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COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

A computer system is basically a machine that simplifies complicated tasks. It should maximize
performance and reduce costs as well as power consumption. The different components in the
Computer System Architecture are Input Unit, Output Unit, Storage Unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit,
Control Unit etc.

A diagram that shows the flow of data between these units is as follows −

The input data travels from input unit to ALU. Similarly, the computed data travels from ALU to
output unit. The data constantly moves from storage unit to ALU and back again. This is because
stored data is computed on before being stored again. The control unit controls all the other units as
well as their data.

Details about all the computer units are −

 Input Unit
The input unit provides data to the computer system from the outside. So, basically it links the
external environment with the computer. It takes data from the input devices, converts it into
machine language and then loads it into the computer system. Keyboard, mouse etc. are the
most commonly used input devices.

 Output Unit
The output unit provides the results of computer process to the users i.e it links the computer
with the external environment. Most of the output data is the form of audio or video. The
different output devices are monitors, printers, speakers, headphones etc.

 Storage Unit
Storage unit contains many computer components that are used to store data. It is traditionally
divided into primary storage and secondary storage.Primary storage is also known as the main
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memory and is the memory directly accessible by the CPU. Secondary or external storage is
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not directly accessible by the CPU. The data from secondary storage needs to be brought into
the primary storage before the CPU can use it. Secondary storage contains a large amount of
data permanently.

 Arithmetic Logic Unit

All the calculations related to the computer system are performed by the arithmetic logic unit.
It can perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division etc. The control
unit transfers data from storage unit to arithmetic logic unit when calculations need to be
performed. The arithmetic logic unit and the control unit together form the central processing
unit.

 Control Unit
This unit controls all the other units of the computer system and so is known as its central
nervous system. It transfers data throughout the computer as required including from storage
unit to central processing unit and vice versa. The control unit also dictates how the memory,
input output devices, arithmetic logic unit etc. should behave.

What is a Microprocessor?

Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) is called
a microprocessor. A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU is called
microcomputer. It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock -driven, register-based electronic device
that reads binary instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and
processes data according to those instructions and provides results as output.

A Microprocessor is an important part of a computer architecture without which you will not be able to
perform anything on your computer. It is a programmable device that takes in input perform some
arithmetic and logical operations over it and produce desired output. In simple words, a Microprocessor
is a digital device on a chip which can fetch instruction from memory, decode and execute them and
give results.

Block Diagram of a Microcomputer

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A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit and register array. Where ALU performs arithmetic
and logical operations on the data received from an input device or memory. Control unit controls
the instructions and flow of data within the computer. And, register array consists of registers
identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L, and accumulator.

Evolution of Microprocessors

We can categorize the microprocessor according to the generations or according to the size of the
microprocessor:

First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)

The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year 1971-1972 by Intel Corporation. It
was named Intel 4004 since it was a 4-bit processor. It was a processor on a single chip. It could
perform simple arithmetic and logical operations such as addition, subtraction, Boolean OR and
Boolean AND. I had a control unit capable of performing control functions like fetching an instruction
from storage memory, decoding it, and then generating control pulses to execute it.

Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)

The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973 again by Intel. It was a first 8 - bit
microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words. It was Intel 8008,
and another improved version was Intel 8088.

Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)

The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's 8086, Zilog
Z800 and 80286, which were 16 - bit processors with a performance like minicomputers.

Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)

Several different companies introduced the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular one is
the Intel 80386.

Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)

From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new processor
namely Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a single
system to achieve multiprocessing. Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad, Octa
Core processors.

Basic Terms used in Microprocessor

Here is a list of some basic terms used in microprocessor:

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Instruction Set - The group of commands that the microprocessor can understand is called Instruction
set. It is an interface between hardware and software.

Bus - Set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or control information to different elements
in a microprocessor. A microprocessor will have three types of buses, i.e., data bus, address bus, and
control bus.

IPC (Instructions Per Cycle) - It is a measure of how many instructions a CPU is capable of
executing in a single clock.

Clock Speed - It is the number of operations per second the processor can perform. It can be expressed
in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also called the Clock Rate.

Bandwidth - The number of bits processed in a single instruction is called Bandwidth.

Word Length - The number of bits the processor can process at a time is called the word length of
the processor. 8-bit Microprocessor may process 8 -bit data at a time. The range of word length is from
4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.

Data Types - The microprocessor supports multiple data type formats like binary, ASCII, signed and
unsigned numbers.

Features of Microprocessor

o Low Cost - Due to integrated circuit technology microprocessors are available at very low
cost. It will reduce the cost of a computer system.
o High Speed - Due to the technology involved in it, the microprocessor can work at very high
speed. It can execute millions of instructions per second.
o Small Size - A microprocessor is fabricated in a very less footprint due to very large scale and
ultra large scale integration technology. Because of this, the size of the computer system is
reduced.
o Versatile - The same chip can be used for several applications, therefore, microprocessors are
versatile.
o Low Power Consumption - Microprocessors are using metal oxide semiconductor
technology, which consumes less power.
o Less Heat Generation - Microprocessors uses semiconductor technology which will not emit
much heat as compared to vacuum tube devices.
o Reliable - Since microprocessors use semiconductor technology, therefore, the failure rate is
very less. Hence it is very reliable.
o Portable - Due to the small size and low power consumption microprocessors are portable.
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MICROPROCESSOR - 8085
8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by
Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.
It has the following configuration −

 8-bit data bus

 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
 A 16-bit program counter
 A 16-bit stack pointer
 Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
 Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, etc.

8085 ARCHITECTURE

We have tried to depict the architecture of 8085 with this following image −
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8085 Microprocessor – Functional Units

8085 consists of the following functional units −

Accumulator
It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE operations. It is
connected to internal data bus & ALU.
Arithmetic and logic unit
As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like Addition, Subtraction, AND,
OR, etc. on 8-bit data.
General purpose register
There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E, H & L. Each register can
hold 8-bit data.
These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing combination is like B-C, D-E &
H-L.
Program counter
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next instruction to be executed.
Microprocessor increments the program whenever an instruction is being executed, so that the
program counter points to the memory address of the next instruction that is going to be executed.
Stack pointer
It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always incremented/decremented by 2 during
push & pop operations.
Temporary register
It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and logical operations.
Flag register
It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1 depending upon the result
stored in the accumulator.
These are the set of 5 flip-flops −

 Sign (S)
 Zero (Z)
 Auxiliary Carry (AC)
 Parity (P)
 Carry (C)
Its bit position is shown in the following table −

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

S Z AC P CY
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Instruction register and decoder

It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then it is stored in the Instruction
register. Instruction decoder decodes the information present in the Instruction register.
Timing and control unit
It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform operations. Following are the
timing and control signals, which control external and internal circuits −

 Control Signals: READY, RD’, WR’, ALE

 Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M’
 DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA
 RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT
Interrupt control
As the name suggests it controls the interrupts during a process. When a microprocessor is executing
a main program and whenever an interrupt occurs, the microprocessor shifts the control from the
main program to process the incoming request. After the request is completed, the control goes back
to the main program.
There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, TRAP.
Serial Input/output control
It controls the serial data communication by using these two instructions: SID (Serial input data) and
SOD (Serial output data).
Address buffer and address-data buffer
The content stored in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded into the address buffer and
address-data buffer to communicate with the CPU. The memory and I/O chips are connected to these
buses; the CPU can exchange the desired data with the memory and I/O chips.
Address bus and data bus
Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional, whereas address bus carries the location to
where it should be stored and it is unidirectional. It is used to transfer the data & Address I/O devices.
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BUS ORGANIZATION OF 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

Bus is a group of conducting wires which carries information, all the peripherals are connected to
microprocessor through Bus.
Diagram to represent bus organization system of 8085 Microprocessor.

There are three types of buses.

Address bus –

It is a group of conducting wires which carries address only.Address bus is unidirectional because
data flow in one direction, from microprocessor to memory or from microprocessor to Input/output
devices (That is, Out of Microprocessor).

Length of Address Bus of 8085 microprocessor is 16 Bit (That is, Four Hexadecimal Digits), ranging
from 0000 H to FFFF H, (H denotes Hexadecimal). The microprocessor 8085 can transfer maximum
16 bit address which means it can address 65, 536 different memory location.
The Length of the address bus determines the amount of memory a system can address.Such as a
system with a 32-bit address bus can address 2^32 memory locations.If each memory location holds
one byte, the addressable memory space is 4 GB.However, the actual amount of memory that can be
accessed is usually much less than this theoretical limit due to chipset and motherboard limitations.
Data bus

It is a group of conducting wires which carries Data only.Data bus is bidirectional because data flow
in both directions, from microprocessor to memory or Input/Output devices and from memory or
Input/Output devices to microprocessor.
Length of Data Bus of 8085 microprocessor is 8 Bit (That is, two Hexadecimal Digits), ranging from
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00 H to FF H. (H denotes Hexadecimal).
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When it is write operation, the processor will put the data (to be written) on the data bus, when it is
read operation, the memory controller will get the data from specific memory block and put it into the
data bus.
The width of the data bus is directly related to the largest number that the bus can carry, such as an 8
bit bus can represent 2 to the power of 8 unique values, this equates to the number 0 to 255.A 16 bit
bus can carry 0 to 65535.
Control bus –
It is a group of conducting wires, which is used to generate timing and control signals to control all
the associated peripherals, microprocessor uses control bus to process data, that is what to do with
selected memory location. Some control signals are:
 ALE (Address Latch Enabled)- High State(ALE=1) Enables address bus and Low State
(ALE=0)enables data bus
 RD- Read signal
 WR- Write Signal
 I/O/M- I/O/M=0 indicates Low signal and it s a memory operation and I/O/M=1 indicates
High signal and it’s a i/o operation
 Status Signals S1 and S0(output)- This signal separates memory and I/O devices. These are
output status signals used to give information of operation performed by microprocessor.
The S0 and S1 lines specify 4 different conditions of 8085 machine cycles.

8085 Addressing Modes & Interrupts

Addressing Modes in 8085

These are the instructions used to transfer the data from one register to another register, from the
memory to the register, and from the register to the memory without any alteration in the content.
Addressing modes in 8085 is classified into 5 groups −
Immediate addressing mode
In this mode, the 8/16-bit data is specified in the instruction itself as one of its operand. For
example: MVI A, 20F: means 20F is copied into register A.
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Register addressing mode

In this mode, the data is copied from one register to another. For example: MOV K, B: means data
in register B is copied to register K.
Direct addressing mode
In this mode, the data is directly copied from the given address to the register. For example: LDB
5000K: means the data at address 5000K is copied to register B.
Indirect addressing mode
In this mode, the data is transferred from one register to another by using the address pointed by the
register. For example: MOV K, B: means data is transferred from the memory address pointed by
the register to the register K.
Implied addressing mode
This mode doesn’t require any operand; the data is specified by the opcode itself. For
example: CMP.

Interrupts In 8085
Interrupts are the signals generated by the external devices to request the microprocessor to perform
a task. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR.
Interrupt are classified into following groups based on their parameter −
 Vector interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address is known to the
processor. For example: RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, TRAP.
 Non-Vector interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address is not known to the
processor so, the interrupt address needs to be sent externally by the device to perform
interrupts. For example: INTR.
 Maskable interrupt − In this type of interrupt, we can disable the interrupt by writing some
instructions into the program. For example: RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5.
 Non-Maskable interrupt − In this type of interrupt, we cannot disable the interrupt by writing
some instructions into the program. For example: TRAP.
 Software interrupt − In this type of interrupt, the programmer has to add the instructions into
the program to execute the interrupt. There are 8 software interrupts in 8085, i.e. RST0, RST1,
RST2, RST3, RST4, RST5, RST6, and RST7.
 Hardware interrupt − There are 5 interrupt pins in 8085 used as hardware interrupts, i.e.
TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, INTA.
Note − NTA is not an interrupt, it is used by the microprocessor for sending acknowledgement. TRAP
has the highest priority, then RST7.5 and so on.
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Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)

A small program or a routine that when executed, services the corresponding interrupting source is
called an ISR.
TRAP
It is a non-maskable interrupt, having the highest priority among all interrupts. Bydefault, it is enabled
until it gets acknowledged. In case of failure, it executes as ISR and sends the data to backup memory.
This interrupt transfers the control to the location 0024H.
RST7.5
It is a maskable interrupt, having the second highest priority among all interrupts. When this interrupt
is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC register into the stack and branches to 003CH
address.
RST 6.5
It is a maskable interrupt, having the third highest priority among all interrupts. When this interrupt
is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC register into the stack and branches to 0034H
address.
RST 5.5
It is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC
register into the stack and branches to 002CH address.
INTR
It is a maskable interrupt, having the lowest priority among all interrupts. It can be disabled by
resetting the microprocessor.
When INTR signal goes high, the following events can occur −
 The microprocessor checks the status of INTR signal during the execution of each instruction.
 When the INTR signal is high, then the microprocessor completes its current instruction and
sends active low interrupt acknowledge signal.
 When instructions are received, then the microprocessor saves the address of the next
instruction on stack and executes the received instruction

REGISTERS OF 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

It has eight addressable 8-bit registers: A, B, C, D, E, H, L, F, and two 16-bit registers PC and SP.
These registers can be classified as −

 General Purpose Registers

 Temporary Registers: a) Temporary data register b) W and Z registers

 Special Purpose Registers: a)Accumulator b) Flag registers c) Instruction register

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 Sixteen-bit Registers: a) ProgramCounter (PC) b) Stack Pointer (SP)

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General Purpose Registers

Registers B, C, D, E, H, and L are general purpose registers in 8085 Microprocessor. All these GPRS
are 8-bits wide. They are less important than the accumulator. They are used to store data temporarily
during the execution of the program. For example, there is no instruction to add the contents of Band
E registers. At least one of the operands has to be in A. Thus to add Band E registers, and to store the
result in B register, the following have to be done.

 Move to A register the contents of B register.

 Then add A and E registers. The result will be in A.

 Move this result from A register to B register.

It is possible to use these registers as pairs to store 16-bit information. Only BC, DE, and HLcan form
register pairs. When they are used as register pairs in an instruction, the left register is understood to
have the MS byte and the right register the LS byte. For example, in DE register pair, the content of
the D register is treated as the MS byte, and the content of E register is treated as the LS byte.

Temporary Registers
(a)Temporary Data Register - The ALU has two inputs. One input is supplied by the accumulator
and other from the temporary data register. The programmer cannot access this temporary data register.
However, it is internally used for execution of most of the arithmetic and logical instructions.

(b) W and Z registers - Wand Z registers are temporary registers. These registers are used to hold 8-
bit data during the execution of some instructions. These registers are not available for the programmer
since 8085Microprocessor Architecture uses them internally.

Special Purpose Registers

(a) Register A(Accumulator) - Register A is an 8-bit register used in 8085 to perform arithmetic,
logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE operations. Register A is quite often called as an Accumulator. An
accumulator is a register for short-term, intermediate storage of arithmetic and logic data in a
computer's CPU (Central Processing Unit).In an arithmetic operation involving two operands, one
operand has to be in this register. And the result of the arithmetic operation will be stored or
accumulated in this register. Similarly, in a logical operation involving two operands, one operand has
to be in the accumulator. Also, some other operations, like complementing and decimal adjustment,
can be performed only on the accumulator.

(b)Flag Register - It is a 8-bit register, in which five of the bits carry significant information in the
form of flags: S (Sign flag), Z (Zero flag), AC(Auxiliary carry flag), P (Parity flag), and CY (carry
flag); as shown in Fig. 1.2.
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 S-Sign flag - After the execution of arithmetic or logical operations, if bit D7 of the result is
1, the sign flag is set. In a given byte if D7 is1, the number will be viewed as a negative number.
If D7 is U, the number will be considered as a positive number.

 Z-Zero flag -The zero flag sets if the result of the operation in ALU is zero and flag resets if
the result is non zero. The zero flags are also set if a certain register content becomes zero
following an increment or decrement operation of that register.

 AC-auxiliary Carry flag - This flag is set if there is an overflow out of bit 3 i.e. carry from
lower nibble to higher nibble (D3 bit to D4 bit). This flag is used for BCD operations and it is
not available for the programmer.

 P-Parity flag - Parity is defined by the number of ones present in the accumulator. After
arithmetic or logical operation, if the result has an even number of ones, i.e.even parity, the
flag is set. If the parity is odd, the flag is reset.

 CY-Carry flag - This flag is set if there is an overflow out of bit 7. The carry flag also serves
as a borrow flag for subtraction. In both the examples shown below, the carry flag is set.

c) Instruction Register - In a typical processor operation, the processor first fetches the opcodeof
instruction from memory (i.e. it places an address on the address bus and memory responds by
placing the data stored at the specifiedaddress on the data bus). The CPU storesthis opcode in a
register called the instruction register. Thisopcode is further sent to the instruction decoder to select
one ofthe 256 alternatives.

Sixteen Bit Registers

a) Program counter (PC) - Program is a sequence of instructions. As mentioned earlier,
microprocessor fetches these instructions from the memory and executes them The program
counter is a special purpose register which, at a given time,stores the address of the next instruction
to be fetched. Program Counter acts as a pointer to the next instruction. How processor increments
program counter depends on the nature of the instruction;for one-byte instruction it increments
program counter by one, for two-byte instruction it increments program counter by two and
forthree-byte instruction it increments program counter by three such that program counter always
points to the address of the next instruction.

In case of JUMP and CALL instructions, address followed by JUMP and CALL instructions is
placed in the program counter. The processor then fetches the next instruction from the new
address specified by JUMP or CALL instruction. In conditional JUMP and conditional CALL
instructions, if the condition is not satisfied, the processor increments program counter by three so
that it points the instruction followed by conditional JUMP or CALL instruction; otherwise
processor fetches the next instruction from the new address specified by JUMP or CALL
instruction.

b) Stack Pointer (SP) - The stack is a reserved area of the memory in the RAM where temporary
information may be stored. A 16-bit stack pointer is used to hold the address of the most recent
stack entry.
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MICROPROCESSOR - 8085 PIN CONFIGURATION

The following image depicts the pin diagram of 8085 Microprocessor −

The pins of a 8085 microprocessor can be classified into seven groups −

Address bus

A15-A8, it carries the most significant 8-bits of memory/IO address.

Data bus

AD7-AD0, it carries the least significant 8-bit address and data bus.
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Control and status signals

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These signals are used to identify the nature of operation. There are 3 control signal and 3 status
signals.
Three control signals are RD, WR & ALE.
 RD − This signal indicates that the selected IO or memory device is to be read and is ready
for accepting data available on the data bus.
 WR − This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be written into a selected memory
or IO location.
 ALE − It is a positive going pulse generated when a new operation is started by the
microprocessor. When the pulse goes high, it indicates address. When the pulse goes down it
indicates data.
Three status signals are IO/M, S0 & S1.

IO/M

This signal is used to differentiate between IO and Memory operations, i.e. when it is high indicates
IO operation and when it is low then it indicates memory operation.

S1 & S0

These signals are used to identify the type of current operation.

Power supply

There are 2 power supply signals − VCC & VSS. VCC indicates +5v power supply and VSS indicates
ground signal.

Clock signals

There are 3 clock signals, i.e. X1, X2, CLK OUT.

 X1, X2 − A crystal (RC, LC N/W) is connected at these two pins and is used to set frequency
of the internal clock generator. This frequency is internally divided by 2.
 CLK OUT − This signal is used as the system clock for devices connected with the
microprocessor.

Interrupts & externally initiated signals

Interrupts are the signals generated by external devices to request the microprocessor to perform a
task. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR. We will discuss
interrupts in detail in interrupts section.
 INTA − It is an interrupt acknowledgment signal.
 RESET IN − This signal is used to reset the microprocessor by setting the program counter
to zero.
 RESET OUT − This signal is used to reset all the connected devices when the microprocessor
is reset.
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 READY − This signal indicates that the device is ready to send or receive data. If READY is
low, then the CPU has to wait for READY to go high.
 HOLD − This signal indicates that another master is requesting the use of the address and data
buses.
 HLDA (HOLD Acknowledge) − It indicates that the CPU has received the HOLD request
and it will relinquish the bus in the next clock cycle. HLDA is set to low after the HOLD
signal is removed.

Serial I/O signals

There are 2 serial signals, i.e. SID and SOD and these signals are used for serial communication.
 SOD (Serial output data line) − The output SOD is set/reset as specified by the SIM
instruction.
 SID (Serial input data line) − The data on this line is loaded into accumulator whenever a RIM
instruction is executed.
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