Psychodynamic Theories

The Psychodynamic Perspective: A Focus on the Inner Person

Freud and Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a type of therapy that aims to release pent-up or repressed emotions and memories in or
to lead the client to catharsis, or healing (McLeod, 2014). In other words, the goal of psychoanalysis is to
bring what exists at the unconscious or subconscious level up to consciousness.

This goal is accomplished through talking to another person about the big questions in life, the things that
matter, and diving into the complexities that lie beneath the simple-seeming surface.

It’s very likely you’ve heard of the influential but controversial founder of psychoanalysis: Sigmund
Freud.

Freud was born in Austria and spent most of his childhood and adult life in Vienna (Sigmund Freud
Biography, 2017). He entered medical school and trained to become a neurologist, earning a medical
degree in 1881.

Soon after his graduation, he set up a private practice and began treating patients with psychological
disorders.

His attention was captured by a colleague’s intriguing experience with a patient; the colleague was Dr.
Josef Breuer and his patient was the famous “Anna O.,” who suffered from physical symptoms with no
apparent physical cause.

Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped her recover memories of traumatic
experiences that she had repressed, or hidden from her conscious mind.

This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development of some of his
most influential ideas.

Models of the Mind

Perhaps the most impactful idea put forth by Freud was his model of the human mind. His model divides
the mind into three layers, or regions:
 1. Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live;
2. Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the home of everything we can recall
or retrieve from our memory;
3. Unconscious: At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that drive
our behavior, including primitive and instinctual desires (McLeod, 2013).

Later, Freud posited a more structured model of the mind, one that can coexist with his original ideas
about consciousness and unconsciousness.

In this model, there are three metaphorical parts to the mind:

1. Id: The id operates at an unconscious level and focuses solely on instinctual drives and desires.
Two biological instincts make up the id, according to Freud: eros, or the instinct to survive that
drives us to engage in life-sustaining activities, and thanatos, or the death instinct that drives
destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior.

2. Ego: The ego acts as both a conduit for and a check on the id, working to meet the id’s needs in a
socially appropriate way. It is the most tied to reality and begins to develop in infancy;

3. Superego: The superego is the portion of the mind in which morality and higher principles reside,
encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (McLeod, 2013).

The image above offers a context of this “iceberg” model wherein much of our mind exists in the realm of
the unconscious impulses and drives.

If you’ve ever read the book “Lord of the Flies” by William Golding, then you have enjoyed the allegory
of Freud’s mind as personified by Jack as the Id, Piggy as the ego, and Ralph as the superego.

 
Defense Mechanisms

Freud believed these three parts of the mind are in constant conflict because each part has a different
primary goal. Sometimes, when the conflict is too much for a person to handle, his or her ego may engage
in one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual.

These defense mechanisms include:

 Repression: The ego pushes disturbing or threatening thoughts out of one’s consciousness;

 Denial: The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences from awareness, causing the
individual to refuse to acknowledge or believe what is happening;

 Projection: The ego attempts to solve discomfort by attributing the individual’s unacceptable

thoughts, feelings, and motives to another person;

 Displacement: The individual satisfies an impulse by acting on a substitute object or person in a

socially unacceptable way (e.g., releasing frustration directed toward your boss on your spouse
instead);

 Regression: As a defense mechanism, the individual moves backward in development in order

to cope with stress (e.g., an overwhelmed adult acting like a child);

 Sublimation: Similar to displacement, this defense mechanism involves satisfying an impulse by

acting on a substitute but in a socially acceptable way (e.g., channeling energy into work or a
constructive hobby) (McLeod, 2013).

The 5 Psychosexual Stages of Development

Finally, one of the most enduring concepts associated with Freud is his psychosexual stages. Freud
proposed that children develop in five distinct stages, each focused on a different source of pleasure:

1. First Stage: Oral—the child seeks pleasure from the mouth (e.g., sucking);

2. Second Stage: Anal—the child seeks pleasure from the anus (e.g., withholding and expelling
feces);

3. Third Stage: Phallic—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or clitoris (e.g., masturbation);

4. Fourth Stage: Latent—the child has little or no sexual motivation;

5. Fifth Stage: Genital—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or vagina (e.g., sexual intercourse;
McLeod, 2013).

Freud hypothesized that an individual must successfully complete each stage to become a psychologically
healthy adult with a fully formed ego and superego. Otherwise, individuals may become stuck or
“fixated” in a particular stage, causing emotional and behavioral problems in adulthood (McLeod, 2013).

The Interpretation of Dreams

Another well-known concept from Freud was his belief in the significance of dreams. He believed that
analyzing one’s dreams can give valuable insight into the unconscious mind.
In 1900, Freud published the book The Interpretation of Dreams in which he outlined his hypothesis that
the primary purpose of dreams was to provide individuals with wish fulfillment, allowing them to work
through some of their repressed issues in a situation free from consciousness and the constraints of reality
(Sigmund Freud Biography, n.d.).

In this book, he also distinguished between the manifest content (the actual dream) and the latent content
(the true or hidden meaning behind the dream).

The purpose of dreams is to translate forbidden wishes and taboo desires into a non-threatening form
through condensation (the joining of two or more ideas), displacement (transformation of the person or
object we are concerned about into something or someone else), and secondary elaboration (the
unconscious process of turning the wish-fulfillment images or events into a logical narrative) (McLeod,
2013).

Freud’s ideas about dreams were game-changing. Before Freud, dreams were considered insignificant and
insensible ramblings of the mind at rest. His book provoked a new level of interest in dreams, an interest
that continues to this day.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of
development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory
centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.
The stages that make up his theory are as follows:

 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

Let's take a closer look at the background and different stages that make up Erikson's psychosocial theory
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much like Sigmund Freud,
Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages.

Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships
played a role in the development and growth of human beings.

Conflict During Each Stage

Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of
development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to
develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential
for failure.
If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that
will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may
not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.
Mastery Leads to Ego Strength

Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's
theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.

If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy
in that aspect of development.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age
and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based
on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.

At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they need
to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care
and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.

Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under
their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers
provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful
development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens,
children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness
that danger may be present.

Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the
importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and
is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

The Role of Independence

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to
perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids
to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy. 2

Potty Training

The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical
skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this
sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include
gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Outcomes

Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal
control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure
results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Finding Balance

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left
with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy
and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within
reason and limits.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Outcomes

The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting
control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who
try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego
quality known as purpose emerges.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities.

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence,
while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Outcomes

Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence
and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers
will doubt their abilities to be successful.

Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known
as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and
development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense
of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. 2 Those who receive
proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a
strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs
and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
What Is Identity?

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help
shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson
described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a particular
emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop
through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of
psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we
acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that
can help or hinder the development of identity.

Why Identity Is Important

Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our
lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is
this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong
relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early
adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.2

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those
who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure.

Building On Earlier Stages

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that
those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggler
with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form
lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a
positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment,
while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home
and community.2 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life
partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. 2 At this point
in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life
that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the entire
lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success
at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a life
they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace.
Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they should have.

Outcomes

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may experience
many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this
phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will
attain wisdom, even when confronting death.