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A central processing unit (CPU) contained within a single chip. Today, all computer
CPUs are microprocessors. The term originated in the 1970s when CPUs up until that
time were all comprised of several chips. Thus, when the entire CPU (processor) was
miniaturized onto a single chip, the term "micro" processor was coined. Since the turn
of the century, the semiconductor manufacturing process has become so sophisticated
that not only one, but two or more CPUs, are built on a single chip (see dual core and
multicore).

Microprocessor is often abbreviated MPU for "microprocessor unit" or just MP, the
latter also spelled with the Greek µ symbol for micro or the letter "u" as an alternate
(µP or uP).

They Started as 8-Bit

The first microprocessors were created by Texas Instruments, Intel and a Scottish
electronics company. Who was really first has been debated. First-generation 8-bit
families were Intel's 8080, Zilog's Z80, Motorola's 6800 and Rockwell's 6502.

Today's Microprocessors Are 32 and 64-Bit

The 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors found in most of today's workstations and
servers are the x86, PowerPC and SPARC lines. More than 200 million of these chips
ship inside general-purpose computers each year.

Eight-Bit Lives On

For embedded systems, newer versions of 8- and 16-bit, first-generation

microprocessor families are widely used and exceed the desktop computer and server
market in volume. Each year, millions of microprocessors and billions of
microcontrollers are built into toys, appliances and vehicles. A microcontroller
contains a microprocessor, memory, clock and I/O control on a single chip (see
microcontroller). See chip and embedded system.
 The 386 Microprocessor
No technology is more incredible than the
microprocessor. Every second, trillions of switch
openings and closings occur all within a thousandth
of an inch below the surface. The older 386 chip is
shown here because it contains a mere 275,000
transistors, and you can see some slight detail.
Contemporary chips contain hundreds of millions of
transistors, which at this magnification would show
up only as a sea of gray. (Image courtesy of Intel
Corporation.)

Sci-Tech Encyclopedia: Microprocessor

Home > Library > Science > Sci-Tech Encyclopedia

A device that integrates the functions of the central processing unit (CPU) of a
computer onto one semiconductor chip or integrated circuit (IC). In essence, the
microprocessor contains the core elements of a computer system, its computation and
control engine. Only a power supply, memory, peripheral interface ICs, and
peripherals (typically input/output and storage devices) need be added to build a
complete computer system. See also Computer peripheral devices.

A microprocessor consists of multiple internal function units. A basic design has an

arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a control unit, a memory interface, an interrupt or
exception controller, and an internal cache. More sophisticated microprocessors might
also contain extra units that assist in floating-point match calculations, program
branching, or vector processing (see illustration).
 A microprocessor consists of multiple independent function units. The memory
interface fetches instructions from, and writes data to, external memory. The control
unit issues one or more instructions to other function units. These units process the
instructions in parallel to boost performance.

The ALU performs all basic computational operations: arithmetic, logical, and
comparisons.

The control unit orchestrates the operation of the other units. It fetches instructions
from the on-chip cache, decodes them, and then executes them. Each instruction has
the control unit direct the other function units through a sequence of steps that carry
out the instruction's intent. The execution path taken by the control unit can depend
upon status bits produced by the arithmetic logic unit or the floating-point unit (FPU)
after the instruction sequence completes. This capability implements conditional
execution control flow, which is a critical element for general-purpose computation.
See also Bit.

The memory interface enables the microprocessor to maintain two-way

communication with off-chip semiconductor memory, which stores programs and
data. This interface typically supports memory reads and writes in blocks of words
(the number of bits that the processor operates on at one time). The block size
facilitates burst data transfers to and from the chip's internal cache. See also
Semiconductor memories.

The interrupt or exception controller enables the microprocessor to respond to

requests from the external environment or to error conditions by allowing
interruptions of the ongoing operation. An interrupt might be an external peripheral
requesting service, while an exception typically consists of a floating-point math error
or an unrecognized instruction. The interrupt controller can prioritize and selectively
handle these interrupts.

The internal cache is an on-chip memory storage area that holds recently used data
values or instruction sequences that are likely to be used again in the near future.
Since this information is already on-chip, it can be accessed rapidly, thereby
accelerating the computation rate. Items not in the cache can take several or more
extra operations to access, which significantly degrades the computation rate.
Software writers often organize a program's code and data structures so that the most
frequently used elements often occupy the cache, thus maintaining a high level of
computational throughput. See also Computer storage technology; Computer systems
architecture.

The design of instruction sets (the commands that produce basic work when executed
by the microprocessor) often influences the design of the microprocessor itself.
Instruction sets—and as a consequence, the microprocessor architecture—are of two
types: reduced instruction set computers (RISC) and complex instruction set
computers (CISC). Because of the limits of early computer technology, most
computers were by necessity RISC machines. Since most of the software was written
in assembly language (that is, a programming language that represented the program's
intent in actual machine instructions), there was a drive to build instruction sets of
greater sophistication and complexity. These new CISC instruction sets made
assembly language programming easier, but they also made it difficult to build high-
speed computer hardware. First, CISC instructions were harder to decode. In addition,
since CISC instructions involved long and complex operation sequences, they
incurred a major cost by requiring more complicated logic to implement. Second,
such instructions were also difficult to interrupt or abort if an exception occurred.
Finally, such instructions usually carried many data dependencies that made it more
difficult to support advanced architectural techniques. By returning to a RISC design,
much faster computers can be built. In fact, an enhancement in performance by a
factor of 2 to 3 has been attributed to this simple organizational change. To achieve
these efficiencies, most of the RISC microprocessor's function units must be kept as
busy as possible. This requires optimizing compilers that can translate a program's
high-level source code and then reorder the resulting low-level instructions in such a
way as to ensure the high throughput. See also Computer programming; Programming
languages.

Microprocessors are found in virtually every consumer product that requires electric
power, such as microwave ovens, automobiles, video recorders, cellular telephones,
digital cameras, and hand-held computers. High-performance microprocessors
implement the servers that store and distribute Web content, such as streaming audio
and video, desktop computers, and the high-speed network switches that constitute the
Web's infrastructure. More modest-powered microprocessors are at the heart of
notebook computers and electronic games. Low-power microprocessors provide the
control and flow logic of hand-held devices, digital cameras, cellular and cordless
phones, pagers, and the diagnostic and pollution control of automobile engines. See
also Internet; Video games; Wide-area networks; World Wide Web.

Accounting Dictionary: Microprocessor

Home > Library > Business & Finance > Accounting Dictionary

General, all-purpose circuit, placed on a silicon chip. It is a power source of

Microcomputers. The microprocessor is at the heart of the micro-electronics
revolution. This chip is used in calculators, watches, video games, microwave ovens,
and, of course, computers. While a microprocessor is inexpensive, its power is
equivalent to that of computers that cost several hundred thousand dollars in the
1960s.
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: microprocessor
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

Miniature electronic device that contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry
needed to function as a digital computer's CPU. Microprocessors are integrated
circuits that can interpret and execute program instructions as well as handle
arithmetic operations. Their development in the late 1970s enabled computer
engineers to develop microcomputers. Microprocessors led to "intelligent" terminals,
such as bank ATMs and point-of-sale devices, and to automatic control of much
industrial instrumentation and hospital equipment, programmable microwave ovens,
and electronic games. Many automobiles use microprocessor-controlled ignition and
fuel systems.

For more information on microprocessor, visit Britannica.com.

Columbia Encyclopedia: microprocessor,

Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Columbia Encyclopedia
integrated circuit containing the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to
interpret and execute instructions from a computer program. When combined with
other integrated circuits that provide storage for data and programs, often on a single
semiconductor base to form a chip, the microprocessor becomes the heart of a small
computer, or microcomputer. Microprocessors are classified by the semiconductor
technology of their design (TTL, transistor-transistor logic; CMOS, complementary-
metal-oxide semiconductor; or ECL, emitter-coupled logic), by the width of the data
format (4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit) they process; and by their instruction set
(CISC, complex-instruction-set computer, or RISC, reduced-instruction-set computer;
see RISC processor). TTL technology is most commonly used, while CMOS is
favored for portable computers and other battery-powered devices because of its low
power consumption. ECL is used where the need for its greater speed offsets the fact
that it consumes the most power. Four-bit devices, while inexpensive, are good only
for simple control applications; in general, the wider the data format, the faster and
more expensive the device. CISC processors, which have 70 to several hundred
instructions, are easier to program than RISC processors, but are slower and more
expensive.

Developed during the 1970s, the microprocessor became most visible as the central
processor of the personal computer. Microprocessors also play supporting roles within
larger computers as smart controllers for graphics displays, storage devices, and high-
speed printers. However, the vast majority of microprocessors are used to control
everything from consumer appliances to smart weapons. The microprocessor has
made possible the inexpensive hand-held electronic calculator, the digital wristwatch,
and the electronic game. Microprocessors are used to control consumer electronic
devices, such as the programmable microwave oven and videocassette recorder; to
regulate gasoline consumption and antilock brakes in automobiles; to monitor alarm
systems; and to operate automatic tracking and targeting systems in aircraft, tanks,
and missiles and to control radar arrays that track and identify aircraft, among other
defense applications.

Bibliography
 See A. R. Ismail and V. M. Rooney, Microprocessor Hardware and Software
Concepts (1987); I. L. Sayers, A. P. Robson, A. E. Adams, and G. E. Chester,
Principles of Microprocessors (1991); M. Slater, A Guide to RISC Microprocessors
(1992).

Wikipedia: microprocessor
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia
Microprocessor

Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor

(actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging
Late 1960s/Early 1970s
Date
(see article for
Invented:
explanation)
Connects to:

• Motherboard via one of

o Socket
o Integration
o DIP

Others
o
Architectures:

• PowerPC
• x86
• x64

• Others
Common Manufacturers:

• Intel

• AMD

A microprocessor is a programmable digital electronic component that incorporates

the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single semiconducting integrated
circuit (IC). The microprocessor was born by reducing the word size of the CPU from
32 bits to 4 bits, so that the transistors of its logic circuits would fit onto a single part.
One or more microprocessors typically serve as the CPU in a computer system,
embedded system, or handheld device. Microprocessors made possible the advent of
the microcomputer in the mid-1970s. Before this period, electronic CPUs were
typically made from bulky discrete switching devices (and later small-scale integrated
circuits) containing the equivalent of only a few transistors. By integrating the
processor onto one or a very few large-scale integrated circuit packages (containing
the equivalent of thousands or millions of discrete transistors), the cost of processor
power was greatly reduced. Since the advent of the IC in the mid-1970s, the
microprocessor has become the most prevalent implementation of the CPU, nearly
completely replacing all other forms. See History of computing hardware for pre-
electronic and early electronic computers.

The evolution of microprocessors has been known to follow Moore's Law when it
comes to steadily increasing performance over the years. This law suggests that the
complexity of an integrated circuit, with respect to minimum component cost, doubles
every 18 months. This dictum has generally proven true since the early 1970s. From
their humble beginnings as the drivers for calculators, the continued increase in power
has led to the dominance of microprocessors over every other form of computer;
every system from the largest mainframes to the smallest handheld computers now
uses a microprocessor at its core.

History
Main article: History of general purpose CPU

First types

The 4004 with cover removed (left) and as actually used (right).

Three projects arguably delivered a complete microprocessor at about the same time,
namely Intel's 4004, Texas Instruments' TMS 1000, and Garrett AiResearch's Central
Air Data Computer.

In 1968, Garrett AiResearch, with designer Ray Holt and Steve Geller, were invited to
produce a digital computer to compete with electromechanical systems then under
development for the main flight control computer in the US Navy's new F-14 Tomcat
fighter. The design was complete by 1970, and used a MOS-based chipset as the core
CPU. The design was significantly (approx 20 times) smaller and much more reliable
than the mechanical systems it competed against, and was used in all of the early
Tomcat models. This system contained a "a 20-bit, pipelined, parallel multi-
microprocessor". However, the system was considered so advanced that the Navy
refused to allow publication of the design until 1997. For this reason the CADC, and
the MP944 chipset it used, are fairly unknown even today. see First Microprocessor
Chip Set TI developed the 4-bit TMS 1000 and stressed pre-programmed embedded
applications, introducing a version called the TMS1802NC on September 17, 1971,
which implemented a calculator on a chip. The Intel chip was the 4-bit 4004, released
on November 15, 1971, developed by Federico Faggin and Marcian Hoff.
TI filed for the patent on the microprocessor. Gary Boone was awarded U.S. Patent
for the single-chip microprocessor architecture on September 4, 1973. It may never be
known which company actually had the first working microprocessor running on the
lab bench. In both 1971 and 1976, Intel and TI entered into broad patent cross-
licensing agreements, with Intel paying royalties to TI for the microprocessor patent.
A nice history of these events is contained in court documentation from a legal dispute
between Cyrix and Intel, with TI as intervenor and owner of the microprocessor
patent.

Interestingly, a third party (Gilbert Hyatt) was awarded a patent which might cover
the "microprocessor". See a webpage claiming an invention pre-dating both TI and
Intel, describing a "microcontroller". According to a rebuttal and a commentary, the
patent was later invalidated, but not before substantial royalties were paid out.

A computer-on-a-chip is a variation of a microprocessor which combines the

microprocessor core (CPU), some memory, and I/O (input/output) lines, all on one
chip. The computer-on-a-chip patent, called the "microcomputer patent" at the time,
U.S. Patent , was awarded to Gary Boone and Michael J. Cochran of TI. Aside from
this patent, the standard meaning of microcomputer is a computer using one or more
microprocessors as its CPU(s), while the concept defined in the patent is perhaps
more akin to a microcontroller.

According to A History of Modern Computing, (MIT Press), pp. 220–21, Intel entered
into a contract with Computer Terminals Corporation, later called Datapoint, of San
Antonio TX, for a chip for a terminal they were designing. Datapoint later decided not
to use the chip, and Intel marketed it as the 8008 in April, 1972. This was the world's
first 8-bit microprocessor. It was the basis for the famous "Mark-8" computer kit
advertised in the magazine Radio-Electronics in 1974. The 8008 and its successor, the
world-famous 8080, opened up the microprocessor component marketplace.

Notable 8-bit designs

The 4004 was later followed in 1972 by the 8008, the world's first 8-bit
microprocessor. These processors are the precursors to the very successful Intel 8080
(1974), Zilog Z80 (1976), and derivative Intel 8-bit processors. The competing
Motorola 6800 was released August 1974. Its architecture was cloned and improved
in the MOS Technology 6502 in 1975, rivaling the Z80 in popularity during the
1980s.

Both the Z80 and 6502 concentrated on low overall cost, through a combination of
small packaging, simple computer bus requirements, and the inclusion of circuitry
that would normally have to be provided in a separate chip (for instance, the Z80
included a memory controller). It was these features that allowed the home computer
"revolution" to take off in the early 1980s, eventually delivering such inexpensive
machines as the Sinclair ZX-81, which sold for US$99.

The Western Design Center, Inc. (WDC) introduced the CMOS 65C02 in 1982 and
licensed the design to several companies which became the core of the Apple IIc and
IIe personal computers, medical implantable grade pacemakers and defibrilators,
automotive, industrial and consumer devices.WDC pioneered the licensing of
microprocessor technology which was later followed by ARM and other
microprocessor Intellectual Property (IP) providers in the 1990’s.

Motorola trumped the entire 8-bit world by introducing the MC6809 in 1978,
arguably one of the most powerful, orthogonal, and clean 8-bit microprocessor
designs ever fielded – and also one of the most complex hard-wired logic designs that
ever made it into production for any microprocessor. Microcoding replaced hardwired
logic at about this point in time for all designs more powerful than the MC6809 –
specifically because the design requirements were getting too complex for hardwired
logic.

Another early 8-bit microprocessor was the Signetics 2650, which enjoyed a brief
flurry of interest due to its innovative and powerful instruction set architecture.

A seminal microprocessor in the world of spaceflight was RCA's RCA 1802 (aka
CDP1802, RCA COSMAC) (introduced in 1976) which was used in NASA's Voyager
and Viking spaceprobes of the 1970s, and onboard the Galileo probe to Jupiter
(launched 1989, arrived 1995). RCA COSMAC was the first to implement C-MOS
technology. The CDP1802 was used because it could be run at very low power,* and
because its production process (Silicon on Sapphire) ensured much better protection
against cosmic radiation and electrostatic discharges than that of any other processor
of the era. Thus, the 1802 is said to be the first radiation-hardened microprocessor.

16-bit designs

The first multi-chip 16-bit microprocessor was the National Semiconductor IMP-16,
introduced in early 1973. An 8-bit version of the chipset was introduced in 1974 as the
IMP-8. During the same year, National introduced the first 16-bit single-chip
microprocessor, the National Semiconductor PACE, which was later followed by an
NMOS version, the INS8900.

Other early multi-chip 16-bit microprocessors include one used by Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) in the LSI-11 OEM board set and the packaged PDP 11/03
minicomputer, and the Fairchild Semiconductor MicroFlame 9440, both of which
were introduced in the 1975 to 1976 timeframe.

The first single-chip 16-bit microprocessor was TI's TMS 9900, which was also
compatible with their TI-990 line of minicomputers. The 9900 was used in the TI
990/4 minicomputer, the TI-99/4A home computer, and the TM990 line of OEM
microcomputer boards. The chip was packaged in a large ceramic 64-pin DIP package
package, while most 8-bit microprocessors such as the Intel 8080 used the more
common, smaller, and less expensive plastic 40-pin DIP. A follow-on chip, the TMS
9980, was designed to compete with the Intel 8080, had the full TI 990 16-bit
instruction set, used a plastic 40-pin package, moved data 8 bits at a time, but could
only address 16 KiB. A third chip, the TMS 9995, was a new design. The family later
expanded to include the 99105 and 99110.

The Western Design Center, Inc. (WDC) introduced the CMOS 65816 16-bit upgrade
of the WDC CMOS 65C02 in 1984. The 65816 16-bit microprocessor was the core of
the Apple IIgs and later the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, making it one of
the most popular 16-bit designs of all time.

Intel followed a different path, having no minicomputers to emulate, and instead

"upsized" their 8080 design into the 16-bit Intel 8086, the first member of the x86
family which powers most modern PC type computers. Intel introduced the 8086 as a
cost effective way of porting software from the 8080 lines, and succeeded in winning
much business on that premise. The 8088, a version of the 8086 that used an external
8-bit data bus, was the microprocessor in the first IBM PC, the model 5150.
Following up their 8086 and 8088, Intel released the 80186, 80286 and, in 1985, the
32-bit 80386, cementing their PC market dominance with the processor family's
backwards compatibility.

The integrated microprocessor memory management unit (MMU) was developed by

Childs et al. of Intel, and awarded US patent number 4,442,484.

32-bit designs

Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 die.

16-bit designs were in the market only briefly when full 32-bit implementations
started to appear.

The most famous of the 32-bit designs is the MC68000, introduced in 1979. The 68K,
as it was widely known, had 32-bit registers but used 16-bit internal data paths, and a
16-bit external data bus to reduce pin count, and supported only 24-bit addresses.
Motorola generally described it as a 16-bit processor, though it clearly has 32-bit
architecture. The combination of high speed, large (16 mebibytes) memory space and
fairly low costs made it the most popular CPU design of its class. The Apple Lisa and
Macintosh designs made use of the 68000, as did a host of other designs in the mid-
1980s, including the Atari ST and Commodore Amiga.
The world's first single-chip fully-32-bit microprocessor, with 32-bit data paths, 32-bit
buses, and 32-bit addresses, was the AT&T Bell Labs BELLMAC-32A, with first
samples in 1980, and general production in 1982 (See this bibliographic reference and
this general reference). After the divestiture of AT&T in 1984, it was renamed the WE
32000 (WE for Western Electric), and had two follow-on generations, the WE 32100
and WE 32200. These microprocessors were used in the AT&T 3B5 and 3B15
minicomputers; in the 3B2, the world's first desktop supermicrocomputer; in the
"Companion", the world's first 32-bit laptop computer; and in "Alexander", the
world's first book-sized supermicrocomputer, featuring ROM-pack memory cartridges
similar to today's gaming consoles. All these systems ran the UNIX System V
operating system.

Intel's first 32-bit microprocessor was the iAPX 432, which was introduced in 1981
but was not a commercial success. It had an advanced capability-based object-
oriented architecture, but poor performance compared to other competing
architectures such as the Motorola 68000.

Motorola's success with the 68000 led to the MC68010, which added virtual memory
support. The MC68020, introduced in 1985 added full 32-bit data and address busses.
The 68020 became hugely popular in the Unix supermicrocomputer market, and many
small companies (e.g., Altos, Charles River Data Systems) produced desktop-size
systems. Following this with the MC68030, which added the MMU into the chip, the
68K family became the processor for everything that wasn't running DOS. The
continued success led to the MC68040, which included an FPU for better math
performance. A 68050 failed to achieve its performance goals and was not released,
and the follow-up MC68060 was released into a market saturated by much faster
RISC designs. The 68K family faded from the desktop in the early 1990s.

Other large companies designed the 68020 and follow-ons into embedded equipment.
At one point, there were more 68020s in embedded equipment than there were Intel
Pentiums in PCs (See this webpage for this embedded usage information). The
ColdFire processor cores are derivatives of the venerable 68020.

During this time (early to mid 1980s), National Semiconductor introduced a very
similar 16-bit pinout, 32-bit internal microprocessor called the NS 16032 (later
renamed 32016), the full 32-bit version named the NS 32032, and a line of 32-bit
industrial OEM microcomputers. By the mid-1980s, Sequent introduced the first
symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) server-class computer using the NS 32032. This was
one of the design's few wins, and it disappeared in the late 1980s.

The MIPS R2000 (1984) and R3000 (1989) were highly successful 32-bit RISC
microprocessors. They were used in high-end workstations and servers by SGI,
among others.

Other designs included the interesting Zilog Z8000, which arrived too late to market
to stand a chance and disappeared quickly.

In the late 1980s, "microprocessor wars" started killing off some of the
microprocessors. Apparently, with only one major design win, Sequent, the NS 32032
just faded out of existence, and Sequent switched to Intel microprocessors.
From 1985 to 2003, the 32-bit x86 architectures became increasingly dominant in
desktop, laptop, and server markets, and these microprocessors became faster and
more capable. Intel had licensed early versions of the architecture to other companies,
but declined to license the Pentium, so AMD and Cyrix built later versions of the
architecture based on their own designs. During this span, these processors increased
in complexity (transistor count) and capability (instructions/second) by at least a
factor of 1000.

64-bit designs in personal computers

While 64-bit microprocessor designs have been in use in several markets since the
early 1990s, the early 2000s have seen the introduction of 64-bit microchips targeted
at the PC market.

With AMD's introduction of the first 64-bit IA-32 backwards-compatible architecture,

AMD64, in September 2003, followed by Intel's own x86-64 chips, the 64-bit desktop
era began. Both processors can run 32-bit legacy apps as well as the new 64-bit
software. With 64-bit Windows XP, Windows vista x64, Linux and Mac OS X (to a
certain extent) that run 64-bit native, the software too is geared to utilise the full
power of such processors. The move to 64 bits is more than just an increase in register
size from the IA-32 as it also doubles the number of general-purpose registers for the
aging CISC designs.

The move to 64 bits by PowerPC processors had been intended since the processors'
design in the early 90s and was not a major cause of incompatibility. Existing integer
registers are extended as are all related data pathways, but, as was the case with IA-
32, both floating point and vector units had been operating at or above 64 bits for
several years. Unlike what happened with IA-32 was extended to x86-64, no new
general purpose registers were added in 64-bit PowerPC, so any performance gained
when using the 64-bit mode for applications making no use of the larger address space
is minimal.

Multicore designs

AMD Athlon 64 X2 3600 Dual core processor

Main article: Multi-core (computing)

A different approach to improving a computer's performance is to add extra

processors, as in symmetric multiprocessing designs which have been popular in
servers and workstations since the early 1990s. Keeping up with Moore's Law is
becoming increasingly challenging as chip-making technologies approach the
physical limits of the technology.

In response, the microprocessor manufacturers look for other ways to improve

performance, in order to hold on to the momentum of constant upgrades in the market.

A multi-core processor is simply a single chip containing more than one

microprocessor core, effectively multiplying the potential performance with the
number of cores (as long as the operating system and software is designed to take
advantage of more than one processor). Some components, such as bus interface and
second level cache, may be shared between cores. Because the cores are physically
very close they interface at much faster clock speeds compared to discrete
multiprocessor systems, improving overall system performance.

In 2005, the first mass-market dual-core processors were announced and as of 2007
dual-core processors are widely used in servers, workstations and PCs while quad-
core processors are now available for high-end applications in both the home and
professional environments.

Sun Microsystems has released the Niagara and Niagara 2 chips, both of which
feature an eight-core design. the Niagara 2 supports more threads and operates at 1.6
GHz.

RISC

In the mid-1980s to early-1990s, a crop of new high-performance RISC (reduced

instruction set computer) microprocessors appeared, which were initially used in
special purpose machines and Unix workstations, but have since become almost
universal in all roles except the Intel-standard desktop.

The first commercial design was released by MIPS Technologies, the 32-bit R2000
(the R1000 was not released). The R3000 made the design truly practical, and the
R4000 introduced the world's first 64-bit design. Competing projects would result in
the IBM POWER and Sun SPARC systems, respectively. Soon every major vendor
was releasing a RISC design, including the AT&T CRISP, AMD 29000, Intel i860 and
Intel i960, Motorola 88000, DEC Alpha and the HP-PA.

Market forces have "weeded out" many of these designs, leaving the PowerPC as the
main desktop RISC processor, with the SPARC being used in Sun designs only. MIPS
continues to supply some SGI systems, but is primarily used as an embedded design,
notably in Cisco routers. The rest of the original crop of designs have either
disappeared, or are about to. Other companies have attacked niches in the market,
notably ARM, originally intended for home computer use but since focussed at the
embedded processor market. Today RISC designs based on the MIPS, ARM or
PowerPC core power the vast majority of computing devices.

As of 2006, several 64-bit architectures are still produced. These include x86-64,
MIPS, SPARC, Power Architecture, and Itanium.
Special-purpose designs

A 4-bit, 2 register, six assembly language instruction computer made entirely of 74-
series chips.

Though the term "microprocessor" has traditionally referred to a single- or multi-chip

CPU or system-on-a-chip (SoC), several types of specialized processing devices have
followed from the technology. The most common examples are microcontrollers,
digital signal processors (DSP) and graphics processing units (GPU). Many examples
of these are either not programmable, or have limited programming facilities. For
example, in general GPUs through the 1990s were mostly non-programmable and
have only recently gained limited facilities like programmable vertex shaders. There
is no universal consensus on what defines a "microprocessor", but it is usually safe to
assume that the term refers to a general-purpose CPU of some sort and not a special-
purpose processor unless specifically noted.

The RCA 1802 had what is called a static design, meaning that the clock frequency
could be made arbitrarily low, even to 0 Hz, a total stop condition. This let the
Voyager/Viking/Galileo spacecraft use minimum electric power for long uneventful
stretches of a voyage. Timers and/or sensors would awaken/speed up the processor in
time for important tasks, such as navigation updates, attitude control, data acquisition,
and radio communication.

Market statistics
In 2003, about $44 billion (USD) worth of microprocessors were manufactured and
sold. [1] Although about half of that money was spent on CPUs used in desktop or
laptop personal computers, those count for only about 0.2% of all CPUs sold.

Silicon Valley has an old saying: "The first chip costs a million dollars; the second
one costs a nickel." In other words, most of the cost is in the design and the
manufacturing setup: once manufacturing is underway, it costs almost nothing. [citation
needed]