.......

the SOIi
how to improve ttte aoll

flOlt MIii ABRICULTURE ORGANIZATION BF THE UIIITEI NAT

 I

T en -six es h ed in is
designed hand boo
I el agricul I edu n in
Th ay be pu hased a or
docu en

1. e plant e g p nt; e ro t
2. The plant: the stem; e buds; e leaves
3. The plant: the flo r
4. he ii: ho e soil is ade up
5. The soil: ho con e e soil
6. The soil: h improve
7. rop rming
nimai husband fe ing and care of animals
9. nimal husband : animal diseases; how animals
reproduce

11.
12. breeding
13. ping
Farming r
15. e a!s
16. oots and be
17. roun nuts
18. ananas
19. a ga ening
20. pland rice
21. et paddy or swamp rice
22. Cocoa
23. Coffee
24. The oil palm
25. The rubber tree
26. The modern farm business
 ii
.
I I
Economic and Social Series 3/6

First printing l97Q

.Second printing 1972
Revis,ed :editi-on 1976

-ISBN 92-5-100145-6

©--=French edition, lnstitut africain pour

le deve-loppement economique et social (JNADES) 1970

© English -edit1on, FAQ 1976

This manual is a translation and adaptation of Bile sol -
comment ameliorer le sol?", published by the Agri-Service-
Afrique of the lnstitut africain pour le developpement eco-
nomique et social (I NA DES), and forms part of a series of 26
booklets. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the p~blish-
ers for making avaitable this text, which it is hoped will find
widespread use at the intermediate leveJ of agricultural
education and training tn English-speaking countries.

The original texts were pr~pared for an African environment

and this is naturally reflected in the English version.
However, it is expected that many of the manuals of the
series - a list of which will be found on the inside front
cover - will atso be of vafue for training in many other parts
of the world. Adaptations can be made to the text where
necessary owing to d~fferent climatic and ecologicar
conditions.

Apptications for perm~ss1on to issue this manua~ in other

languages are welcomed. Such applicatJons should be ad-
dressed . to: Director, Publications Division, Food and
Agricutture Organization of the Untted Nations, Via delle
Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, tta~y.

The author of this English version is Mr. A.J. Henderson,

former Chief of the FAQ Editorial Branch.
• L ................... . 4

5
Manure ............................... . 5
Compost ............................. . 7
Green manure ......................... . 8
Fertilizers ..... ,........................ . 9
The chief fertilizers ................... . 10
Nitrogen .......................... . 10
Phosphorus ....................... . 10
Potassium ..................... , ... . 11
How to read a label ................... . 12
Applying fertiii ................... . 13

• Im e a n 111' n "' o.·· oi 15

Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . 16
How to keep water for irrigation . . . . . . . . . . 16
How to fetch water . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . 17
How to irrigate. . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . 1
Drainage .............................. .
Clearing the land and grubbing the trees . . . . . . 21
How to clear land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
How to grub trees ..................... .

• Farmi mal a a 111 " a 11 11 m 11 111 111 m a 111 111 111 Iii ill

• a a m !II 111 111 a p m III Iii a 11 111 11 s II m o 111 29

1
 Fl E

Read pages 4 to 8.
• Do they make manure and compost where you live?
• To understand what manure does
took at Booklet No. 4, page 22.
Do you know why
you should both grow crops and raise animals?

DWEE

Fertilizers.

Read .pages 4 to 14.

• Study pages 4 to 8 about manure, compost
and green manure once aga~n.
• It is very important to understand clearly
what fertilizers do,
and to know
how to read the label on a sack of fertilizer.
• How do they use fertilizers where you live?

2
 E

• Read pages 15 20.

• Do they use irrigation where you Iive?

Can they use irrigation?
• What is a less tiring way of lifting water?
• Can they make dams where you live?
• Do you fully understand what water does in the soil?
Look at Booklet No. 4, page

WEE

• Read pages 21 to 28.

• Does grubbing trees make the harvests better?
• How do they clear the land where you live?
• Look again at Booklet No. 5, page 20
where it deals with brush fires~
You must understand
that brush fires are bad.

• Reread the whole course.

• Answer the question paper.

3
ny soils are poor
a yield a good harvest.

I.

• He gives it mineral salts (see B klet o. 1, page 19);

• He improves its structure (see Booklet No. page

giving it humus.

are difficu

The soil is too dry or too wet.

The farmer improves the soil

irrigation and drainage.

• The land is full of trees.

The far~mer grubs the trees.

4
Plants grow
by taking mineral salts from the soil.
plant that finps plenty of mineral salts in the soil
grows quickly.

You must give the soil mineral salts.

all add mineral salts to the soil.

You can get manure (dung)

when you keep animals,
such as cows, oxen, sheep, goats, donkeys, pigs.

To manu
shou Id both crops
and raise imals .

•
To make manure,
put and straw
{stems of rice, maize, millet)
to rot with animal droppings~

The microbes (see Booklet No. 4, pages 22 and 35)

in the -animal droppings decompose the leaves
and straw.
This makes manure.

Manure in soil makes humus

(see Booklet No. page 22).
 u should them in a w a
shelter, a cattle shed.
In the shed put and
The animals sleep on it,
and make their droppings.

You must add straw often.

Then you have good manure.

Fence

Shed

Hay stack

It also prevents rain

making the manure too wet.
It prevents the sun
from drying the manure.
If it gets dry
it does not rot.

6
 \!Vhen you have no animals,
and no manure,
you can make compost.
Compost is a mixture
of plants, stems of millet and maize, etc.,
refuse from the house,
remains of food such as vegetables and fruit,
which all rot together .

•
Dig a hole.
At the bottom of the hole
put a lot of big pebbles and stones,
so that too much water will not stand in the hole.
Throw into the hole
ali the household refuse, weeds and plants you
have cut down, and the refuse from the harvest.
\Nater the heap to make it rot.
Like manure, the compost must not dry out.
So make the heap in the shade to shelter it from the sun.

• Using compost and manure

Take it to your field.

Spread it out wel L
Mix it with the soil
by turning over the soil either
with a hoe or a plough.

ure m
m1
which enrich the soil;
hum
which improves the soil structure.

7
 soi I al! me.

a size,

a or pl

can sow Pueraria,

it in
begin m.

i L
They enrich the soil with humus
and make le better rvests afterwards.

8
 lizers give soil mme I
Booklet 19).
Ii a

I
will pay
farmer on!
if they wili earn him mo

• It 1s useless a !y ferti iizers

ur farming n well do

• If u
the w

If u tilled the soi I ly,

plant grow ly.

if u have sowed late,

the plants will be late
and will not grow enough
before the d season.
• If you do not get rid of the weeds,
the fertilizer will chiefly benefit the weeds.
• lf you do not control insects and diseases
the harvest wi 11 be no better
and the fertilizer will be wasted.

on

9
 E IEF FE IL E

•
They contain n
Nitrogen makes leaves grow
and gives them a good green colour.
In the leaves raw sap is changed
into elaborated sap (see Booklet No. 2, page 20).
Nitrogen hetps the formation
of elaborated sap.
And harvests are better.

The chief nitrogen fertilizers are:

• sulphate of ammonia,
• nitrates.

If you see the letter on the label of a sack of

fertilizer, that means nitrogen.

They contain phosphorus

in the form of phosphorus pentoxide.
Phosphorus makes the plant stems strong.
It also helps the formation
of flowers and fruits.
It makes better grains and fruits.

The chief phosphorus fertilizers are:

• natural phosphates:
In Africa
there are phosphate mines
at Taiba and Thies (Senegal)
and at Kpeme (Togo).
• superphosphates.
If you see the letter P on the labei of a sack of
fertilizer, that means

10
• m

They contain um.

Potassium helps plants
to withstand drought and diseases.
It also helps the plant
to build up food reserves {see Booklet o. 1,
page ), so that the roots become fatter (cassava),
and seeds are more plentiful and finer.

The chief potassium fertilizers are:

• natural potassium:
In Africa
there is a big potassium mine
at Holle (Congo).
• potassium chloride,
• potassium sulphate.

If you see the letter on the label of a sack

of fertilizer, that means potassium.

• nd

The fertilizers you buy

are not all the same.

Those which contain

on nitrogen or potassium or phosphorus
-are ca lied straight fertilizers.

Others are mixed.

They are called compound fertilizers.

Compound fertil
contain different quantities
of nitrogen,
phosphorus,
potassium.

11
 E

rn on sacks lizer.
ows
C MP UNO n
FERTILIZER 1iogrammes
13-10-15 is fertilizer.
In this case 13

(P)
ram mes
ilizer.
1s case 10

um ( )
ram mes
1 lizer.
is case 15 kg.
a 1 1 15

um

we m
multiply the fertilizer content
the weight of the sack
and di de the result 1 , thus:
weight of sack
1

In a 50 kg sack of 1 1 15 fe lizer there 1s:

nitrogen - 6.5 kg

ph orus . . . . . . . . . 10 5

um .,, . . . . . . . 15 7

'i 2
 FE E

• u can apply b
It fails all over

make a line in ea
a few centimetres away from row p
Put the rtilizer in this line
and cover it wi earth.

Fertilizer is
'put along this lirie

else,
put the ferti Iizer at the foot of the
plants just before you earth them up.

In
such as palms, coffe~, cocoa,
put the rtilizer in a circle
1 or 2 metres from the tree trunk.
The feeding roots of the tree
are-at a distance 1 or 2 metres
the trunk.

13
• a

Th machine is ca1 a fertilizer distributor.

VVith some mechanical seed drills

u can sow and spread fertilizer at the same time.

E p L I E

• Do not put fertilizer

on the stems and leaves of plants.
The fertilizer may burn them.

• Fertil 1s
Do not put just any ferti !izer on a crop.
Different plants have different needs.

Choose the right fertilizer.

• All fertilizers are not the same.

Fertilizers contain different amounts
of the mineral salts (N P, K).
1

Get to know the quality of fertilizers.

14
 I

• In Booklet No. page 29,

we saw how important water is in the soiL

When land does not have enough water,

you can bring water to a field.
This is called irrigation.

When land has too much water,

you can take water away from a field.
This is called drainage.

• Before you dig and plant a field,

you must clean it.
You have to take away the grass and plants and trees.
This is clearing the iand.

You also have to take away the stumps of trees.

This is cal1ed mg.

·15
 I

I, a well or a m,
1ble.

irrigation
can ram.

EEP

!es.

Earth Branches
Stream

Stones

16
 res up
u can
• drin
• even raise
Before making a
ask for advice
from the extension

F E

• n

• ),

Rope

Counterpoise
Bucket (stone)

(shadoof)

• (noriaL

or
 must be made
so as to bdng water to the edge of the field.

The ditches must be kept well cleaned out,

so that the water flows easily and is not wasted.

The field to be irrigated

is surrounded with a ridge or bank.

Thus the whole field

forms a basin.
Opening
To fill the field with water 1

make a hole
in the ridge of the ditch.

The water flows

into the field.

When the field is flooded,

close the ditch,
and let the water
into another field.

18
 Water flows over Ditch full of water
the field

// Opening
Field to be irrigated in ridge

For salad plants, for tomatoes,

the whole field is not flooded.

The field is not covered with water.

The water is made to flow

between the rows of the crop·,
between the crop ridges.

Water flows between ridges Ditch bringing water

/

,i!fi!i!':'&1~ · · ~;·~ . " 1 ~ -~ ~ - - - ' " · ; . < ' ? ~ a • • - ·

~~...~~· ·-)-! ~~ r ~.;./.r·{:.;;!:~ '.)[;.""~~ : , ....,
~~ ~ , •• ,
r-::
t.:.,.• £~
....!..a,~'-=i"'-1,.1--
-~- - .,.· . 11."-·l-· . . . ···-.~ •· .. "}"too'
, ;·:.·~-·~ ...:q.,~/-.--:.-,_ . . -,~ .. ·.·:f' ~.rJ:'\:.j >'."'
......... - .. ,:
:°" 1 .. :·,. __;.~:. -~~·.1.1·,.""'{ ·~ ~ .

19
 a

run

Ditch Water has gone; the la can

/I

Small ditch

~" \J
IVlain ditch \I ~
~4 'µ ~
\( ' "'~\J
w ~-w
'-.

20
 b

• There are trees can sold

fi
or for maki
or

If
if too many
the are
because the crop p share
with the trees

PP can au soil.

21
Cut the grass and weeds and the small trees.
Put them in a heap
to make them rot.
This (see Booklet No. 2, page 23)
will give humus to the soil.
a (see Booklet No. 5, page 21 ).

The bigger trees too must be cut.

The wood is taken to the village for fuel.

farmers cut the trunk of a tree,

and leave in the ground the base of the tree and its roots.
This is the mp.
New shoots may grow on the stump.

When the stump

is left in the ground
the tree often remains alive.

When the field

is left fallow,
the tree grows again ~
and the shoots get bigger. ~
~
After the fallow,
I
be done again,

Trunk after
cutting

stump

22
 an

• Tools such as hoes and ploughs

are often damaged and bent
big roots.

• u cannot sow in
the stumps get in the way.

• The stumps
go on taking food from the soil.
Around stumps
the crops are less good,
the plants are not so tall,
and rice, for example, turns yellow.

• stumps must be taken

trees must grubbed.

Gr.ubbing takes a Jot of work.

Grubbing is hard.
Grubbing is necessary to improve your farming
and ea.rn more.

If a farmer has cleared the land,

if he has grubbed al I the trees,
he can farm with animal power,
he can farm his field for a longer time.

After a fa! low the next c1earing

I

will be much easjer 1

the trees wil1 not have grown again.
There will be no more grubbing to do.

G a work.
'

field

23
 E

• F
a
Then take out the stump.
Make a hole round the stump
that can clear r
ut the roots with an axe
or a special grubbing tool.
This tool can be made
the village blacksmith
from a leaf of a lorry spri
The blacksmith flattens
in his forge
and sharpens it on a stone.
e turns over the other end
make it hold
in a long wooden handle. Grubbing
This is 1.50 metres long. tool
is tool is used
for taking out earth
from around roots,
and also for cutting roots.
The too I cuts better
if the hand le is heavy.

24
•
II
Do not cut the tree trunk.

Tie a thick, ve strong rope

to the tree trunk,
about half wa_y up.
The rope should be ranger
than the height of the

Make a hole around the tree.

Cut the roots.

Then several men puH on the rope

till the tree falls
and pulls out its stump.

The work is easier

if the rope is pulled by oxen,
a ~. actor,
with a winch.

Cable to be fixed
to block and tackle

25
 Cable fixed to tree.by
means of block and tackle

Tackle reduces the

LL EE

The· winch is tied to the base of a big tree.

Take the cable of the winch
(a cabie is an fron rope)
and fix it to the middle of the tree
that is to be pulled down.
With the winch handle or lever,
wind the cable round the winch.

The cable pulls the tree.

The tree falls, pulling out its root.

Several farmers in a vHlage

can get together
to buy or hire a winch.

Ask the extension service for advice.

26
We shall study animal power next year.
But we can say something about it now;

Farming with ani'!'al power is very interesting,

With it you can plough,
weed,
transport goods,
With animal power:
work is done more quickly,
farming is done better.
You can farm bigger fields.
You get a bigger harvest.
You can pay for the oxen and the tools.
You wiH earn more money
than by traditional farming,

Examples:

t Agoudou-Manga (Central frican Republic).

With traditional farming,
a farmer earns 8 000 CFA francs a year.
With animal power,
he can earn 30 000 francs.
Each year he pays part of the cost of his oxen,
plough and cultivator: 12 000 francs.
So he earns 30000less 12 000 =
18 000 francs, that
is 10 000 francs more than by traditional farming.

In Upper Volta (Mossi country).

With traditional farming,
a farmer earns 000 francs a year.
With animal power,
he can earn 66 000 francs.
Each year he pays part of his donkey, cultivator,.
fertilizers, chemical pesticides: 29 000 francs.
So he earns 66 000 less 000= 000 francs,
that is 19 000 francs more than by traditional farming.

27
 u
• get your fields
for a long time.
Preparing the ground
(irrigation, r Ii grubbing)
a work.
benefit from this

• have rectangles
big enough work easily with animals.

• b all the trees in the fields

so as not to break your tools.

• have

r s.
animals work quickly and well.

possible.

Instead of working V'vith animals,

u can use a tractor.
But you need a great deal of money
pay for a tra and its repairs.
You need very big fields.
u need a lot of crops
earn a lot money.

28
FILL I E

A modern farmer gives his field -------------------------- or ---------------------------~

In this way he gives the soil

He improves the -------------------------------------------------------------- of the soi I.

He can also grow plants to mix in the soi I. Th is is -------------------------------,

farmer can apply fertilizers, but fertilizers are _______________________________ .

Fertilizers are only useful when all farming--------------- are welf

Before farming a field, a farmer must -------------------------- and---------------,
This requires a lot of work, so he must be sure of-_________________________________ .,

------------------------------------------------------------------- the field for a long ti me,

To farm with animal power, you need a field that is
-----· -------------------------------- and ________ ------------------------------------___ ---------________ .

E L

What is green manure?

Why' should you both grow crops and raise animals?
Why is drainage needed?
What does nitrogen do in plant food?
What should a farmer do before applying fertilizer?
How do you make manure?
Explain to a friend what manure or compost does in the soil.
Why must trees be grubbed?

29
 V

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R
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Thailand Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajadamnern Avenue, Bangkok.
Togo Librairie du Bon Pasteur, B.P. 1164, Lome.
Turkey Guven Kitabevi Mudafaa Cad., Guven Building 12/5, Ankara.
United Kingdom Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 49 High Holborn, London, W.C.1; P.O. Box 569, London,
S.E.1 (trade and London area mail orders); 13a Castle Street, Edinburgh EH2 3AR;
109 St. Mary Street, Cardiff CF1 1JW; 7 Linenhall Street, Belfast BT2 BAY; Brazennose
Street, Manchester M60 SAS; 258 Broad Street, Birmingham 1; Southey House,
Wine Street, Bristol BS1 2BO.
United States UNIPUB, 650 First Avenue, P.O. Box 433, Murray Hill Station, New York, N.Y. 10016.
of America
Uruguay Juan Angel Peri, Alzaibar 1328, Casilla de Correos 1755, Montevideo.
Venezuela Blume Distribuidora S.A., Calle 3, N° 508, Quinta Palmera Sola, Campo Alegre, Chacao,
Caracas.
Yugoslavia Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Terazije 27 /11, Belgrade; Cankarjeva Zalozba, P.O. Box 201-IV,
Ljubljana.
Other countries Requests from countries where sales agents have not yet been appointed may be
sent to: Distribution and Sales Section, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
Autres pays Les commandes ou Jes demandes de renseignements emanant de pays pour lesquels
des agents ou des depositaires n'ont pas encore ete designes peuvent etre adressees
a: Section distribution et ventes, Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation
et l'agriculture, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, ltalie.
Otros paises Los pedidos procedentes de paises en donde aun no han sido designados agentes
distribuidores, pueden hacerse directamente a la Secci6n de Distribuci6n y Venta,
FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Roma, Italia.

P-69
ISBN 92-5-100145-6