Ilovepdf Merged 3 2

• Light is the form of energy that enables us to see.
Properties of Light
• Electromagnetic wave, so does not require any medium to travel.
• Light tends to travel in straight line.
• Light has dual nature i.e., wave as well as particle.
• Light casts shadow.
• Speed of light is maximum in vaccum. Its value is 3 × 108 ms-1.
• When light falls on a surface, following may happen :
(a) Reflection
(b) Refraction
(c) Absorption
REFLECTION
Bouncing back of light when it strikes on a polished surface like mirror.
Laws of Reflection :
(1) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(2) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence,
all lie in the same plane.
1 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)
@ Central Public School Campus , Near Krishna Cinema Buxar Contact : 9990108570
Image : It is a point where atleast two light rays actually meet or appear to
meet.
Real Image Virtual Image
• Formed when light rays actually • Formed when light rays appear to
meet. meet.
• Can be obtained on screen. • Can’t be obtained on screen.
• Inverted • Erect
• E.g., image formed on cinema • E.g., image formed by plane mirror
screen. or convex mirror.
Image Formed by Plane Mirror
Characteristics of Image
(i) Virtual and erect.
(ii) Size of image is equal to the size of object.
(iii) Image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
(iv) Laterally inverted.
Lateral Inversion : The right side of the object appears left side of the image
and vice-versa.
Application of lateral inversion : The word AMBULANCE is written as
so that it can be read correctly in rear view mirror of vehicles going
in front of it.
Spherical Mirrors : Mirrors whose reflecting surface is curved.
Convex Mirror Concave Mirror
Light Reflection and Refraction 2
• Reflecting surface is curved outwards. • Reflecting surface is curved inwards.
• Diverging mirror • Converging mirror
• Principal axis : The line joining the pole and center of curvature.
• Pole (P) : The centre of the spherical mirror.
• Aperture (MN) : It is the effective diameter of the spherical mirror.
• Center of Curvature (C) : The centre of the hollow glass sphere of
which the mirror was a part.
• Radius of Curvature (R) : The distance between the pole and the centre
of curvature.
• Focus (F) : The point on principal axis where all the parallel light rays
actually meet or appear to meet after reflection.
• Focal length (f) : The distance between the pole and the focus.
Relationship between focal length and radius of curva-
ture :
R
f =
2
Rules for making ray diagrams by concave mirror

(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis will pass through the principal focus,
after reflection.
(ii) A ray passing through the principal focus of concave mirror will emerge
parallel to principal axis after reflection.
(iii) A ray of light passing through the centre of curvature of a concave
mirror is reflected back along the same path as it is a normally incident
ray.
(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis of a concave mirror is

reflected obliquely making equal angle.
Ray diagrams for images formed by concave mirror

(i) When object is at infinity : Image
Position − At ‘F’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Point sized or highly
diminished
(ii) When object is beyond ‘C’ Image

Position – Between ‘F’ and ‘C’
Size – Diminished
(iii) When object is at ‘C’ Image
Position – At ‘C’
Size – Same size as that of
object
(iv) When object is placed between ‘F’ and ‘C’ Image

Position – Beyond ‘C’
Size – Enlarged
(v) When object is placed at ‘F’ Image

Position – At Infinity
Size – Highly enlarged

Position – Behind the mirror
Nature – Virtual, erect
Size – Enlarged
Uses of Concave Mirror
(i) Used in torches, search lights and vehicles headlights to get powerful
parallel beam of light.
(ii) Concave mirrors are used by dentists to see large image of teeth of
patients. (Teeth have to be placed between pole and focus).
(iii) Concave mirror is used as shaving mirror to see a larger image of the
face.
(iv) Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat
in solar furnace.
Rule for image formation by Convex Mirror
(i) A ray of light parallel to the principal axis of a convex mirror appear to
diverge from the principal focus.
(ii) A ray which is directed towards the focus of the convex mirror will
emerge parallel to the principal axis after reflection.
(iii) A ray directed towards the center of curvature of a convex mirror is
reflected back along the same.
(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis is reflected obliquely.
Ray diagrams of images formed by convex mirror

(i) When object is placed at infinity : Image
Position − At ‘F’
Size – Point sized
(ii) When object is placed between pole and infinity Image

Position – Between ‘P’ and ‘F’
Size – Diminished
• A full length image of a tall building/tree can be seen in a small convex

mirror.
Uses of Convex Mirror

(i) Convex mirrors are used as rear view mirrors in vehicles because
(a) they always give an erect though diminished image.
(b) they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards.
(ii) Convex mirrors are used at blind turns and on points of merging traffic
to facilitate vision of both side traffic.
(iii) Used in shops as security mirror.
Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirror
Or
New Cartesian Sign Convention
(i) The object is placed to the left of the mirror.
(ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of
the mirror.
(iii) All distances measured in the direction of incident ray (along + X-axis)
are taken as positive and those measured against the direction of incident
ray (along – X-axis) are taken as negative.
(iv) Distance measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis are
taken as positive.
(v) Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis are
taken as negative.
• Object distance = ‘u’ is always negative.
• Focal length of concave mirror = Negative
• Focal length of convex mirror = Positive
Mirror Formula :
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
Height of image
m=
Height of object

hi
m=
ho

v
m= −
u
If ‘m’ is negative, image is real.

If ‘m’ is positive, image is virtual.
If hi = ho then m = 1, i.e., image is equal to object.
If hi > hi then m > 1 i.e., image is enlarged.
If hi < ho then m < 1 i.e., image is diminished.
• Magnification of plane mirror is always + 1.
‘+’ sign indicates virtual image.
‘1’ indicates that image is equal to object’s size.
• If ‘m’ is ‘+ve’ and less than 1, it is a convex mirror.
• If ‘m’ is ‘+ve’ and more than 1, it is a concave mirror.
• If ‘m’ is ‘-ve’, it is a concave mirror.
Check Your Knowledge
1. Magnification of plane mirror is + 1. What does it indicate ?
2. A real image, 1/5 th size of object is formed at a distance of 18 cm from
a mirror. What is the nature of the mirror ? Calculate its focal length.
3. Name the type of mirror used in the following and reason for using it :
(a) Solar furnace
(b) Rear view mirror in a vehicle
4. What should be the position of the object, when a concave mirror is used :
(a) as a shaving mirror ?
(b) in torches as reflecting mirror ?
5. (a) Define principal focus of a spherical mirror.
(b) For what position of the object does a concave mirror form a real,
inverted and diminished image of the object ? Draw the ray diagram.
(c) An object 4 cm high is placed at a distance of 6 cm in front of a
concave mirror of focal length 12 cm. Find the position of the image.
6. For what position of an object, a concave mirror forms a real image equal
to size of object ?
7. Identify the nature of mirror and mention two characteristics of image
formed when magnification m = + 6.
8. Suggest a method to find approximate focal length of a concave mirror.
9. Draw ray diagram when :
(a) object is placed between pole and focus of a concave mirror.
(b) object is placed at infinity from a convex mirror.
10. Name the type of spherical mirror which
(a) has positive focal length.
(b) always forms a virtual image.
REFRACTION
Bending of light when it enters obliquely from one transparent medium to
another.
• Speed of light is maximum in vaccum. It is 3 × 108 m/s.
• Cause of refraction : Change in speed of light.
• Some examples of refraction :
(i) The bottom of swimming pool appears higher.
(ii) A pencil partially immersed in water appears to be bent at the
interface of water and air.
(iii) Lemons placed in a glass tumbler appear bigger.

(iv) Letters of a book appear to be raised when seen through a glass slab.
Refraction through glass slab
• The extent of bending of ray of light at the opposite parallel faces of

rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite, so the ray emerges parallel
to incident ray.
• Lateral displacement depends on :

(a) Refractive index of glass slab
(b) Thickness of the glass slab
Laws of Refraction
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) Snell’s law : The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is a constant, for a light of given colour and for a given pair of
media.
sin i
= constant
sin r
Refractive index (n) : The ratio of speed of light in a given pair of media
Velocity of light in medium 1
n=
Velocity of light in medium 2
n21 means refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium, and
v1
n21 =
v2
n12 means refractive index of first medium with respect to second medium.
v2
n12 =
v1
• Absolute Refractive Index : Refractive index of a medium with respect

to vaccum or air.
c
n= c = 3 × 108 ms-1
v
• Refractive index of one medium is reciprocal of other’s refractive index
in a given pair.
1
n12 =
n21
If refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t. air is given as 1nair, and

If refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t. air is given as 2nair
air
1n
Then, refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t. medium 2 = air
2n
• Refractive index of diamond is the highest till date. It is 2.42. It means

1
speed of light is times less in diamond than in vaccum.
2.42
• Optically denser medium : Out of two given media, the medium with
higher value of refractive index.
• Optically rarer medium : Out of two given media, the medium with
lower value to refractive index.
• When light enters obliquely from a rarer to a denser medium, it bends
towards the normal.
• When light enters obliquely from denser to a rarer medium, it bends

away from the normal.
• Refractive index of a medium does not depend on physical density.

Spherical lens : A transparent medium bound by two surfaces, of which one
or both surfaces are curved.
Convex lens Concave lens
• Thin from corners • Thick from corners

• Thick at center • Thin at centre
• Converging • Diverging
Rules for image formation by convex lens
(i) A ray of light parallel to principal axis of a convex lens always pass
through the focus on the other side of the lens.
(ii) A ray of light passing through the principal focus will emerge parallel
to principal axis after refraction.
(iii) A ray of light passing through the optical center will emerge without
any deviation.
Ray Diagrams of Imaged formed by Convex Lens

(i) When object is at infinity : Image
Position − At ‘F2’
diminished
(ii) When object is beyond ‘2F1’ Image
Position – Between ‘F2’ and ‘2F2’
Size – Diminished
(iii) When object is at ‘2F1’ Image

Position – At ‘2F2’
Size – Same size
(iv) When object is between ‘F1’ and ‘2F1’ Image

Position – Beyond ‘2F2’
Size – Enlarged
(v) When object is at ‘F1’ Image

Position – At Infinity
Size – Highly enlarged
(vi) When object is between ‘F1’ and optical centre Image

Position – On the same side of
the lens as object
Nature – Virtual and erect
Size – Enlarged
Rules for Image Formation by Concave Lens
(i) A ray of light parallel to the principal axis appear to diverge from the
principal focus located on the same side of the lens.
(ii) A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens
will emerge parallel to principal axis.
(iii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge
without any deviation.
Ray Diagrams of Images Formed by a Concave Lens

(i) When object is placed at infinity : Image
Position − At ‘F1’
diminished
(ii) When object is placed between infinity and optical centre
Position – Between ‘F’ and ‘O’
Size – Diminished
Sign convention for spherical lenses

• Sign conventions are similar to the one used for spherical mirrors, except
that measurements are taken from optical center of the lens.
• Focal length of convex lens = Positive
Focal length of concave lens = Negative
Lens Formula :
1 1 1
− =
v u f
Magnification :
hi
m=
ho

v
m=
u
Power of a lens :
It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length in meter.
The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays is expressed in terms
of power.
1 1
Power = P=
üü=üüüüüüüü f
• SI unit of Power = dioptre = D

1 D = 1 m-1
1 dioptre is the power of lens whose focal length is one meter.
• Power of convex lens = Positive
• Power of concave lens = Negative
1
• Power ∝
focal length or thickness
• Power of a lens combination

P = P1 + P2 + P3.........
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. Refractive indices of medium A, B and C are 1.3, 1.5 and 1.4 respectively.
In which of the following the speed of light will be the :
(a) fastest ?
(b) slowest ?
2. A compound lens is made up of two thin lenses having power + 12.5 D
and – 2.5 D. Find the focal length and power of the combination.
3. Light enters from air to kerosene having a refractive index of 1.47. What
is the speed of light in kerosene ?
4. A 5 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to principal axis of a convex
lens of focal length 10 cm. If the object is placed 30 cm away from the
lens, find the position, size and nature of image.
5. One half of a convex lens is covered with black paper.
(a) Show the formation of image of a object placed at 2F, of such
covered lens with the help of ray diagram. Mention the position and
nature of the image.
(b) Draw the ray diagram for same object at same position in front of
the same lens, but now uncovered. Will there be any difference in
image obtained in the two cases ? Give reasons for your answers.
6. A thin converging lens forms a (i) real magnified image, (ii) virtual
magnified image.
(a) Write the position of object in each case.
(b) Draw labelled diagram for each case.
7. (a) What happens to a ray of light when it travels from one medium to
another having equal refractive indices ?
(b) State the cause of refraction of light.
8. (a) Define 1 dioptre of power. Find the focal length of a lens of
power – 2.0 D.
(b) Why does a lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appear to be
bigger than actual size ?
9. A ray travelling in water enters obliquely into glass. Does the light bend
towards or away from the normal and why ?
10. An object is placed at the focus of a convex lens. Draw ray diagram to
locate the position of image formed.
Hints to Long Answer Type Questions
7. (a) No bending of light.

(b) Change in refractive index of two medium.
8. (a) 1 dioptre : It is the power of lens whose focal length is 1 m.
1
P=
f
(b) Due to refraction of light.

10. Ray diagram.
Image formed : At infinity
Size : Enlarged
Nature : Real and inverted
qq
12
• Charge is a fundamental particle in an atom. It may be positive or negative.

• Like charges repel each other.
• Unlike charges attract each other.
Coulomb (C) : S. I. unit of charge
1 Coulomb charge = Charge present on approx. 6 × 1018 electrons
• Charge on 1 electron = Negative charge of 1.6 × 10−19 C
Q = ne
Where Q = Charge (total)
n = No. of electrons
e = Charge on 1 electron
Current (I) : The rate of flow of charge is called current.
S. I. unit of current = Ampere (A)

1 A = 1 Cs−1
1 mA = 10−3 A
1 µA = 10−6 A
Current is measured by Ammeter. Its symbol is
Electricity 59
Ammeter has low resistance and always connected in series.
Direction of current is taken opposite to flow of electrons as electrons were not known
at the time when the phenomenon of electricity was discovered first and current was
considered to be flow of positive charge.
Potential Difference (V) : Work done to move a unit charge from one point to another.
1 Volt : When 1 joule work is done
in carrying one Coulomb charge
then potential difference is called
1 volt.
S. I. unit of Potential difference = Volt (V)
1 V = 1 JC−1
1 Volt : When 1 joule work is done in carrying one Coulomb charge then potential difference
is called 1 volt.
Voltmeter : Instrument to measure potential difference.
• It has high resistance and always connected in parallel. Symbol is
• Cell is the simplest device to maintain potential difference.
• Current always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
Symbols of Some Commonly Used Components in Circuit :
Electric cell :
Battery :
Key (open) :
Key (closed) :
Wire joint :
Wire Crossing (without join) :

Electric bulb :
Resistance :
Rheostat :
Ammeter :
Voltmeter :
2 Science Class (SA-I)- X

Ohm’s Law : Potential difference across the two points of a metallic conductor is
directly proportional to current passing through the circuit provided that temperature
remains constant.
• Mathematical expression for Ohm’s law :
V∝I
V = IR
R is a constant called resistance for a given metal.
• V-I graph for Ohm’s law :
Resistance (R) : It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
• Ohm (Ω) : S. I. unit of resistance.
• When potential difference is 1 V and current through the
circuit is 1 A, then resistance is 1 ohm.
Rheostat : Variable resistance is a component used to regulate current without changing
the source of voltage.
Factors on which the Resistance of a Conductor depends :
Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is
(i) directly proportional to the length of conductor,
(ii) inversely proportional to the area of cross-section,
(iii)directly proportional to the temperature and
(iv) depend on nature of material.
Resistivity (P) : It is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of a material of side 1
m when current flows perpendicular to its opposite faces.
• Its S.I. unit is ohm-metre (Ωm).
Electricity 3
• Resistivity does not change with change in length or area of cross-section but it
changes with change in temperature.
• Range of resistivity of metals and alloys is 10−8 to 10−6 Ωm.
• Range of resistivity of insulators is 1012 to 1017 Ωm.
• Resistivity of alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals.
• Alloys do not oxidize (burn) readily at high temperature, so they are commonly
used in electrical heating devices.
• Copper and aluminium are used for electrical transmission lines as they have low
resistivity.
Resistors in Series :
When two or more resistors are connected end to end, the arrangement is called series
combination.
• Total/resultant/overall/effective resistance in series
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
• Current through each resistor is same.
• Equivalent resistance is larger than the largest individual resistance.
• Total voltage = Sum of voltage drops
V = V1 + V2 + V3
• Voltage across each resistor :
V1 = IR1
V2 = IR2 [V1 + V2 + V3 = V]
V3 = IR3 V = IR
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
∝ IR = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
∝ R = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in Parallel :
• Voltage across each resistor is same and equal to the applied voltage.
• Total current is equal to sum of currents through the individual reistances.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
• Reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to sum of reciprocals of individual

resistances.
• Equivalent resistance is less than the value of the smallest individual resistance in the
combination.
Advantages of Parallel Combination over Series Combination
(i) In series circuit, when one component fails, the circuit is broken and none of the
component works.
(ii) Different appliances have different requirement of current. This cannot be satisfied in
series as current remains same.
(iii)The total resistance in a parallel circuit is decreased.
Heating Effect of Electric Circuit
If an electric circuit is purely resistive, the source of energy continually get dissipated
entirely in form of heat. This is known as heating effect of electric current.
As E=P×T ∝ VIt {E = H}
Heat produced, H = VIt {V = IR}
Or Heat produced, H = I2Rt
Joule’s Law of Heating Effect of Electric Current
It states that the heat produced in a resistor is
Electricity 5
(i) directly proportional to square of current, H ∝ I2
(ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given current, H ∝ R
(iii)directly proportional to time for which current flows through the conductor, H ∝ t.
So, H = I2Rt
• Heating effect is desirable in devices like electric heater, electric iron, electric bulb,
electric fuse, etc.
• Heating effect is undesirable in devices like computers, computer monitors (CRT),
TV, refrigerators etc.
• In electric bulb, most of the power consumed by the filament appears a heat and a
small part of it is radiated in form of light.
• Filament of electric bulb is made up of tungsten as
(i) it does not oxidise readily at high temperature.
(ii) it has high melting point (3380º C).
• The bulbs are filled with chemically inactive gases like nitrogen and argon to
prolong the life of filament.
Electric Fuse : It is a safety device that protects our electrical appliances in case of short
circuit or overloading.
• Fuse is made up of pure tin or alloy of copper and tin.
• Fuse is always connected in series with live wire.
• Fuse has low melting point.
• Current capacity of fuse is slightly higher than that of the appliance.
Electric Power : The rate at which electric energy is consumed or dissipated in an electric
circuit.
P = VI
P = I2R =
S.I. unit of power = Watt (W)
1 Watt = 1 volt × 1 ampere
• Commercial unit of electric energy = Kilo Watt hour (KWh)
1 KWh = 3.6 × 106 J
1 KWh = 1 unit of electric energy
QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 Mark)
1. Define S.I. unit of :
(a) Electric current
(b) Potential difference
(c) Resistance
(d) Electric power
(e) Electrical energy consumed
2. Define the term resistivity.
3. Device used for measuring the current is……………. .
4. Name the element of filament of a bulb.
5. Write two types of resistors combination.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 Marks)
1. How the voltmeter and ammeter are connected in a circuit ?
2. Why the filament of bulb has high melting point ?
3. How does fuse wire protect electrical appliances ?
4. Find the number of joules in 1 KWh.
5. Find a relationship between P, I and V.
6. On what factors does resistance of a conductor depend ?
1. State Ohm’s law. Derive relation between I, V and R. Draw the graph between V and I.
2. What is Joule’s heating effect of current P ? Derive its expression.
3. What would be new resistance if length of conductor is doubled and thickness is
halved ?
4. Find the effective resistance between A and B.
Electricity 7
5. Which is the better way to connect lights and other appliances in domestic wiring
and why ?
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 Marks)
1. Explain the Joule’s law of heating. How and on what factors does the heat produced
in a conductor depends ?
2. In the circuit given below, calculate :
(a) Total effective resistance.

(b) Potential difference across 4Ω, 2Ω.
3. Three resistances of 2Ω, 3Ω and 5Ω are connected in electric circuit. Find :
(a) maximum effective resistance.
(b) minimum effective resistance.
4. On what factors, the resistance of a conductor depends ? Give the mathematical
expression. Give the SI unit of resistivity.
VALUE BASED QUESTION
That right Vinay was preparing for his science exam. Suddenly light of his room went off.
His cousin brother Vasu quickly with mobile phone torch found that fuse has blown.
He checked and put a fuse wire. The light come to life again. Vinay thanked Vasu and
continued his study.
(a) What was the values displayed by Vasu and Vinay ?
(b) What is electric fuse ?
(c) What characteristics you would prefer for a fuse wire ?
1. H = I2RT
Factors : Current, Resistance, Time.
2. (a) Total effective resistance :
4Ω + 2Ω = 6Ω
R = 3Ω
(b) V (across 4Ω) = IR = 1 × 4 = 4 V
V (across 2Ω) = IR = 1 × 2 = 2 V
3. (a) R = 10Ω
(b) R =
Electricity 9
13
Magnet is any substance that attracts iron or iron-like substances.

Properties of Magnet
(i) Every magnet has two poles i.e., North and South.
(ii) Like poles repel each other.
(iii)Unlike poles attract each other.
(iv) A freely suspended bar magnet aligns itself in nearly north-south direction, with its
north pole towards north direction.
Magnetic Field : The area around a magnetic in which its magnetic force can be experienced.
• Its SI unit is Tesla (T).
• Magnetic field has both magnitude and direction.
• Magnetic field can be described with help of a magnetic compass.
• The needle of a magnetic compass is a freely suspended bar magnet.
Characteristics of Field Lines
(i) Field lines arise from North pole and end into South pole of the magnet.
(ii) Field lines are closed curves.
(iii)Field lines are closer in stronger magnetic field.
(iv) Field lines never intersect each other as for two lines to intersect, there must be
two north directions at a point, which is not possible.
(v) Direction of field lines inside a magnet is from South to North.
(vi) The relative strength of magnetic field is shown by degree of closeness of field
lines.
Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet
• H. C. Oersted was the first person to state that electric current has magnetic field.
Right Hand Thumb Rule
Imagine you are holding a current carrying straight conductor in your right hand such
that the thumb is pointing towards the direction of current. Then the fingers wrapped
around the conductor give the direction of magnetic field.
Magnetic Field Due to Current Through a Straight Conductor

• It can be represented by concentric circles at every point on conductor.
• Direction can be given by right hand thumb rule or compass.
• Circles are closer near the conductor.
• Magnetic field ∝ Strength of current
Magnetic Effect Of Electric Current 2

Magnetic Field Due to Current Through a Circular Loop
• It can be represented by concentric circle at every point.
• Circles become larger and larger as we move away.
• Every point on wire carrying current would give rise to magnetic field appearing as
straight line at centre of the loop.
• The direction of magnetic field inside the loop is same.
Factors affecting magnetic field of a circular current carrying conductor

• Magnetic field ∝ Current passing through the conductor
•
• Magnetic field ∝ No. of turns in the coil
Magnetic field is additive in nature i.e., magnetic field of one loop adds up to
magnetic field of another loop. This is because the current in each circular turn has
some direction.
Solenoid
A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in a cylindrical
form.

• Magnetic field of a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet.
• Magnetic field is uniform inside the solenoid and represented by parallel field lines.
• Direction of magnetic field
(i) Outside the solenoid : North to South
(ii) Inside the solenoid : South to North
• Solenoid can be used to magnetise a magnetic material like soft iron.
Electromagnet Permanent Magnet

1. It is a temporary magnet, so,
demagnetised.
2. Strength can be varied. 2. Strength is fixed.
3. Polarity can be reversed. 3. Polarity cannot be reversed.
4. Generally strong magnet. 4. Generally weak magnet.
Force on a Current carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
Andre Marie Ampere suggested that the magnet also exerts an equal and opposite force
on a current carrying conductor.
The displacement in the conductor is the maximum when the direction of current is at
right angle to the direction of magnetic field.
Direction of force is reversed on reversing the direction of current.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
Stretch the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of your left hand such that they are mutually
perpendicular. If fore finger points in the direction of magnetic field, middle finger in
the direction of current then thumb will point in the direction of motion or force.
• Heart and brain in the human body have significant magnetic field.
• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) : Image of internal organs of body can be
obtained using magnetic field of the organ.
Galvanometer : Instrument that can detect the presence of current in a circuit. It also
detects the direction of current.
Electro Magnetic Induction
When a conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field, some current is induced in it.
Such current is called induced current and the phenomenon is called electromagnetic
induction.
Activity No. 1
(i) Magnet moved into the coil : Momentary deflection in G indicating presence of
current.
(ii) Magnet kept stationary inside the coil : No deflection.
(iii)Magnet is withdrawn : Momentary deflection in G but in opposite direction of first
case.
Activity No. 2
Primary Coil Secondary Coil

(i) Switched on : Momentary deflection in G.
(ii) Steady current : No deflection.
(iii)Switched off : Momentary deflection in G but in opposite direction of the first case.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Hold the thumb, the fore finger and the middle finger of right hand at right angles to each
other. If the fore finger is in the direction of magnetic field and the thumb points in the
direction of motion of conductor, then the direction of induced current is indicated by
middle finger.
• Working principle of electric generator.
• Used to find direction of induced current.
Alternate Current (A. C.) : The current which reverses its direction periodically.
• In India, A. C. reverses its direction in every second.

Time period = s
Frequency =
= ∝ 50 Hz
Advantage
• A. C. can be transmitted over long distance without much loss of energy.
Disadvantage
• A. C. cannot be stored.
Direct Current (D. C.) : The current which does not reverse its direction.
• D. C. can be stored.
• Loss of energy during transmission over long distance is high.
• Sources of D. C. : Cell, Battery, Storage cells.
Domestic Electric Circuits
• There are three kinds of wires used :
(i) Live wire (positive) with red insulation cover.
(ii) Neutral wire (negative) with black insulation cover.
(iii)Earth wire with green insulation cover.
• The potential difference between live and neutral wire in India is 220 V.
• Pole ∝ Main supply ∝ Fuse ∝ Electricity meter ∝ Distribution box ∝ To separate
circuits
Earth Wire : Protects us from electric shock in case of leakage of current especially
in metallic body appliances. It provides a low resistance path for current in case of
leakage of current.
Short Circuit : When live wire comes in direct contact with neutral wire accidently.
• Resistance of circuit becomes low.
• Can result in overloading.
Overloading : When current drawn is more than current carrying capacity of a conductor,
it results in overloading.
Causes of overloading :
(i) Accidental hike in voltage supply.
(ii) Use of more than one appliance in a single socket.
Safety devices :
(i) Electric fuse
(ii) Earth wire
(iii)MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)
QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 Mark)
1. Define magnetic field lines.
2. What is the frequency of a.c. in India ?
3. Who discovered the electromagnetic induction ?
4. What is short circuit ?
5. Why does two magnetic field lines not intersect ?
1. A charged particle enters at right angle into a uniform magnetic field. What is the
nature of charge particle if it experiences a force in a direction pointing vertically
out of page.
2. When does short circuit occur ?

3. Write the three ways to produce magnetic field.

4. What is overloading ?
5. Write the use of safety device used in electric circuit.
1. What is solenoid ? Where the magnetic field is uniform in solenoid ?
2. Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines due to current carrying straight conductor.
3. What is earth wire ? How it works in our domestic circuit ?
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 Marks)
1. What is electromagnetic induction ? Explain with an activity. Write its one application.
2. Draw the schematic diagram of domestic circuit. Write the colour and nature of neutral
wire, live wire and earth wire.
3. What is an electromagnet ? What material are used to make electromagnet ? Can we
use steel to make electromagnet ?
VALUE BASED QUESTION
In the birthday party of Bharat, his parents gave slinky to each friend as a return gift.
The next day during the school, their teacher explained them about the production of
magnetic fields using current carrying coils and also said that they can make permanent
magnet using such coils by passing high current through them. Teacher also explained
the uses of solenoid.
(a) What values did Bharat’s parents exhibit towards his son ?
(b) What type of field is produced by solenoid ?
1. The process by which a changing magnetic field in a conductor induces a current in
another conductor is called electromagnetic induction.
See Fig. 15.17 NCERT
2. Refer to given diagram
3. A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of
magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed inside the coil. The magnet so formed is
called an electromagnet.
Yes, steel can be used to make electromagnet.

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• Light is the form of energy that enables us to see.

1 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

Light Reflection and Refraction 2

Rules for making ray diagrams by concave mirror

3 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis of a concave mirror is

Ray diagrams for images formed by concave mirror

(ii) When object is beyond ‘C’ Image

Light Reflection and Refraction 4

(iv) When object is placed between ‘F’ and ‘C’ Image

(v) When object is placed at ‘F’ Image

5 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

Light Reflection and Refraction 6

(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis is reflected obliquely.

Ray diagrams of images formed by convex mirror

(ii) When object is placed between pole and infinity Image

• A full length image of a tall building/tree can be seen in a small convex

Uses of Convex Mirror

7 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

• Object distance = ‘u’ is always negative.

• Focal length of concave mirror = Negative

• Focal length of convex mirror = Positive

Light Reflection and Refraction 8

If ‘m’ is negative, image is real.

9 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

Light Reflection and Refraction 10

(iii) Lemons placed in a glass tumbler appear bigger.

Refraction through glass slab

• The extent of bending of ray of light at the opposite parallel faces of

• Lateral displacement depends on :

11 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

• Absolute Refractive Index : Refractive index of a medium with respect

If refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t. air is given as 1nair, and

• Refractive index of diamond is the highest till date. It is 2.42. It means

Light Reflection and Refraction 12

• When light enters obliquely from denser to a rarer medium, it bends

• Refractive index of a medium does not depend on physical density.

• Thin from corners • Thick from corners

13 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

Ray Diagrams of Imaged formed by Convex Lens

Light Reflection and Refraction 14

(iii) When object is at ‘2F1’ Image

(iv) When object is between ‘F1’ and ‘2F1’ Image

(v) When object is at ‘F1’ Image

(vi) When object is between ‘F1’ and optical centre Image

15 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

Ray Diagrams of Images Formed by a Concave Lens

Light Reflection and Refraction 16

Sign convention for spherical lenses

• SI unit of Power = dioptre = D

17 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

• Power of a lens combination

Light Reflection and Refraction 18

7. (a) No bending of light.

(b) Due to refraction of light.

19 Science Class - 10 (SA - II)

• Charge is a fundamental particle in an atom. It may be positive or negative.

S. I. unit of current = Ampere (A)

Wire Crossing (without join) :