COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF AGRICULTURAL

WASTE (COCO PEAT AND RICE HUSK) FOR THE

CULTIVATION OF PEPPER (CAPSICUM CHINENSE) IN A
GREENHOUSE

BY

OFOEGBU GOODNEWS CHUKWUEMEKA

20161967403

SUPERVISED BY

ENGR. DR. O.O. OKORAFOR

PRESENTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIO-

RESOURCES ENGINEERING.
SCHOOL OF ENGNEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OWERRI
P.M.B 1526, OWERRI,
IMO STATE.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING, B. ENG DEGREE IN
AGRICULTURAL AND BIO-RESOURCES ENGINEERING.
(OPTION)

December, 2022

1
 CERTIFICATION

I certify that this project on Comparative Analysis of The Use of Agricultural

Waste(Coco peat and Rice husk) For Greenhouse Cultivation of
Pepper(Capsicum chinense) is an original work done

By
OFFOEGBU GOODNEWS CHUKWUEMEKA
20161967403

as a final year project submitted to the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of
Engineering (B.ENG) in Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering (Bioresources
option), Federal University of Technology, Owerri.

Approved by

_______________________ ____________________
ENGR. DR. O. OKORAFOR Date
(Project Supervisor)

________________________ ____________________
ENGR. DR. O. OKORAFOR Date
(Head of Department)

________________________ ____________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINAR Date

i
 DEDICATION

Dedicated to God Almighty

ii
 ACKNOWLEGDEMENT

I highly acknowledge my project supervisor; Engr. Dr. O. O. Okorafor, for his kind
guidance and support throughout the course of this research. My heart is filled with
gratitude to my lecturers who have done the arduous task of instilling the knowledge i
currently possess.
My parents, the co-creators that have done their best to bring me this far, you will never
be forgotten. God bless you. To all who contributed in bringing me this far, deliberately
and indeliberately, friends and coursemates; Esiobu Lucky Chinedu, Uchubilo John-
Paul and the rest of you, you all left major imprints in my life, Thank you.
My profound gratitude goes to God, the author and finisher of all I am and will ever be
grateful.

iii
 ABSTRACT
This project is carried out to compare the effects of agricultural waste on the cultivation

of pepper (Capsicum Chinese) in a wooden greenhouse of dimension

11m2 sighted in front of the departmental workshop of Agricultural and Bioresource

Engineering Federal University of Technology Owerri. And it spanned for a duration of

3 months. This experiment will be carried out using Randomized completely blocked

design (RCBD) with four treatments t1, t2, t3 and t4. This experiment will be analyzing

the effect of some selected agricultural waste material on the growth of pepper

(Capsicum Chinese). The agronomic parameters of the crop in question and the

physicochemical parameters of the culture media be assessed. Some of the growth

indices to be assessed includes but not limited to plant height, stem diameter, time it

takes to ripe, number of fruits etc. The results gotten be analyzed using R-Studio.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ...................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEGDEMENT ........................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................viii
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER ONE......................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
1.1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY ........................................................................ 1
1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................ 6
1.4 Significance of the Study ......................................................................................... 6
1.5 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................... 8
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 8
2.1. Capsicum Chinense (Scotch bonnet pepper) ...................................................... 8
2.1.1 Scotch Bonnet pepper ......................................................................................... 9
2.2 Soilless Farming ............................................................................................... 14
2.3. AGRICULTURAL WASTE ............................................................................ 16
2.3.1 Coco peat:.......................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2.1. Properties of Rice Husk .................................................................................. 23
2.3.2.2. Uses and Applications of Rice Husk Ash ....................................................... 24
2.4. The Greenhouse Technology ............................................................................... 25
Fig 2.2: A Tunnel Greenhouse structure ....................................................................... 26
2.4.1 Classifications of Greenhouse .............................................................................. 27
2.4.1.1 Classification based on need. ............................................................................ 28
2.4.1.2 Greenhouse Type based on shape ..................................................................... 28
2.4.1.3 Type of greenhouse based on utility ................................................................. 30
2.4.1.4 Types of Greenhouses based on construction: .................................................. 30
2.4.1. 5 Types of Greenhouse based on covering materials ...................................... 31
v
 2.4.2 Rate of Adoption ............................................................................................... 32
Research Gap................................................................................................................. 32
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................. 34
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD .................................................................. 34
3.1 MATERIALS ................................................................................................... 34
3.2 METHODS ....................................................................................................... 35
3.2.1 Pre-Planting Operations .................................................................................... 35
3.2.1.0 Weed Management......................................................................................... 35
3.2.1.1 Greenhouse Preparation ................................................................................. 36
3.2.1.1.0 Site selection and preparation ..................................................................... 36
3.2.1.1.1 Material Selection and Preparation ............................................................. 36
3.2.1.1.2 Greenhouse Arrangement ........................................................................... 37
3.2.1.2 Pepper Seed Preparation ................................................................................ 37
3.2.1.3 Nursery Stage ................................................................................................. 37
3.2.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ............................................................................ 40
3.2.2.0 Advantages of the RCBD ............................................................................... 40
3.2.2.1 Disadvantages of the RCBD .......................................................................... 40
3.3 PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CULTURE MEDIA
41
3.3.1 Bulk Density ..................................................................................................... 41
3.3.2 Water Holding Capacity ................................................................................... 41
3.3.3 Porosity ............................................................................................................. 42
3.3.4 PH ..................................................................................................................... 42
3.3.5 Electrical conductivity ...................................................................................... 42
3.3.6 Moisture Content ........................................................................................... 42
3.3.7 Organic Matter............................................................................................... 43
3.3.8 Cation Exchange Capacity ............................................................................... 43
3.4 GROWTH INDICES ........................................................................................ 43
3.4.1 Plant Height ................................................................................................... 43
3.4.2 Stem Diameter ............................................................................................... 43
3.4.3 Fruit Number .................................................................................................... 44
3.4.3 Fruit Firmness Index......................................................................................... 44
3.4.4 Leaf Area ........................................................................................................... 44

vi
 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................... 45
4.0 Results and Discussion ....................................................................................... 45
4.1 Results .................................................................................................................. 45
4.2 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 50
4.2.1 Physicochemical parameters ................................................................................ 50
4.2.2 Crop Growth Parameters ...................................................................................... 51
4.2.2.1 Stem Diameter ................................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................... 52
5.0 Conclusion And Recommendation ................................................................... 52
5.1 Conclusion............................................................................................................ 52
5.2 Recommendation.................................................................................................. 53
Reference ................................................................................................................... 54

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.2.0: Capsicum Chinense Leaves In Clusters 11

Fig. 2.1: Capsicum chinense Fruits 12

Fig. 2.2: Highest Producers Of Fresh Pepper In The World 13

Fig 2.4 Sample of rice Husk 22

Fig 2.2: A Tunnel Greenhouse structure 26

Fig. 3.1: Isometric Representation of the Greenhouse 34
Fig. 3.2: Nursery Stage of Pepper (Capsicum Chinese) 37

Fig. 3.3: Declogging of Substrate (Coco Peat) 38

Fig. 3.4: Declogging of Substrate (Rice Husk) 38
Fig. 3.5: Manual irrigation Of Growth Medium in Preparation for Planting
(Rice Husk) 39

viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Description of Capsicum chinense Jacq. plant 14

Table 2.2 Chemical and physical properties of partially decomposed cocopith.33

Table 3.0 Materials and uses 33

Table 3.1 Treatments and Replications 41
Table 4.0 Growth Indices Results From The Various Treatments. 46

Table 4.1 Stem Diameter Recorded Across All Growth Media 46

Table 4.2 Stem Diameter Summary across All Growth Media. 46

Table 4.3 Single Factor ANOVA Analysis of Stem Diameter Across

All Grow Medium. 47

Table 4.4 Plant Height Recorded Across All Grow Medium. 47

Table 4.5 Plant Height Summary across all Growth Media. 48

Table 4.6 Single Factor ANOVA Analysis of Plant Height across all Growth

Media. 48

Table 4.7 Leaf Area Recorded Across All Growth Media. 49

Table 4.8 Leaf Area Summary Across All Growth Media. 49

Table 4.9 Single factor ANOVA Analysis Of Leaf Area Across All Growth

Media. 49

Table 5.0 Summary Of Physicochemical Properties Of The Growth Media.50

ix
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY
The issues faced by human beings are being resolved through research and

development, which has laid the foundation of human civilization. Along with basic

needs, the development of auxiliary needs making life easier has proceeded. To advance

technology further, research is going on in various fields such as fuel cells (Ahmed et

al. 2022a, b, c; Wu et al. 2022), solar cells (Khadtare et al. 2014; Khadtare et al. 2019),

semiconductors (Ansari & Sartale 2016a; Lee et al. 2020; Choi et al. 2021), catalysis

(Sartale & Ansari 2013; Ansari & Sartale 2015a, b, 2016b), 2D materials (Raya et. al.

2020; Raya et al. 2021), and CO2 reduction (Ansari et al. 2021). At the same time,

human beings’ basic needs, namely food, have to be addressed, which is becoming a

serious issue. The agricultural sector will face many problems in the future, especially

a decrease in agricultural land and agricultural production. These issues will arise due

to many reasons, for example, land degradation. The arable land of Indonesia was

degraded and became critically damaged and barren in 1993, covering an area of 18

million hectares in 1993 (CSARD 2004), 23.2 million hectares in 2003 (Baja 2005), and

27.3 million hectares in 2005 (CBS 2013). Based on these data, one can know that the

damage to critical land in a period of 20 years increased by 9.3 million hectares.

On the other hand, the restoration of degraded land is challenging and takes a long time.

The increase in degraded land is caused by excessive use of chemical fertilizer,

conversion of agricultural land to residential land with increasing human population,

1
increasing temperature and water shortage as a result of climate change, etc. (Thornton

et al. 2018). In the future, there will be a major threat to the sustainability of crop

production and food security (Power & Jones 2016). Such a situation has begun to occur

in Indonesia where a reduction in the agricultural land area and a decrease in soil quality

due to the application of conventional agricultural systems along with high external

chemical input. To meet this challenge, an agricultural production model is needed that

not only limits the use of agricultural resources but also uses them thoroughly. Such an

agricultural production model will be the goal of the agricultural sector in the future.

Based on the data on vegetable production in Indonesia from 2017 to 2021, one can

observe that lettuce production increases continuously year by year. The production of

lettuce in 2017 was 627,598 tons and increased to 635,990 tons in 2018. A major

increase in lettuce production occurred in 2019, which was 652,727 tons, and continues

in 2020 and 2021, which was 667,473 and 727,467 tons, respectively (CBS 2022). This

is due to the increasing need for lettuce commodities in line with the development of

the catering business, hotels, and the level of public awareness of the importance of

nutrition. This need will continue to increase along with the increasing population of

Indonesia and the world. Green lettuce is generally consumed fresh; therefore, the

cultivation system should lead to a safe product. Soilless crop cultivation systems, which

use nutrient solutions, are developing rapidly to provide food crops (Resh 2022). This

cultivation system is widely applied to vegetable crops such as green lettuce. It has

several advantages such as high crop yield, high-quality crop products, less water

2
consumption, and precise management of water and nutrients for crop production.

Accurate water and nutrient management results in the fast and healthy

growth of crops. Further, the soilless and short growing life of plants results in relatively

few problems of disease and pests (Maucieri et al. 2019).

Suitable practice for plant production in soilless crop cultivation leads to less use of

pesticides; thereby, it is an environmentally friendly crop cultivation system (Resh

2022).

Various solid materials other than soil, either alone or in a mixture, can be used as a

substrate or growing media in soilless culture systems, including natural organic and

inorganic materials. The appropriate solid substrates should have high water retention

and air capacity, be cost-effective, and have less pollution; furthermore, they should not

release toxins (Wallach 2008; Maucieri et al. 2019). Additionally, a good substrate must

be able to promote plant growth. Along with soilless crop cultivation systems, various

attempts are going on to enhance soil quality. One of them is the use of biochar, which

enhances soil health in degraded tropical soils by improving both soil’s physical and

chemical properties. Use of biochar results in the increase of water retention in sandy

and highly weathered soils (Lehmann et al. 2003; Novak et al. 2009), pH enhancement

of acidic soils, improvement in nutrient uptake and cation exchange (Novak et al. 2009;

Atkinson et al. 2010; Clough & Condron 2010; Nurhidayati & Mariati 2014 and Awad

et a. 2017) reported that the use of biochar in a soilless culture system enhances the

nutritional status and growth of leafy vegetables, with restricting algal growth. It was

also found that the population of beneficial microbes in the soil increased after the use

3
of biochar (Lehmann et al. 2003). Although the effect of biochar on mineral soil systems

has been extensively studied (Lehmann & Joseph 2015; Spokas et al. 2012), its effect

on the soilless culture system has not yet been fully explored. Given the features of

biochar and the characteristics of a soilless culture system, the interest in using biochar

in soilless culture systems is obvious. Many organic fertilizers such as biogas manure

and vermicompost have been tested in soilless culture systems, which showed

encouraging results to promote plant growth and yield in several plant species like

lettuce, mustard, and cabbage (Liu et al. 2009; Manyuchi et al. 2013; Nurhidayati et al.

2017b; Nurhidayati et al. 2018). The purpose of these studies was to take advantage of

the good properties of both manure and vermicompost fertilizers to enhance the nutrient

in plants and microbes in substrates. Especially, vermicompost fertilizer results in

higher macro and micronutrients than conventional organic fertilizers, which are

essential for plant growth (Lazcano & Domínguez 2011; Celes et al. 2018).

Several agricultural waste materials have been used as adsorbents to remove different

pollutants. (Kaliannan et al. 2019) found the nanosilica synthesized from Saccharum

officinarum leaves as a promising aqueous solution adsorbent for removing Pb2+ and

Zn2+ metal ions. (Afroze and Sen 2018) reviewed the regarding agricultural waste

adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals and dyes. Abdic, Memic, Sabanovic,

Sulejmanovic, and Begic (2018) considered tangerine peel as the adsorbent for eight

heavy metal ions (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) from aqueous solution. (Choi

2019) studied corncob as the adsorbent for removing aqueous crude oil. (Milani, et al.,

2018 and Milani, et al., 2018) used sugarcane bagasse and hydroponic lettuce roots as

4
the biosorbents for removing Cu(II), Fe(II), Zn(II), and Mn(II) from aqueous solutions,

at pH 5.5, using batch procedures. A large amount of waste oil meal such as peanut

meal, sesame meal, and camellia meal is the by‐product produced in Taiwan. (Chang,

et al., 2018) studied the combustion behaviors of the oil meal and their results showed

the fuel prepared from the oil meal mixed with waste cooking oil is suitable for an

alternative fuel and avoids food safety issues. Arivizhivendhan et al. 2018 used rice bran

from Serratia marcescens to investigate the antioxidant and antimicrobial property of

bioactive prodigiosin and showed that the bioactive prodigiosin effectively scavenged

the free radical and inhibited the bacterial growth in food stuff. Al‐Sari, et al., 2018

studied the compost quality of the Palestinian market and farmers’ attitudes toward

agricultural use of compost and showed that knowledge of difference between compost

and chemical fertilizers, perception of compost benefits, and previously experiencing

problems in compost use are significant factors affecting the farmers’ attitude toward

the use of compost as an organic fertilizer. Akhtar et al. 2018 used agriculture wastes

like wheat bran, rice polishings, and molasses anaerobically by Clostridium

tyrobutyricum DSM 2637 to develop a successful bioprocess through solid‐state

fermentation technique for the butyric acid production. Atelge et al. 2018 reviewed the

latest trends and progress in biogas production technologies including potential

feedstock.

1.2 Problem Statement

The study is addressing the problem of food sufficiency and availability all year round,
handling/ disposal of agricultural wastes and multiplicity of the use of land.
5
Soilless farming (soilless culture as a case study) is the fastest growing sector of
agriculture and it is dominating food production in the near future. Also, as population
increases and arable land decreases, there is a need to turn to alternative systems of crop
production technologies, also agricultural waste conversion efficiency and use in crop
production (Kibiti, 2017).
This research therefore addressed the problem of food and food crop (Capsicum
chinense) insufficiency and scarcity that is experienced all year round, especially in
urban and pre-urban areas of our country, handling, utilisation and disposal of
agricultural wastes, while considering the multiplicity of the use of the agricultural land.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to carry out comparative analysis of the use of
Agricultural waste, (Coco peat and rice husk) for greenhouse cultivation of pepper.
The specific objectives are:

i. To design and develop a green house.

ii. To cultivate pepper using coco peat and rice husk.
iii. To determine specific growth indices/ parameters of pepper.
iv. To compare the productivity on the coco peat, rice husk and ordinary soil.
v. To carry out mineralogical assessment of the agricultural waste, coco peat and
rice husk.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The great importance of this study can be seen from an environmental, social, economic
or academic point of view. From an environmental point of view, the harmful effects of
this agricultural wastes and rice husk can be mitigated when they are recycled and used
for valuable purposes such as pepper production in greenhouses. In doing this, emission
of greenhouse gases, release of gaseous pollutants during combustion of rice husk and
other environmental impacts of this wastes can be reduced drastically. Socially, littering
the society with agricultural wastes and rice husks take up land spaces and this leads to
6
land pollution. Such issues can also be prevented when these by products are put into
meaningful uses like this study aims to do.
Economic wise, the study would help to save lots of money spent annually in waste
management of agricultural wastes around the environment. It would help to boost
pepper production worldwide and increase the level of income generated from it several
nations. It would also ensure that there is ample supply of pepper for human
consumption from time to time, thus ensuring that there is no scarcity of pepper at any
season of the year.
Academically, this research work will contribute greatly to already existing knowledge
in the greenhouse production of pepper by trying out this process using other alternative
methods and comparing them. It would also serve as a guide to other scholars who
would seek to carry out research works in this field.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This study is limited to the cultivation of pepper (capsicum Chinense) using coco peat
and rice husk as soil media in a greenhouse. Other species of pepper are not considered
or cultivated in this study.

7
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Capsicum Chinense (Scotch bonnet pepper)

Hot peppers, Capsicum chinense Jacquin, are grown in Jamaica and other Caribbean

countries, and in Jamaica the most preferred cultivar is ëScotch Bonnetí because of its

unique flavor. Commercial production of hot peppers started in Jamaica about 1970,

and fruits were mainly processed into sauces (Ministry of Agriculture, Jamaica,

unpublished report1). Only recently have hot peppers been included among Jamaicaís

non-traditional export crops. In 1996 about 71 metric tons of hot peppers were exported

to the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom, (The Data Bank and Evaluation

Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Jamaica) but the export market constitutes only

a small fraction of the total pepper production in Jamaica. The greater portion goes to

meet the high demand on the local market. For example, 9,069 metric tons of hot

peppers were produced in 1996 (The Data Bank and Evaluation Division of the Ministry

of Agriculture, Jamaica). The annual production of peppers, which is comprised mostly

of C. chinense, has increased steadily from 1989 through 1997 (The Statistical Institute

of Jamaica 1998). However, several pests threaten the production of Jamaican hot

peppers (Martin et al. 1998, Lawrence et al. 2000). Chief among them are viruses to

which Scotch Bonnet is especially vulnerable. Other important pests are the broad mite,

Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks), (Acari: Tarsonemidae) (Martin et al. 1998,

Lawrence et al. 2000) and the gall midges, Contarinia lycopersci (det. GagnÈ) and

Prodiplosis longifila GagnÈ (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) (Lawrence et al. 2000).

8
The widespread infection and severity of plant viruses in Jamaican Scotch Bonnet

pepper fields has reduced the production and profitability of this crop by reducing the

period that the crop can be harvested (Myers 1996). Under normal conditions, Scotch

Bonnet pepper is grown as a perennial crop, but since the occurrence of the mosaic

viruses it has been grown as an annual crop (Ministry of Agriculture, Jamaica,

unpublished report). Viruses most commonly affecting Scotch Bonnet pepper in

Jamaica are tobacco etch virus (TEV), potato virus Y (PVY) (McGlashan et al. 1993,

Myers 1996, Lawrence et al. 2000) and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) (McGlashan et al.

1993, Martin et al. 1998).

TEV and PVY are aphid-borne, whereas TMV is mechanically transmitted. TEV may

cause mottling, mosaic discolorations and deformation of pepper leaves, accompanied

by malformation of fruit and stunting of plants (Bawden and Kassanis 1941, Brunt et al.

1996). PVY is known to cause mild mottling in pepper leaves and more severe

symptoms when occurring in mixed infections with other viruses (Brunt et al. 1996). In

Jamaica, PVY and TEV often occur in mixed infections in the field (McGlashan et al.

1993, Myers 1996) but the symptoms of PVY are suppressed by TEV (Myers 1996).

Plants infected with these viruses produce leaves that are chlorotic and reduced in size.

2.1.1 Scotch Bonnet pepper

Scotch Bonnet pepper is a variety of Capsicum chinense Jacquin and belongs to the

family Solanaceae. C. chinense is one of five domesticated species of Capsicum

(Andrews 1984) and is most closely related to the domesticated species, C. annuum and

C. frutescens (Pickersgill et al. 1979). C. chinense can hybridize with C. annuum and C.

9
frutescens (Schweid 1989, DeWitt and Bosland 1996). C. chinense is grown mostly in

the Caribbean and South America (Purseglove et al. 1981, Andrews 1984) and is

thought to have originated in either the Andes mountains (Purseglove et al. 1981) or

Amazon Basin (DeWitt and Bosland 1996). The species is comprised of about 40

varieties, varying in shape, color and heat levels. Heat levels range from 0 to 577,000

Scoville units within C. chinense (Dewitt and Bosland 1996). Scotch Bonnet derived its

name from the shape of the fruit. It is also known for its distinct flavor and its pungency,

which places it in the upper range of known heat levels of hot peppers (Andrews 1984,

DeWitt and Bosland 1996).

The appearance and characteristics of this plant can vary greatly. Varieties such as the

well-known Habanero, grow to form small, compact, perennial bushes of about 0.5

metres (1 ft 8 in) in height (‘Capsicum chinense’ , 2020). The flowers, as with most

Capsicum species, are small and white with five petals. They occur singly or in clusters

of two. When it forms, the fruit varies greatly in shape and colours with red, orange, and

yellow being the most common mature colours, but colours such as brown and purple

are also known. It possesses compound leaves with each leaf composed of three leaflets.

10
 Fig.2.0: Capsicum Chinense Leaves In Clusters

(Source: ecofamilylife.com)

It possesses hairless, oval, or lanceolate leaves, and the attachment of the leaves to the

stem is alternately arranged. Capsicum chinense is propagated by seeds and thrives in a

well-drained, loose, moist soil of pH values ranging from 5.5 -6.5. It requires warm

environmental temperatures ranging from 26-28℃ but can tolerate temperatures as high

as 32℃. It requires sunlight to grow and does not thrive in the shade. It succeeds with a

mean annual rainfall of 600-1200mm but tolerates 500-1500mm. Each plant yields

approximately 43 fruits per year (Yaldiz and Ozguven, 2011). Another similarity with

other species would be shallow roots, which are very common. The pungent fruit is used

globally as a spice for the preparation of spicy delicacies of different cultures in the

world. It is also applied in medicine; used for the treatment of cold-stage fevers, varicose

veins, asthma, and digestive problems (‘Capsicum chinense’, 2020). Peppers are

generally consumed fresh or processed for use as vegetables or spices. The fruits may

vary in shape, some are smooth and rounded, and some are wrinkled and a bit elongated.

11
The major vitamins present in capsicum are vitamins C which is good for the immune

system and A which is essential for good eyesight.

Fig. 2.1: Capsicum chinense Fruits

(Source: MyGardenLife.com)

Globally, approximately 35.9 million metric tonnes of capsicum are produced per

annum, with Nigeria being the 7th highest producer with a value of 762.2 thousand

metric tonnes produced per annum (‘Production trends overview of top ten countries

’2022).

12
 Fig. 2.2: Highest Producers Of Fresh Pepper In The World

(Source :‘Production trends overview of top ten countries’ , 2022).

In North Eastern states of India, the height of the plant ranges from 50-100 cm. Under

semiperennial situation it may grow even taller. The stem is green with anthocyanin

(dark color pigments) pigmentation on the nodes. Leaves are ovate in shape and the

surface has the characteristic crinkle look (Figure 1). It has pendant, with creamy white

corollas, often with a touch of light green and has clustering flowering habit with 2-3

flowers per node but at maturity there are rarely more than two fruits per node. The

anthers are blue while the filaments are purple. The elongated fruits are 5 to 7 cm in

length, 2.5 to 3.0 cm in diameter, with an undulating surface. Fruits color ranges from

light green to green to bright red /bright orange. The fruit possess 4-5 hollow locules

and bears about condition, in a single season a plant produces around 15-20 full sized

fruits and 10-14 smaller fruits (Borgohain et al, 2007).

13
 Table 2.1: Description of Capsicum chinense Jacq. plant

Description Range
Plant height at 6 months 57-129 cm

No. of primary branches 7-18

Fruits per plant 28-40

Fruit length 5.1-8.9 cm
Fruit breadth 2.2-4.2 cm
Fruit weight 5.2-11.5 gm
Seeds per fruit 22-47
Fruits per node 1-3
Fruit color Orange, red, light red, chocolate

Node color Absent to deep purple

Flower color (before anthesis) Greenish white, light brown

Anther color (before anthesis) Light purple

Source: McGlashan, D. 1993.

2.2 Soilless Farming

Soilless culture is a method of plant cultivation without the use of soil as the growth

medium, cultivation in which the nutrients absorbed by the plants are supplied via

irrigation water (Gianquinto and Berlin, 2013; Ajibade and Oyeniyi 2018). In soilless

farming, the essential nutrients for the optimal growth and survival of the plant are

dissolved in water, in required concentrations, and fed to the plants via irrigation.

Soillessculture systems have been recognized as a viable method of producing

vegetables (tomatoes, lettuce, eggplant, spinach, melons, cucumbers, and peppers) as

well as ornamental crops such as herbs, roses, freesia, and foliage plants. Fruit crops

14
such as strawberries and raspberries are also well-suited to soilless culture systems.

Originally, field cultivation was the ideal method of growing plants but advancement in

agriculture hasthrown light on the suitability of some other methods of plant cultivation

for optimum and sometimes even better, food production. Well-drained, pathogen-free,

field soil of uniform texture is the least expensive, very suitable medium for growing

plants but the soil does not always appear in this perfect form. Sometimes the soils are

not perfectly-textured, leading to uncomfortable conditions for the roots of plants.

Pathogens in the soil cause problems for the plants and in turn affect the farmer’s

harvest. The goal of the farmer when employing greenhouse soilless culture, is the

provision of physical support, adequate nutrients, aeration, and comfortable exchange

within the roots and with its environment, among other necessities for plant growth

without having to deal with open field-related problems such as pathogenic and rodent

attacks, soil flooding and erosion, drought and desert encroachment, soil salinity, etc. It

is important to note that soilless farming isn’t a way to replace soil but rather to

complement soil, for better results. (Ogbole, 2019). The classification of soilless culture

focuses on the type of substrate and container, how the nutrient solution is delivered to

the plant (e.g., drip irrigation; sub-irrigation; flowing, stagnant or mist nutrient solution

culture), and the fate of the drainage nutrient solution: open (free-drain) or closed

(recirculating water) systems. Soilless culture is majorly classified into liquid-

mediumsystems and solid-mediumsystems by method of operation. Liquid medium

systems include hydroponics, aeroponics, andaquaponics.

15
2.2.1 Hydroponics: The definition of hydroponics has been broadened to mean “the

cultivation of plants without soil’’. In hydroponics, plants are grown in an inert medium

such as rocks or coco coir fiber, and they are fed a solution containing a perfect mix of

primary, secondary, and micronutrients. Almost any kind of plant can be grown

hydroponically, including veggies, herbs, fruits, and flowers (Kazzaz et al, 2017)

2.2.2 Aeroponics: Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or mist

environment without the use of soil or an aggregate media. This is an alternative method

of soil-less culture in growth-controlled environments. The aeroponic system refers to

the method of growing crops with their roots suspended in a misted nutrient medium

(Chiipanthenga et al. 2012).

2.2.3 Aquaponics: Aquaponics is a combination of aquaculture (fish farming) and

hydroponics (plant growing without soil). It is a closed-loop recycling freshwater

system between fish and plants (Kyaw et al 2017). Aquaponics provides a solution to

the main issues these two systems face; the need for sustainable ways of filtering or

disposing of nutrient-rich fish waste in aquaculture and the need for nutrient-rich water

to act as a fertilizer with all of the nutrients and minerals needed for plants grown

through hydroponics (Surnar et al 2015).

2.3. AGRICULTURAL WASTE

Agricultural waste is said to be an unwanted or unusable material which is generated

during agricultural activities which has become a major challenge to the Agricultural

sector. These residues may be food processed by-products, animal manures, crop

residues etc.

16
However, if these wastes are not managed properly may cause harm and pollution to the

environment thereby causing adverse effects to the humans and animals in the

environment.

As the demand for Agricultural products increase, so does productivity to meet these

demands, which in turn increases the amount of waste turnout from the agricultural

sector. Agricultural wastes can also be defined as the non-product outputs of production

and processing of agricultural products, whose economic values are less than the cost

of collection, transportation and processing for beneficial use.

Agricultural wastes include any residues gotten from any agricultural processes, ranging

from wood chippings to slurries from milking parlours and aquaculture effluents.

Agricultural wastes are mainly classified into solid and liquid wastes and for the purpose

of this study; we concentrate solely on solid wastes. Major sources of agricultural solid

waste are crop residues (stalks, straws, leaves, roots, husks, shells,), animal dung and

droppings, unutilised animal feed, among others.

Agricultural waste is a significant challenge for the agricultural sector, as it refers to any

unwanted or unusable material generated during agricultural production, such as crop

residues, animal manure, and food processing byproducts. If not managed appropriately,

agricultural waste can have negative environmental impacts, including air and water

pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and soil degradation. However, it also has potential

as a valuable resource for energy production and soil improvement.

One type of agricultural waste is crop residues, such as corn stalks, rice straw, and wheat

straw. These materials are often burned or left to decompose in the field, which can

17
release greenhouse gases and contribute to air pollution. However, crop residues can

also be used as a feedstock for bioenergy production, such as ethanol and biogas. The

anaerobic digestion of crop residues can produce biogas, which can be used for

electricity and heat production (Khanal et al. 2015).

Animal manure is another type of agricultural waste that can pose a significant

environmental problem if not managed properly. Large amounts of manure can release

harmful pollutants, such as ammonia and methane, into the air and water. However,

manure can also be used as a fertilizer to improve soil quality and crop productivity.

The application of manure to soil can increase soil organic matter content, improve

nutrient availability, and enhance soil structure (Liu et al., 2018).

Food processing byproducts, such as fruit and vegetable peels and pulp, are also a

significant source of agricultural waste. These materials are often discarded as waste,

but they can also be used as a feedstock for bioenergy production or as a soil

amendment. The addition of fruit and vegetable waste to soil can improve soil fertility

and plant growth (Zhang et al., 2019).

Poultry litter is a mixture of manure, bedding material, and feathers that is generated in

large quantities by the poultry industry. Improperly managed poultry litter can

contribute to water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. However, poultry litter can

also be used as a fertilizer or feedstock for energy production. The application of poultry

litter to soil can increase soil organic matter content and improve crop yield (Sistani et

al. 2016).

18
Dairy waste, including manure and milk processing byproducts, is another significant

source of agricultural waste that can pose environmental challenges if not properly

managed. However, dairy waste can be used as a feedstock for biogas production or as

a fertilizer. The anaerobic digestion of dairy waste can produce biogas, which can be

used for cooking and electricity generation (Yadav et al., 2020).

In addition to processing byproducts, waste from fresh produce can also be generated

during harvesting and transportation. This waste can be used as a feedstock for energy

production or as a source of nutrients for soil improvement. The composting of fruit and

vegetable waste can improve soil fertility and plant growth (García-García et al. 2019).

Rice straw is a byproduct of rice cultivation that is often burned in the field, leading to

air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. However, rice straw can also be used as a

feedstock for bioenergy production or as a soil amendment. The use of rice straw as a

soil amendment can improve soil fertility and increase crop yield (Haque et al., 2018).

2.3.1 Coco peat:

Coco peat is fabricated from coco pith this is made out of the husk that grows across the

difficult coconut. The husk includes each fibers and fine materials. By setting apart most

of the fibers from the fine materials, the so-known as coco pith, is collected.

The coconut husk is made up of natural fibers called coir fiber as well as a parenchymal,

spongy material called coir fiber which binds the fibers together in the husk. Consisting

of sclerified tissue, coconut does not retain much water. In a growing medium, however,

the fibers create aeration through the porosity of the coir and provide the structure to

prevent compaction. These characteristics are

19
important for a healthy root zone. Coconut fiber acts like micro-sponges where moisture

is stored.

Fiber and pith (cocopith) together form an excellent growth substrate with an excellent

air/water ratio.

Raw cocopith has a high carbon (C) to nitrogen (N) ratio (112:1) and high lignin content

and can result in immobilization of plant nutrients. This inhibitory effect can be

eliminated, however, by using partially decomposed coir pith. Decomposition of

coconut husks reduces the C:N ratio to about 30:1, which is ideal for use as an organic

growing substrate. Cocopith has many desirable characteristics (table 1), making it an

ideal medium for various horticultural uses. These characteristics include high moisture

retention capacity, high potassium content, low bulk density (0.18 g/ cm3) and particle

density (0.8 g/cm3) and high cation exchange capacity enabling it to retain high amounts

of exchangeable potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg).

These characteristics also make cocopith ideal for use as a mulch and soil amendment,

especially for dry and sandy areas with low water retention (Krishnapillai et al, 2020).

Cocopith resembles sphagnum peat moss, the most common soil used in horticulture,

but offers many advantages as a growing medium. With the demands of commercial

horticulture and the consequent reduction in the availability of sphagnum peat moss due

to the dispossession of ecologically significant peatland areas, coco peat has been

recognized internationally as an ideal soil amendment and component above ground

containers for the horticultural industry. Although a variety of commercial products are

available, the local abundance of coconuts on Yap allows for the on-site processing of

20
coconut husks in a suitable growing medium. An average coconut tree produces 150 to

180 coconuts per year, ensuring a continuous supply of peels. One coconut yields

approximately 100 g (0.22 lb) of coconut, making it an affordable and sustainable

product. (Krishnapillai et al, 2020).

Table 2.2 Chemical and physical properties of partially decomposed cocopith.

Property Partially decomposed cocopith

Lignin (%) 28.5
Cellulose (%) 25.8
Organic carbon (%) 29.0
Nitrogen (%) 0.26
Phosphorus (%) 0.01
Potassium (%) 0.76
C:N ratio 30:1
Calcium (%) 0.47
Magnesium (%) 0.41
Copper (ppm) 4.20
Iron (ppm) 0.08
Manganese (ppm) 17.0
Zinc (ppm) 9.8
pH 5.6 – 6.0
EC (millimhos/cm) 0.3 – 0.6
CEC (meq/100 g) 40 - 100

Source: Krishnapillai et al, 2020

2.3.2 Rice husk:

Rice hulls are a by-product from the rice hulling mills and are obtained when the rice

hulls are removed from the rice paddy. Rice hulls are available in substantial amounts

in Europe: the cultivation of rice accounts for more than 574 000 ha or 3.4 million tons

21
per year (Ferrero, 2005). The most important European rice producing countries are

situated around the Mediterranean Sea including Spain, France,

Greece and Italy. Rice is harvested in September and October, which means that rice

hulls are available from December. Consequently, the supply of rice hulls clashes with

the demand of the substrate producing companies. Unfortunately, due to severe price

increases in the energy sector, rice hulls are highly demanded as biomass and are no

longer readily available (Perneel, 2008).Rice hulls are a practical option for a growing

medium as they do not absorb water and breakdown very slowly over time. They are

also a good option for those looking to use a natural material. It is recommended that

parboiled rice hulls be used as they are a sterile material, and will avoid harboring

harmful pathogens that could jeopardize the closed hydroponics/aquaponics system

(Trail, 2019).

Fig 2.4 Sample of rice Husk

22
Rice hulls, when deriving from a non-parboiled process, cause severe damage to the

production of plants due to the germination of remaining rice grains. The rice weeds

compete with young plants for nutrients and sunlight. Growers are therefore obliged to

remove the rice weeds one by one, a very labour intensive work. All these inherent

properties may lead under certain circumstances to substantial production losses for

growers.

2.3.2.1. Properties of Rice Husk

Rice husk pyrolysis at different temperature Rice husk contains 75-90 % organic matter

such as cellulose, lignin etc. and rest mineral components such as silica, alkalis and trace

elements. The content of each of them depends on rice variety, soil chemistry, climatic

conditions, and even the geographic localization of the culture (Muntohar, 2022).

Typical analysis of rice husk gives properties as Property Range Bulk density (kg/m3)

96-160, Hardness (Mohr‘s scale) 5-6, Ash % 22-29, Carbon, % ≈ 35, Hydrogen % 4-5,

Oxygen % 31-37, Nitrogen % 0.23-0.32, Sulphur % 0.04-0.08, Moisture 8-9 (Muthadi

& Kothandaram, 2007).

Rice husk is an agricultural residue or the byproduct of rice milling industry. The

chemical composition of different rice samples is found to be varying due to difference

in climatic conditions, About 650 million of rice is produced worldwide of which 20%

is obtained as rice husk. The present conditions of world Demands greatly for the use

of durable materials which is also strong. Rice husk is a great example of such material.

Burning the rice under controlled conditions at temperature below 800? C produced

23
silica in amorphous form. This silica can be utilized for constructional works. In the

production of porcelain around 20% silica is required. This demand can be full filled

from rice husk (Rao et al., 2011).

2.3.2.2. Uses and Applications of Rice Husk Ash

Suitability of RH to be used for different applications depends upon the physical and

chemical properties of the husk such as ash content, silica content etc. Direct use of rice

husk as fuel has been seen in power plants. Apart from its use as fuel, RH finds its use

as source raw material for synthesis and development of new phases and compounds.

Rice husk is mostly used as fuel in boilers for processing paddy and generation of

process steam. Heat energy is produced through direct combustion. Small sector process

industries use fixed low capacity boilers, which are manually fired using rice husk as a

fuel. Partial and uneven fuel combustion lead to smoke emission and decrease the fuel

efficiency. As husks are available virtually for free, the boiler efficiency and the degree

of combustion were the issues of receiving the latest attention (Giddel & Jivan, 2007).

Plants with capacity 2-10 MW range can become commercially viable and this biomass

resource can be utilized to a much greater extent than at present. It has been seen that to

produce 1MWh, approximately 1 tonne of rice husk is required. So, the technical and

economic factors decide the effective use of rice husk as fuel for power generation.

Also, rice husk has been used as an useful and alternative fuel for household energy.

24
2.4. The Greenhouse Technology

Greenhouse technology, a subset of protected cultivation procedures, is an agricultural

procedure that involves the cultivation of plants in enclosed and controlled spaces,

providing growth conditions different from that of their original environment. It is the

science of providing very conducive environments for the optimum growth of plants.

A microclimate different from the one on the outside is established, depending on the

greenhouse construction materials, shape, dimensions, air renewal conditions, and plant

canopy, amidst other factors which come to play.

The average plant needs about 400-700 nm of sunlight, 300-800 ppm of carbon dioxide,

50-70% moisture, and the presence of adequate microorganisms at an ambient

temperature of 18-30℃ and a greenhouse should at least provide these basic needs.

The greenhouse protects plants from adverse climatic conditions such as excessive

radiation, harsh wind action, insects, and diseases. Greenhouse technology has a

tremendous scope in the horticultural sector, especially for the production of hybrid

seeds, high-value vegetables, medicinal plants, flowers, and fruits. Greenhouse

technology employs the “greenhouse effect” mechanism of the earth. The transparent

covering (usually plastic or glass) absorbs light energy from the sun and radiates only

some wavelengths of this light energy. The energy absorbed by the plants and other

objects in the greenhouse gets converted to heat energy; a form of energy that cannot

penetrate the transparent covering when emitted by plants. As the objects start to cool

down, they release this heat energy into the air in the greenhouse space, heating the air

25
in the process. This heated air stays warm for long periods of time since the heat cannot

escape through the plastic or glass covering hence the need for proper ventilation

measures to maintain a suitable ambient temperature in the greenhouse. Greenhouses

include ventilation systems for optimum temperature control, some structures have

windows that can be opened to let the heat out while more modern versions have in-

built fans that blow air across the structure.

Fig 2.2: A Tunnel Greenhouse structure

(Source: Hemming et al, 2019)

The demand for local food offers significant revenue potential for farmers. One

challenge facing traditional farm operations is that locally grown fresh produce is only

seasonally available. If a grower cannot provide a consistent year-round predictable

product, they may not be able to meet the customers’ needs and thus unable to obtain

and fulfil a contract. Due to the unpredictability of weather, prices for fresh produce can

be high during winter months and those higher prices offer a significant opportunity for

farmers who grow greenhouse food crops. Traditional field agriculture requires

significant expenditures for land and equipment to begin operation and this can be a

26
major impediment in being able to begin a farming business (Freedgood and Dempsey,

2014).

Controlled environment production of produce is an increasingly important part of the

agriculture industry and has an annual value of $3 billion dollars that is expected to

reach $4billion by 2020. Although large and medium-sized controlled environment food

operations have become commonplace, a large proportion of the growth in this sector

has been from relatively small farmers (4,000 square feet or less) producing primarily

for local markets (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017). A significant factor

driving this demand is the uniform quality and reliability of greenhouse-grown produce

(Rabobank, 2013).

2.4.1 Classifications of Greenhouse

In order to meet the food demand in 2050, world production must increase by 70 per

cent. Man has developed technological methods for year-round crop production (FAO

2020). For this, various types of greenhouse structures are available for crop production.

As there are both advantages and disadvantages in all types of greenhouse structure for

a specific application, in common no single type of greenhouse is considered as the best

one. Therefore, different types of greenhouse designs classified based on utility, shape,

material and construction are available to meet the specific needs.

27
2.4.1.1 Classification based on need.

2.4.1.1.1 Low technology greenhouses: The size of the low technology greenhouses is

less than 3 metres in total height and tunnel houses provide poor ventilation as they do

not have vertical walls and relatively inexpensive due to little or no automation being

used.

2.4.1.1.2 Medium technology greenhouses: Medium technology greenhouses are

typically characterised by vertical walls. The size of the medium technology

greenhouses is more than 2m but less than 4 metres tall and a total height usually less

than 5.5 metres. These types of greenhouses facilitate either roof or side wall for better

ventilation. They also provide medium automation and usually use clad with either

single or double skin plastic film or glass

2.4.1.1.3 High level greenhouses: Height of the high-level greenhouses wall is at least

4 metres and the height of roof peak is up to 8 metres above ground level. These

structures offer excellent crop production with environmental performance. This

structure has proper roof ventilation, side wall vents and automation environmental

controls.

2.4.1.2 Greenhouse Type based on shape

2.4.1.2.1 Lean-to type greenhouse: A lean-to wall type of greenhouse is applicable

when it is placed against the side of an existing greenhouse structure for one or more of

28
its sides. This type of greenhouse is limited to single or double-row plant benches with

a total width of 7 to 12 feet and length as the building it is attached to.

2.4.1.2.2 Even span type greenhouse: The even span is the common type of

greenhouse constructed fully on ground level with the two equal width and pitch of roof

slopes. This type of greenhouse structure is used when the size of a greenhouse is small

and attached to a house at one gable end. This type of greenhouse is restricted to 2 or 3

rows of plant benches.

2.4.1.2.3 Uneven span type greenhouse: This uneven span type of greenhouse is

suitable for hilly or undulating terrains. The roofs of the structure differ in width; which

resembles the name of the structure and make the structures adaptable to the side slopes

of the hill. This type of greenhouses is rarely used as it is not adaptable for automation.

2.4.1.2.4 Ridge and furrow type greenhouse: This type of greenhouse designs use

two or more A-frame greenhouse structures connected to one another along the length

of the eave. The eave represent as gutter or furrow to handle rain water and melted snow.

2.4.1.2.5 Saw tooth type greenhouse: This type of greenhouses is similar to ridge and

furrow types, except that this type provides natural ventilation from saw- tooth form of

the greenhouse. When open the saw tooth vent allows a continuous airflow to reduce

the inside temperature or can be closed to optimise the climate control of the growing

area. The roof ventilation alone provides 25% of the total ventilation of the covered

area, in addition to the side ventilation. The shape of the arches allows excellent light

transmission.

29
2.4.1.2.6 Quonset greenhouse: This greenhouse is useful for a small isolated cultural

area and also economical as compared to the gutter connected greenhouses. These

houses are connected either in free, standing style or arranged in an interlocking ridge

and furrow.

2.4.1.3 Type of greenhouse based on utility

2.4.1.3.1 Active heating system of greenhouses: This greenhouse is designed to avoid

the cold bite to plants due to freezing, by supplying some amount. The requirements for

heating a greenhouse depend on the rate at which the heat is lost to the outside

environment.

2.4.1.3.2 Active cooling system of greenhouses: This type of greenhouse either

consists of evaporative cooling pad with fan or fog cooling. This greenhouse is designed

in such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some cases nearly 100%.

2.4.1.4 Types of Greenhouses based on construction:

2.4.1.4.1 Wooden framed structures: In general, wooden frame structures are

applicable where greenhouses with a span is less than 6 m. Side posts and columns are

made up of wooden materials without the use of truss materials. Pine wood 4 is

commonly used as it is inexpensive and possesses good strength. Similarly, locally

available timber can be used for the construction of a greenhouse as they are good in

strength, durability and machine ability.

30
2.4.1.4.2 Pipe framed structures: Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses,

when the clear span is around 12m. In general, the side posts, columns, cross ties and

purlins are constructed using pipes. In this type, the trusses are not used.

2.4.1.4.3 Truss framed structures: Greenhouse structures can be made in truss frames,

if the span is greater than or equal to 15m. Flat steel, tubular steel or angular iron is

welded together to form a truss encompassing rafters, chords and struts. Struts are

support members under compression and chords are support members under tension.

Angle iron purlins running along the length of the greenhouse are bolted to each truss.

Columns are used only in very wide truss frame houses of 21.3 m or more. Most of the

glasses houses are made in truss frame, as these frames are highly suitable for pre-

fabrication.

2.4.1. 5 Types of Greenhouse based on covering materials

2.4.1. 5.1 Glass greenhouses Glass: is used as covering material in glass greenhouses.

As a covering material, it has the advantage of greater interior light intensity, has a

higher air infiltration rate, and leads to lower interior humidity and excellent disease

prevention quality. Ridge and furrow, lean-to type, even span type of designs are used

for construction of glass greenhouse.

2.4.1.5.2 Plastic film greenhouses: The covering materials of flexible plastic films

including polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene and polyester are used in this type of

greenhouses. As a covering material for greenhouses, plastics are more popular, cheap

31
and the heating cost as compared to glass greenhouses. Quonset design as well as gutter-

connected design is suitable for using this covering material.

2.4.1.5.3 Rigid panel greenhouses: Quonset type frame is also known ridge and furrow

type frame material in which polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibreglass-reinforced

plastic, acrylic and polycarbonate rigid panels are used as the covering material in the

greenhouse. These materials provide more uniform light intensity throughout the

greenhouse and are also resistant to breakage than plastic or glass. High grade panels

are more durable even up to 20 years.

2.4.2 Rate of Adoption

With the growing world population, land availability for crop production is becoming

an issue, thus according to (Ajibade and Oyeniyi 2018), soilless farming practised inside

a greenhouse structure, has been discovered to proffer solution to the problems faced by

traditional soil farming. The greenhouse use is the most recent advances in technology,

making this operation one of the most high-tech operations in the world. Awareness of

the pollution associated with intensive agriculture forces greenhouse growers to adopt

more environment friendly cultivation methods (Massa et al., 2011). The use of an eco-

friendly material (rapidly renewable, locally available with a low cost and able to

perform as well as commercial products) as growing medium appears to be a viable

alternative crop production system (Abdelrahman et al., 2012).

Research Gap
The technology of growing crops and other agricultural products in greenhouse have
come to stay in modern times. Consequently, a wide variety of research work have been

32
carried out in this regard in a bid to determine the best methods of cultivating these
products in order to achieve optimal yield. Such literatures have been discussed already
in this literature review section of this study. However, most of this research
work were centered mainly of cultivation of crops (paper in the case of this study) in
greenhouses using a particular method. There exists little or no literature works that
have tried to make comparative analysis of growing of crops in greenhouses,
particularly comparing that of agricultural waste, coco peat and rice husk as this research
work is trying to do. Thus, there is a dearth of literature works in this regards and that
is what this study aims to fill.

33
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 MATERIALS
To achieve the cultivation of pepper (capsicum chinense) and to monitor its growth,
development and eventually, yield, the following materials which are presented in the
table below are required.

Table 3.0 Materials and uses

S/N Materials Uses/Justification
1 Wooden For housing and protection of the treatments
greenhouse For cultivation of capsicum chinense
2 Agricultural Waste Growth media to be used for the cultivation of
materials (Coco capsicum chinense
peat and rice husk)
3 Grow bags To be used as a container for growing the seedlings

4 Drip pipes For irrigation of the capsicum chinense plant

5 Reservoir can For irrigation of the capsicum chinense plant

6 UV nylon For protection from ultra-violent light

7 UV net For protection from ultra-violent light
8 Seedling tray To be used to hold the seedling
9 pH meter To be used to measure the pH of the medium
10 EC meter To be used to measure electrical conductivity
11 Capsicum seed Seedling to be planted
12 Cement For the floor of the greenhouse
13 Nutrient mix for the Mix of required nutrients for growing the seedlings
crop (Mix A components: Calcium Nitrate, Monoamonium
Phosphate.
Mix B components: Magnesium Sulphate, Copper
Sulphate, Zinc Sulphate, Manganese Sulphate,
Boric Acid, Ammonic Molybolate, Magnesium
Nitrate, Iron Chelate, Potassium Nitrate)

14 Soil To be used as control

34
 Fig. 3.0: Orthographic Representation of the Greenhouse

Fig. 3.1: Isometric Representation of the Greenhouse

3.2 METHODS
3.2.1 Pre-Planting Operations
Operations carried out before planting commenced includes weed management,
greenhouse preparation, nursery stage, substrate preparation, and bagging.
3.2.1.0 Weed Management
Weeds are to be considered a strong competitor to crops and primary sources of pests
and as such regarded as a trait in greenhouse/controlled farming. Many common

35
greenhouse weeds such as chickweed, oxalis, bitter cress, jewelweed, dandelion, and
ground ivy can become infected with tospoviruses including impatiens necrotic spot
virus (INSV) and tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) while showing few, if any visible
symptoms. Trips can then vector the virus to susceptible greenhouse crops. Weeds can
also carry other plant-damaging viruses that are vectored by aphids.

In preventing and controlling weeds in the greenhouse, the following measures were
taken:

Use of nylon as flooring for the greenhouse overlaid with gravel in order to discourage
weed growth.
Keep the greenhouse vents closed when necessary to avoid wind-blowing weed
seedlings into the greenhouse.
So as not to harm crops during growth, the hand-pulling method was used to remove
weeds from the growth medium.
3.2.1.1 Greenhouse Preparation
Practices observed ranged from site selection and preparation to material selection and
greenhouse arrangement.
3.2.1.1.0 Site selection and preparation
Cooling in the greenhouse will be achieved using thermal buoyancy and to achieve this,
the greenhouse will be oriented so that the summer wind direction blows over the roof
ridge. The greenhouse is situated in an easily accessible location and a location with
close proximity to a water source.

The perimeter of the greenhouse was properly fumigated against termites as wood will
be used for construction.

3.2.1.1.1 Material Selection and Preparation

A range of woods was used (2 X 2 inch, 2 X 4 inch, batons) for the greenhouse
construction, the woods was properly treated against termites using Solignum and
allowed to dry. UV nylon and UV nets served as covering for the greenhouse. Grow
bags were used as opposed to plastic containers so as to discourage the plant from being

36
“root bound” or “pot bound” and to encourage air going through the medium as grow
bags have holes.

3.2.1.1.2 Greenhouse Arrangement

A reservoir tank was placed at the right corner of the greenhouse with a considerable
height difference so as to encourage better irrigation. The plot had a total of 4 rows (3
treatments and 1 control). Row spacing was 80cm and inter-row spacing was 40cm.

3.2.1.2 Pepper Seed Preparation

The viability of the seedlings to be planted was determined using the water test; the
seedlings were immersed in water for approximately 15mins and care was taken to select
the seedlings that sunk because they are still viable while the rest will most likely not
sprout.
3.2.1.3 Nursery Stage
The viable seedlings were planted in a seedling tray using coco peat as medium,
monitored for 2 weeks before transplanting. The planting in the seedling tray was done
one seedling per hole and care was taken to water the seeds twice a day, once in the
morning and once in the evening.

Fig. 3.2: Nursery Stage of Pepper (Capsicum Chinese)

3.2.1.4 Substrate Preparation

The substrates were soaked overnight to encourage declogging and accelerate

germination and increase the proportion of seeds that will successfully germinate, and
be bagged. The mixture of the substrates for treatment three (3) was done in a 30% coco
peat, 30% rice husk, and 40% soil.
37
Fig. 3.3: Declogging of Substrate (Coco Peat)

Fig. 3.4: Declogging of Substrate (Rice Husk)

38
Fig. 3.5: Manual irrigation Of Growth Medium in Preparation for Planting (Rice
Husk)

39
3.2.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Randomly Complete Bock Design (RCBD) was used to carry out this research with the
following treatments.

= Coco peat

= Rice husk

= Rice husk, Coco peat and soil

= soil

3.2.2.0 Advantages of the RCBD

Generally, more precise than the completely randomised design (CRD).

No restriction on the number of treatments or replicates.

Some treatments may be replicated more times than others.

Missing plots are easily estimated.

Whole treatments or entire replicates may be deleted from the analysis.

If experimental error is heterogeneous, valid comparisons can still be made.

3.2.2.1 Disadvantages of the RCBD

Error difference is smaller than that for the CRD (problem with a small number of
treatments).
If there is a large variation between experimental units within a block, a large error term
may result (this may be due to too many treatments).
If there are missing data, a RCBD experiment may be less efficient than a CRD

40
Table 3.1 Treatments and Replications

Rep 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Rep 4

A B A B
D A B C
C D C B
B C D A

3.3 PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CULTURE MEDIA

Some of the physicochemical parameters of the culture media to be analysed includes;

3.3.1 Bulk Density

Bulk density is an indicator of soil compaction. It is calculated as the dry weight of soil
divided by its volume. This volume includes the volume of soil particles and the volume
of pores among soil particles. Bulk density is typically expressed in g/cm3 (USDA, 2008).

(3.1)

3.3.2 Water Holding Capacity

Prabhu et al (2022) defined soil water holding capacity as the amount of water a soil can
physically retain against gravitational force. Water holding capacity can be said to be the
amount of water a soil/medium can physically retain against gravitational force.

(3.2)

Where Vw is the volume of the water, Vt is the total volume of the saturated soil/media. If
you've filled the container to the top with saturated soil/media then this is the volume of
the container.

41
3.3.3 Porosity
Hao et al, (2019) defined porosity as the percentage of the soil volume occupied by pore
spaces.

(3.3)

3.3.4 PH
PH is regarded one of the most important in terms of shaping biogeographical patterns
(Fierer and Jackson 2006; Lauber et al. 2009). It serves as indicator to hint on the
population and nature of bacteria to be found in a given soil or medium. PH is measured
using a pH metre.

3.3.5 Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity in a material is a number describing how much that material can
conduct electricity. Electrical conductivity is defined as the inverse of the resistivity. This
means a high resistivity is the same as a low conductivity, and a low resistivity is the same
as a high conductivity (Heaney, 2003).

(3.4)

Where 𝜎 is electrical resistivity and 𝜌 stands for electrical conductivity.

Electrical conductivity can be measured with an EC metre

3.3.6 Moisture Content

The moisture content of a soil sample is defined as the mass of water in the sample
expressed as a percentage of the dry mass, usually heating at 105oC, i.e.

(3.5)

Where 𝑀𝑤 is mass of water and 𝑀𝑑 is mass of sample

42
3.3.7 Organic Matter

Soil organic matter (SOM) is the organic matter component of soil, consisting of plant and
animal residues at various stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of soil organisms, and
substances synthesised by soil organisms. Living organisms (especially those smaller than
2 mm) are generally regarded as part of SOM. (Manson, 2018). The most common method
used to estimate the amount of organic matter present in a soil sample is to measure the
weight lost from an oven-dried (105°C) soil sample when heated to 400°C; this is called
"loss on ignition", basically organic matter is burned.

3.3.8 Cation Exchange Capacity

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of the total negative charges within the soil
that adsorb plant nutrient cations such as calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+) and
potassium (K+). As such, the CEC is a property of a soil that describes its capacity to supply
nutrient cations to the soil solution for plant uptake.

3.4 GROWTH INDICES

In order to ascertain the stages and progress of growth development of the cultivated pepper
(capsicum chinense), the following parameters were measured and calculated:

3.4.1 Plant Height

Theoretically, plant height is defined as the shortest distance between the upper boundary
(the highest point) of the main photosynthetic tissues (excluding inflorescences) and the
ground level (Perez-Harguindeguy, Diaz et al).

3.4.2 Stem Diameter

This the greatest thickness of the stem measured at the base. This measurement was carried
out using a vernier caliper.

43
3.4.3 Fruit Number

This is the total number of fruits formulated per plant.

3.4.3 Fruit Firmness Index

Firmness is one of the most important indices of fruit ripeness and quality, and is most
widely used in the research work conducted all over the world
(Płocharski, Konopacka et al). Durometers, which can be manual or automated, measures
fruit firmness on a scale of 0 to 100. A fruit with a level of 100 is the hardest fruit, and a
level of 1 is the softest fruit.

3.4.4 Leaf Area

Leaf area is a very important factor as it determines light interception and consequently
transpiration, photosynthesis and plant productivity. The leaf area was calculated by the
formula developed by Swart et al (2004).

44
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results and Discussion

4.1 Results
The plant under study (Capsicum Chinense) was planted in a seedling tray and monitored

for 14 days after which it was transplanted into grow bags inside the greenhouse. After the

experimental set-up was monitored for a period of 42 days, results were obtained and

analyzed. Table 4.1 shows a summary of all growth indices measured across the four

treatments, T1, T2, T3 and T4. Tables 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 describe the stem diameter obtained

and the result of a single factor ANOVA analysis across all four treatments. Tables 4.5, 4.6

and 4.7 shows the plant height of Capsicum Chinese obtained throughout the experimental

period, summary of values and the result of a single factor ANOVA analysis across all

treatments. Tables 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10 describe the leaf area measured across the four

treatments during the experimental period, result summary and single factor ANOVA

analysis. Table 4.10 describes the physiochemical properties across all growth media.

All ANOVA analysis was carried out at 5% significance level.

45
Table 4.0 Growth Indices Results From The Various Treatments.

Medium 3
Growth Medium 1 Medium 2 (Coco Medium 4
Indices (Soil) (Rice husk) peat) (Soil Mix)
Stem
diameter
(cm) 1.8 1.2 1.5 1.93
Leaf
Area (cm2)
58.18 42.45 83.9 18.2
Plant height
(cm)
24.3 14.7 18.2 24.8

Table 4.1 Stem Diameter Recorded Across All Growth Media

Replicatio Soil Rice husk Coco Soil mix

n (control) peat
1 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.8
2 1.8 1.3 1.6 2.1
3 2.2 1.1 1.4 1.9

Table 4.2 Stem Diameter Summary across All Growth Media.

Groups Count Sum Average Variance

Soil(Control) 3 5.4 1.8 0.16
Rice husk 3 3.6 1.2 0.01
Coco peat 3 4.5 1.5 0.01
Soil Mix 3 5.8 1.93333333 0.02333333

46
Table 4.3 Single Factor ANOVA Analysis of Stem Diameter Across All Grow Medium.

Source of
Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between
Groups 0.9625 3 0.32083333 6.31147541 0.0167149 4.066180557
Within Groups 0.406666667 8 0.05083333

Total 1.369166667 11

From the table above, the p-value is less than 0.05(significance level) which indicates

that Mean Square between groups is significantly different from the Mean Square within

groups and hence this means that values given by the group are significantly different

from each other.

Table 4.4 Plant Height Recorded Across All Grow Medium.

Soil
Replication (Control) Rice husk Coco peat Soil Mix
1 26.5 14 19.5 27
2 17 14 18 27.5
3 29.5 16 17 20

47
Table 4.5 Plant Height Summary across all Growth Media.

Groups Count Sum Average Variance

Soil(Control) 3 73 24.3333333 42.5833333
Rice husk 3 44 14.6666667 1.33333333
Coco peat 3 54.5 18.1666667 1.58333333
Soil Mix 3 74.5 24.8333333 17.5833333

Table 4.6 Single Factor ANOVA Analysis of Plant Height across all Growth Media.

Source of
Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between
Groups 218.833333 3 72.9444444 4.62527521 0.03698918 4.06618056
Within Groups 126.166667 8 15.7708333

Total 345 11

From the table above, the p-value is less than 0.05 (significance level) which indicates that

Mean Square between groups is significantly different from the Mean Square withing

groups and hence this means that values given by the group are significantly different from

each other. This proves the presence of variation in the plant height of the plants cultivated

on the different treatments

48
Table 4.7 Leaf Area Recorded Across All Growth Media.

Soil
Replication (Control) Rice husk Cocopeat Soil Mix
1 27.9 34.4 59.3 90.7
2 37.3 30.2 60.3 79.8
3 55.2 23.3 54.1 56.9

Table 4.8 Leaf Area Summary Across All Growth Media.

Groups Count Sum Average Variance

Replication 3 6 2 1
40.1333333 192.343333
Soil(Control) 3 120.4 3 3
Rice husk 3 87.9 29.3 31.41
Cocopeat 3 173.7 57.9 11.08
Soil Mix 3 227.4 75.8 297.61

Table 4.9 Single factor ANOVA Analysis Of Leaf Area Across All Growth Media.

Source of
Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between 9465.86266 2366.46566 22.1810407 5.8578E- 3.4780
Groups 7 4 7 9 05 49691
Within 1066.88666 106.688666
Groups 7 10 7

10532.7493
Total 3 14

From the table above, the p-value is less than 0.05 (significance level) which indicates that

Mean Square between groups is significantly different from the Mean Square withing

groups and hence this means that values given by the group are significantly different from

49
 each other and indicates that the leaves of the plants cultivated on the different treatments

varied significantly in size.

Table 5.0 Summary Of Physicochemical Properties Of The Growth Media.

Water
Organic Bulk Total Holding Moisture
Grow Matter Density Porosity Capacity EC Content CEC
Media (%) (g/ml) (%) (ml) (µs/cm) pH (%) (meq/kg)
Soil 27.41 0.81 20 10 151 1.77 19.46 7.57
Ricehusk 77.84 0.18 17 14 13.3 2.72 25.94 1.45
Cocopeat 97.72 0.35 5.5 21.5 144.3 2.81 82.02 3.62
Soil mix 44.03 0.58 20 17.5 139.3 1.87 32.75 3.85

4.2 DISCUSSION

From the analysis of the result of the growth indices obtained across the grow media in the

cultivation of Capsicum Chinense, we found out that there is a significant difference in all

growth indices measured across all growth media which point to the fact that the grow

indices measured differ in value across all grow media.

4.2.1 Physicochemical parameters

The growing substrates differed remarkably in their physicochemical properties. These

properties affect the air content and water and nutrient retention in the substrates. These

differences should be taken into consideration when growing greenhouse crops with

varying demands for water and oxygen in their root zone. The results presented in Table

(4.1) showed obvious variations in bulk density, organic matter and moisture content of
50
the studied growth media. The maximum bulk density of 0.81 g/ml was observed from the

100% soil growing media followed by the soil mix (0.58 g/ml) while the lowest value of

0.18 g/ml was found in the rice husk medium. The maximum organic matter content of

97.72 % was observed from the coco peat medium, but the minimum value (27.41%) was

found in the soil medium. On the other hand, the maximum moisture content value of

82.02% was recorded in the coco peat medium, while the minimum value (19.46%) was

found in the soil medium. A good plant growing medium porosity should not be more than

25% percent of its total volume and the soil mix medium has a porosity value (20%) that

is within the average.

4.2.2 Crop Growth Parameters

The growing indices of habanero plants are presented in Table 4.2. The growth

parameters/indices of the research plant for each culture media, from analysis, had

significant differences at 5% level as compared with other treatments/culture media.

4.2.2.1 Stem Diameter

From table 4.2, the diameter of plants grown in the soil mix medium showed 5% significant

difference when compared with the other media. This could be attributed to the capacity of

the soil mix medium to support proper air, water and nutrient flow at the plants root.

51
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion And Recommendation

5.1 Conclusion
From the study, the following conclusions were made:

1. Greenhouse cultivation of Pepper (Capsicum Chinense) using agricultural waste

(Rice husk and Coco peat) as growth media is feasible.

2. The mix of coco peat, rice husk and soil produced better results. The girth, and

general performance of the plant cultivated with this treatment were very appreciable

when compared to other treatments, seconded by that of soil. The Rice husk

treatment gave the least appreciable results after the experiment was conducted. The

plants cultivated with the rice husk treatment had smaller girth and were not as

healthy-looking as the rest, delayed growth, when compared to the growth rate of

the plants cultivated on other treatments, was also observed.

3. An all-year-round production of pepper is possible in a well conditioned and

controlled environment.

52
5.2 Recommendation
Based on the results and findings of this study, the following recommendations were

suggested for future experiment:

The combination of the coco peat and rice husk with a small amount of soil will

combat the problem of soil unavailability and also produce very good results in the

greenhouse cultivation of vegetables. In situations where soil cannot be easily

accessed, Farmers are advised to use the combination of rice husk and coco peat as

the coco peat has better water retention capacity and is also a very good aerator.

Agricultural research bodies and organizations should be empowered by the

government to aid the utilization of this knowledge in the fight against food scarcity

and environmental pollution caused by poor agricultural waste management.

This study throws light on the impressive usefulness of rice husk and coco peat that

were once termed “waste” in the Agricultural sector, hence it should not be disposed

of carelessly but should be injected back into the agricultural system, to promote the

propagation of sustainable agriculture.

53
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