Gene

Gene is a unit of hereditary
information that occupies a

fixed position (locus) on
a chromosome. Genes achieve
their effects by directing the
synthesis of proteins.
Figure above. Genes are made up of promoter regions and alternating regions of introns (noncoding sequences) and exons (coding
sequences). The production of a functional protein involves the transcription of the gene from DNA into RNA, the removal of introns
and splicing together of exons, the translation of the spliced RNA sequences into a chain of amino acids, and the posttranslational
modification of the protein molecule. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
In eukaryotes (such as animals, plants, and fungi), genes are contained within the

cell nucleus. The mitochondria (in animals) and the chloroplasts (in plants) also
contain small subsets of genes distinct from the genes found in the nucleus.
In prokaryotes (organisms lacking a distinct nucleus, such as bacteria), genes are
contained in a single chromosome that is free-floating in the cell cytoplasm. Many
bacteria also contain plasmids—extra-chromosomal genetic elements with a small
number of genes.
Chemical Structure of Genes

Genes are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), except in some viruses,
which have genes consisting of a closely related compound called ribonucleic
acid (RNA). A DNA molecule is composed of two chains of nucleotides that wind about
each other to resemble a twisted
ladder.
Chemical composition of
Chromosome
Chromosome is the
microscopic threadlike part of
the cell that
carries hereditary information in
the form of genes. A defining
feature of any chromosome is its
compactness.
For instance, the 46 chromosomes found in human cells have a combined
length of 200 nm (1 nm = 10 − 9 metre); if the chromosomes were to be unraveled,
the genetic material they contain would measure roughly 2 metres (about 6.5
feet) in length.
The compactness of chromosomes plays an important role in helping to
organize genetic material during cell division and enabling it to fit inside
structures such as the nucleus of a cell, the average diameter of which is about 5
to 10 μm (1 μm = 0.00l mm, or 0.000039 inch), or the polygonal head of
a virus particle, which may be in
the range of just 20 to 30 nm in
diameter.
The structure and location

of chromosomes are among the
chief differences between
viruses, prokaryotes,
and eukaryotes.
The nonliving viruses have
chromosomes consisting of
either DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid);
this material is very tightly packed
into the viral head.
Among organisms with
prokaryotic cells
(i.e., bacteria and blue-green
algae), chromosomes consist
entirely of DNA. The single
chromosome of a prokaryotic
cell is not enclosed within a
nuclear membrane. Among
eukaryotes, the chromosomes are DNA packaging into chromatin and chromosome. DNA wraps around proteins
called histones to form units known as nucleosomes. These units condense into a
contained in a membrane-bound chromatin fibre, which condenses further to form a chromosome. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc.
cell nucleus. The chromosomes
of a eukaryotic cell consist primarily of DNA attached to a protein core. They also
contain RNA. The remainder of this article pertains to eukaryotic chromosomes.
Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes

(chromosome number).
In species that reproduce asexually, the chromosome number is the same in
all the cells of the organism.
Among sexually reproducing organisms, the number of chromosomes in the
body (somatic) cells is diploid (2n; a pair of each chromosome), twice the haploid
(1n) number found in the sex cells, or gametes.
The haploid number is produced during meiosis. During fertilization, two
gametes combine to produce a zygote, a single cell with a diploid set of
chromosomes.
Somatic cells reproduce by dividing, a process called mitosis. Between cell
divisions the chromosomes exist in an uncoiled state, producing a diffuse mass of
genetic material known as chromatin. The uncoiling of chromosomes enables
DNA synthesis to begin. During this phase, DNA duplicates itself in preparation
for cell division.
Following replication, the DNA condenses into chromosomes. At this point,
each chromosome actually consists of a set of duplicate chromatids that are held
together by the centromere.
The centromere is the point of attachment of the kinetochore, a protein
structure that is connected to the spindle fibres (part of a structure that pulls the
chromatids to opposite ends of the cell). During the middle stage in cell division,
the centromere duplicates, and the chromatid pair separates; each chromatid
becomes a separate chromosome at this point.
The cell divides, and both of the daughter cells have a complete (diploid) set
of chromosomes. The chromosomes uncoil in the new cells, again forming the
diffuse network of chromatin.
Among many organisms that have separate sexes, there are two basic types
of chromosomes: sex chromosomes and autosomes.
 Autosomes control the inheritance of all the characteristics except the
sex-linked ones, which are controlled by the sex chromosomes. Humans
have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. All act in
the same way during cell division.
Chromosome breakage is the physical breakage of subunits of a

chromosome. It is usually followed by reunion (frequently at a foreign site,
resulting in a chromosome unlike the original). Breakage and reunion of
homologous chromosomes during meiosis are the basis for the classical model of
crossing over, which results in unexpected types of offspring of a mating.
DNA as a GENETIC MATERIAL

DNA, is an abbreviation of deoxyribonucleic acid, organic chemical of
complex molecular structure that is found in
all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and in many viruses. DNA codes genetic
information for the transmission of inherited traits.
The chemical DNA was first discovered in 1869, but its role in genetic
inheritance was not demonstrated until 1943.
In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick, aided by the work of
biophysicists Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, determined that the
structure of DNA is a double-helix polymer, a spiral consisting of two DNA
strands wound around each other. The breakthrough led to significant advances
in scientists’ understanding of DNA replication and hereditary control of cellular
activities.
Each strand of a
DNA molecule is composed of a
long chain
of monomer nucleotides.
The nucleotides of DNA
consist of a deoxyribose sugar
molecule to which is attached
a phosphate group and one of
four nitrogenous bases:
a. two purines (adenine an
d guanine) and
b. two pyrimidines (cytosin
e and thymine).
The nucleotides are joined
together by covalent
bonds between the phosphate of
one nucleotide and the sugar of
the next, forming a phosphate-
sugar backbone from which the nitrogenous bases protrude.
One strand is held to another by hydrogen bonds between the bases; the
sequencing of this bonding is specific—i.e., adenine bonds only with thymine, and
cytosine only with guanine.
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Activity 1
The Concept of Gene
1. Define genes, chromosomes & DNA

2. Discuss the different organelles of a cell
3.

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Gene is a unit of hereditary

information that occupies a

In eukaryotes (such as animals, plants, and fungi), genes are contained within the

Chemical Structure of Genes

The structure and location

Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes

Chromosome breakage is the physical breakage of subunits of a

DNA as a GENETIC MATERIAL

1. Define genes, chromosomes & DNA

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