South Florida Reef.
2. Barrier Reef: Barrier Reefs are considered as the largest, highest and widest reefs among
the three coral reefs. They develop off the coast and parallel to the shore as a broken and
irregular ring. Being the largest reef among all, they run for 100kms and is several
kilometers wide. One example of the Barrier Reef is the Great Barrier Reef of Australia
which is 1200 miles long.
3. Atolls: An atoll can be defined as a reef that is roughly circular and surrounds a large
central lagoon. This lagoon is mostly deep having a depth of 80-150 meters. The atolls are
situated away from the deep sea platforms and are found around an island or on a
submarine platform in an elliptical form. For example Fiji Atolls, Suvadivo in the Maldives,
and Funafoothis Atoll of Ellice.
Coral Reefs in India

The major coral reefs in India include Palk Bay, the Gulf of Mannar, the Gulf of Kutch, the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep Islands, and Malvan. Among all these coral
reefs, the Lakshadweep reef is an example of an atoll while the rest are all fringing reefs.
Coral Bleaching
Basically, bleaching is when the corals expel certain algae known as zooxanthellae, which live in
the tissues of the coral in a symbiotic relationship.

About 90% of the energy of the coral is provided by the zooxanthellae which are endowed
with chlorophyll and other pigments. They are responsible for the yellow or reddish-brown
colors of the host coral.

When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients,

they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely
white. This phenomenon is called coral bleaching.

 The pale white color is of the translucent tissues of calcium carbonate which are visible due
to the loss of pigment-producing zooxanthellae.
 Corals can recover if the stress-caused bleaching is not severe.
 Coral bleaching has occurred in the Caribbean, Indian, and Pacific oceans on a regular
basis.
 When a coral bleaches, it does not die but comes pretty close to it. Some of the corals
may survive the experience and recover once the sea surface temperature returns to
normal levels.
Causes of Coral Bleaching?
 The rise in Sea Temperature: Most coral species live in waters close to the warmest
temperature they can tolerate i.e., a slight increase in ocean temperature can harm corals.
El Nino elevates the sea temperature and destroys coral reefs.
 Ocean Acidification: Due to rising in carbon dioxide levels, oceans absorb more carbon
dioxide. This increases the acidity of ocean water and inhibits the coral’s ability to create
calcareous skeletons, which is essential for their survival.
 Solar radiation and ultraviolet radiation: Changes in tropical weather patterns result in
less cloud cover and more radiation which induces coral bleaching.
 Infectious Diseases: Penetration of bacterium like vibrio shiloi inhibits photosynthesis of
zooxanthellae. These bacteria become more potent with elevated sea temperatures.
 Chemical Pollution: Increased nutrient concentrations affect corals by promoting
phytoplankton growth, which in turn supports increased numbers of organisms that
compete with coral for space.
 Increased Sedimentation: Land clearing and coastal construction result in high rates of
erosion and a higher density of suspended silt particles which can
 smother corals when particles settle out (sedimentation),
 reducing light availability (turbidity) and
 potentially reducing coral photosynthesis and growth.
 Human-Induced Threats: Over-fishing, pollution from agricultural and industrial runoff,
coral mining, development of industrial areas near coral ecosystems also adversely impact
corals.

Consequences
 Changes in coral communities can affect the species that depend on them, such as
the fish and invertebrates that rely on live coral for food, shelter. The loss of such marine
animals can disturb the entire food chain.
 Declines in genetic and species diversity may occur when corals die as a result of
bleaching.
 Healthy coral reefs attract divers and other tourists. Bleached and degraded reefs can
discourage tourism, which can affect the local economy.
 Coral bleaching can cause large shifts in fish communities. This can translate into
reduced catches for fishers, which in turn impacts food supply and associated economic
activities.
 Coral reefs protect coastlines by absorbing constant wave energy from the ocean,
thereby protecting people living near the coast from increased storm damage, erosion, and
flooding.

Ocean Dead Zone

 Dead zones are swaths of ocean that don’t support life due to a lack of oxygen, and global
warming is a prime suspect for what’s behind the shifts in ocean behavior that cause dead
zones. The number of dead zones is growing at an alarming rate, with over 400 known to
exist, and the number is expected to grow.
 Dead zone research underscores the interconnectedness of our planet. It appears that crop
biodiversity on land could help prevent dead zones in the ocean by reducing or eliminating
the use of fertilizers and pesticides that run off into the open ocean and are part of the
cause of dead zones.

Heavy metal Pollution

  Mercury is the scariest pollutant that is being added to the ocean water. What makes it
harmful is the fact that it is ending up on the dinner table. According to estimates, it is about
to increase. Almost all coastal countries are facing the problem of mercury poisoning.
 The long shelf life of mercury allows it to get bioaccumulated and magnified. The main
source of mercury in water is Coal based thermal power plants.
 Under Minamata, convention countries are trying to reduce the use and production of
mercury.

Plastic Pollution
 Large masses of plastic are swirling in the ocean. A giant patch of plastic soup the size of
Texas sitting smack dab in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.
 Many large fishes are choking on plastics. Plastic bags are ingested by the fishes and they
get set in the digestive tract. This does not leave any space for the food and fishes die due
to starvation.
 Most of the plastic is finding its way to the ocean through drains and rivers.

Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900
individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres over an area of approximately
344,400 square kilometres. The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland,
Australia.
The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world’s biggest single structure
made by living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny
organisms, known as coral polyps. It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as
a World Heritage Site in 1981.

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, is roughly the size of Italy, is home to about 3,000 coral
reefs, 600 continental islands, 1,625 type of fish, 133 varieties of shark and rays, and 600 types
of soft and hard corals.
 1. Coral reefs
2. Open ocean
3. Tropical rainforest
4. Deserts

Select the correct answer code:

a) 1-3-2-4
b) 3-1-2-4
c) 3-1-4-2
d) 1-3-4-2
{}[+]

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Ocean Pollution (Marine Pollution) – UPSC

ByLotusAriseDecember 22, 2021
1 Comment

 Oceans are the largest water bodies on the planet Earth. Over the last few decades,
excessive human activities have severely affected marine life on the Earth’s oceans. Ocean
pollution, also known as marine pollution, is the spreading of harmful substances
such as oil, plastic, industrial and agricultural waste, and chemical particles into the
ocean.
 Since oceans provide the home to a wide variety of marine animals and plants, it is the
responsibility of every citizen to play his or her part in making these oceans clean so that
marine species can thrive for a longer period of time.
 Laws and Policies:
 In 1948, Harry Truman signed a law formerly known as the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act that allowed the federal government to control marine pollution in the United
States of America.
 In 1972, the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 was passed by
the Council on Environmental Quality which controls ocean dumping.
  In 1973 and 1978, MARPOL was a treaty written to control vessel pollution, especially
regarding oil. In 1983, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships enforced the MARPOL treaty internationally.
 The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was established
to protect the marine environment by governing states to control their pollution to the ocean.
It put restrictions on the amount of toxins and pollutants that come from all ships
internationally.

Causes of Ocean Pollution

 Plastic: 4-12 million metric tons of plastic goes into the sea. India generates 62
million metric tons of waste every year of which 10-12% is plastic wastes and this
also constitutes single-use plastics.
 Sewage: Pollution can enter the ocean directly. Sewage or polluting substances flow
through sewage, rivers, or drainages directly into the ocean. In India, 80% of municipal
sewage is collected of which only 20% is treated and the rest are directly discharged
into oceans.
 Toxic Chemicals from Industries: Industrial and agricultural waste is another most
common form of wastes that are directly discharged into the oceans, resulting in ocean
pollution. The dumping of toxic liquids in the ocean directly affects marine life.
 Land Runoff: Land runoff is another source of pollution in the ocean. This occurs when
water infiltrates the soil to its maximum extent and the excess water from rain, flooding or
melting flows over the land and into the ocean. Often, this water picks up man-made,
harmful contaminants that pollute the ocean, including fertilizers, petroleum, pesticides and
other forms of soil contaminants. 80% of the land discharge goes into the sea in the
form of plastic waste.
 Large Scale Oil Spills: Ship pollution is a huge source of ocean pollution, the most
devastating effect of which is oil spills. Crude oil lasts for years in the sea and is extremely
toxic to marine life, often suffocating marine animals to death once it entraps them. Crude
oil is also extremely difficult to clean up, unfortunately meaning that when it is split; it is
usually there to stay.
 Ocean Mining: Ocean mining in the deep sea is yet another source of ocean pollution.
Ocean mining sites drilling for silver, gold, copper, cobalt, and zinc create sulphide deposits
up to three and a half thousand meters down into the ocean.
 Littering: Pollution from the atmosphere is, believe it or not, a huge source of ocean
pollution. This occurs when objects that are far inland are blown by the wind over long
distances and end up in the ocean. These objects can be anything from natural things like
dust and sand to man-made objects such as debris and trash. Most debris, especially
plastic debris, cannot decompose and remains suspended in the ocean’s current for years.
Devastating Effects of Ocean Pollution

 Effect of Toxic Wastes on Marine Animals: The oil spill is dangerous to marine life in
several ways. The oil spilled in the ocean could get onto the gills and feathers of marine
animals, which makes it difficult for them to move or fly properly or feed their children. The
long-term effect on marine life can include cancer, failure in the reproductive system,
behavioral changes, and even death.
 Disruption to the Cycle of Coral Reefs:
 Oil spill floats on the surface of the water and prevents sunlight from reaching to marine
plants and affects the process of photosynthesis. Skin irritation, eye irritation, lung and liver
problems can impact marine life over a long period of time.
 Depletes Oxygen Content in Water
 Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea Animals
 Effect on Food Chain
  Chemicals used in industries and agriculture get washed into the rivers and from there are
carried into the oceans. These chemicals do not get dissolved and sink at the bottom of the
ocean. Small animals ingest these chemicals and are later eaten by large animals, which
then affect the whole food chain.
 Eutrophication: When a water body becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients
which induce excessive growth of algae or algal bloom.
 This process also results in oxygen depletion of the water body.
 Affects Human Health: Animals from the impacted food chain are then eaten by humans
which affects their health as toxins from these contaminated animals get deposited in the
tissues of people and can lead to cancer, birth defects or long-term health problems.

Solutions for Ocean Pollution

 A stricter government regulation on industry and manufacturing is one large scale

solution.
 Implement renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar power, to limit offshore
drilling.
 Limit agricultural pesticides and encourage organic farming and eco-friendly
pesticide use.
 Proper sewage treatment and exploration of eco-friendly wastewater treatment options.
 Cut down on industry and manufacturing waste and contain landfills so they don’t spill
into the ocean.

Oceans are resilient, but not indestructible. If they’re to last for generations to come, humans
must work together to reduce pollution and its impact. The best way to fight ocean pollution is
to educate yourself on its causes and make small changes at home to reduce your carbon
footprint. It’s never too late to work to improve the ocean’s health.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

United Nations Convention on the Law of the

Sea (UNCLOS)
ByLotusAriseDecember 22, 2021
1 Comment

 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law
of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international agreement that
establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities.
 As of June 2016, 167 countries and the European Union are parties.
 The Convention resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS III), which took place between 1973 and 1982. 
 UNCLOS was adopted and signed in 1982.
 It replaced the four Geneva Conventions of April 1958, which respectively concerned
the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the continental shelf, the high seas, fishing
and conservation of living resources on the high seas.
 The Convention has created three new institutions on the international scene:
 the International Tribunal for Laws of the Sea
 the International Seabed Authority
 the Commission on the Limits of Continental Shelf
 It divides marine areas into five main zones namely- Internal Waters, Territorial Sea,
Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the High Seas.
  UNCLOS is the only international convention which stipulates a framework for state
jurisdiction in maritime spaces. It provides a different legal status to different maritime
zones.
 It provides the backbone for offshore governance by coastal states and those navigating
the oceans. It not only zones coastal states’ offshore areas but also provides specific
guidance for states’ rights and responsibilities in the five concentric zones.

Maritime Zones

 Baseline:
 It is the low-water line along the coast as officially recognized by the coastal state.
 Internal Waters:
 Internal waters are waters on the landward side of the baseline from which the breadth of
the territorial sea is measured.
 Each coastal state has full sovereignty over its internal waters as like its land territory.
Examples of internal waters include bays, ports, inlets, rivers and even lakes that are
connected to the sea.
 There is no right of innocent passage through internal waters.
 The innocent passage refers to the passing through the waters which are not prejudicial to
peace and security. However, the nations have the right to suspend the same.
 Territorial Sea:
 The territorial sea extends seaward up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its baselines.
 A nautical mile is based on the circumference of the earth and is equal to one minute of
latitude. It is slightly more than a land measured mile (1 nautical mile = 1.1508 land miles
or 1.85 km).
 The coastal states have sovereignty and jurisdiction over the territorial sea. These
rights extend not only on the surface but also to the seabed, subsoil, and even airspace.
 But the coastal states’ rights are limited by the innocent passage through the territorial
sea.
 Contiguous Zone:
 The contiguous zone extends seaward up to 24 nm from its baselines.
 It is an intermediary zone between the territorial sea and the high seas.
 The coastal state has the right to both prevent and punish infringement of fiscal,
immigration, sanitary, and customs laws within its territory and territorial sea.
 Unlike the territorial sea, the contiguous zone only gives jurisdiction to a state on the
ocean’s surface and floor. It does not provide air and space rights.
 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):
 Each coastal State may claim an EEZ beyond and adjacent to its territorial sea that
extends seaward up to 200 nm from its baselines.
 Within its EEZ, a coastal state has:
 Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing natural
resources, whether living or nonliving, of the seabed and subsoil.
 Rights to carry out activities like the production of energy from the water, currents and wind.
 Unlike the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the EEZ only allows for the above-
mentioned resource rights. It does not give a coastal state the right to prohibit or limit
freedom of navigation or overflight, subject to very limited exceptions.
 High Seas:
 The ocean surface and the water column beyond the EEZ are referred to as the high
seas.
 It is considered as “the common heritage of all mankind” and is beyond any national
jurisdiction.
 States can conduct activities in these areas as long as they are for peaceful purposes, such
as transit, marine science, and undersea exploration.