A project of Volunteers ip Asia

Better Farmina Se ies No. 2, The Plant: The

mm: tzr& Judsr L
Pub1 ished by:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome
Italy
Paper copies are $ 1.50.
Available from:
UNIPUB
P.O. Box 433
Murray Hill Station
New York, NY 10157 USA
Reproduced by permission of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Reproduction of this microfiche document in any

form is subject to the same restrictions as those
of the original document.
Twenty-six titles have been published in this series,
designed as handbooks for a two-year intermediate
level agricultural education and training course.
They may be purchased as a set or as individual
documents.

1. The Giant: the living plant; the root

2. The plant: the stem; the buds; the leaves
3. The plant: the flower
4. The soil: how the soil is made up
5. The soil: how to conserve the soil
6. The soil: how to improve the soil
7. Crop farming
8. Animal husbandry: feeding and care of animals
9. Animal husbandry: animal diseases; how animals
reproduce

SECOND YEAR
10. The farm business survey
11. Cattle breeding
12. Sheep and goat breeding
13. Keeping chickens
14. Farming with animal power
15. Cereals
16. Roots and tubers
17. Groundnuts
18. Bananas
I.9 Market gardening
20, Uoland rice
?I. Wet paddy or swamp rice
22. Cocoa
23. Coffee
24. The oil palm
25. The rubber tree
26. The modern farm business
 plant

The stem
The buds
The leawes

Published by arrangement with 1the

lnstitut africain pour ie d&eloppement &onomique et social
B.P. 8008, Abidjan, C&e d”lvoire

FOODANDA6RICULTURE
OR6ANIZATION
OFTHEUNITEDNATIONS
Rome 1976
FA 0 Economic and Social Dewe!opment Series No. 3/z

First printing 1970

Second printing 1972
Revised edition 1976

ISBN 9%5-lC9014l-3

@French edition, lnstitut africain pour

le dkveloppement konomique et social (INADES) 1970

0 Enylish edition, FAO 1976

Thismanuai is a translation and adaptation of “La plante -
la tige, les bourgeons, les feuilles,” published by the
Agri-Service-Afrique of the lnstitut africain pour le de-
veloppement economique et soLial (INADES), and forms
part of a series of 26 booklets. Grateful acknowledgement
is .made to the publishers for making available this
text, which it is hoped will find widespread use at the
intermediate level of agricultural education and training
in English-speaking. countries.

The original texts were prepared for an African environ-

ment and this is naturally reflected in the English version.
However, it is expected that many of the manuals of
the series - a list of which will be found on the inside,
frant cover - will also be of value for training in many
arts of the world. Adaptations can be made to
the text *where necessary owing to different climatic and
ecological conditions.

Applications for permission to issue this manual in other

languages are weicome Such applications should be
addressed to: Director, Publications Division! Food and
Agriculture .Organization of the United Nations, Via
delle Terme di Caracalla, ~~~~~ Rome, italy.

The author of this English version is Mr. A.J. Henderson,

former Chief of the FAO Editorial Branch
 The stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Where is the stem?. ...................... 4
Howa stem is made, ..................... 6
What the stem does ...................... I1

Thebuds ................................ 12

The leaves . . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . m. , . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
How a ieaf is made. ...................... 14
The leaf-stalk ... I, .................... 15
The veins ....... :. ................... I6
The shape of leaves ...................... 17
What are leaves for? ..................... 19
How the leaf changes raw sap
into elaborated sap ..................... 20
Organic matter in the plant _ i c a i Di a = (1Si , L 23
The plant breathes. .................... 23
The plant transpires .................... 23

Some practical applications ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

The plant needs air and light .............. 24
The plant needs water .................... 26
The plant needs its leaves. ................. 27
Some insects eat leaves and buds .......... 28
Insects and diseases can be destroyed. ...... 28
Animals also eat leaves. ................. 29

0 Sug&ted question paper. = . , u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

FIRST WEEK

The stem.
Read pages 4 to 11.

You must look at each stem.

For example, on page 7 it says:
“‘Let us look at a yam plant.”
Go to the field,
and look at the stem of a yam.
If there are no yams in your village,
look carefully at the drawing.

3 You must take good note

of how one stem differs from another
or is like another.

Make sure you understand what the stem does.

SECOND WEEK

The buds. How a leaf is made.

Read pages 12 to 18.

e To help your memory, read again pages 4 to 1:‘f a

o Look carefully at buds.

e Take a good look at the leaves you have picked.

Look carefully, you will see the veins.

e Learn the new words, such as vein, midrib, leaf-stalk.

THIRD WEEK

What the leaves do.

Read pages 19 to 23.

Read again pages 12 to 18.

Leaves change raw sap ints elaborated sap.

Leaves breathe.

Leaves transpire.

This week’s work is more difficult.

You must take longer to study it.
Don’t forget to look up the other pages mentioned.
For instance, where it says,
“See Booklet No. 1, page 17.”

FOURTH WEEK

Some practical applications.

Read pages 24 to 29.

This is easy work, and not long.

Read again the whole course, especially the work for the
third week.

3
 The root is the part of the plant
That lives in the soil.

The stem is the part of the plant

that lives in the 217, above thti soil.

The crown, or collar, joins the root and the stem.

3 The stem bears leaves, flowers, fruits.

0 Leaves,
f lo-tiers,
fruits, all grow on the stem.

4
 Flower --

Fruit 1

AIR
 a stem is made

u The stem can be trailing,

‘for examle,.
that of a groundnut plant,
or of a marrow, cucumber or melon.

Let us look at a groundnut plant.

What do we see?

A groundnut plant

A groundnut plant has several stems.

They are easy to cut
or crush between the fingers.

They are not hard.

The stems lie on the ground or are upright.

 The stem can be climbing,
for example,
that of the yam, bean, pea,
and all the creepers.

bet us look at a yam plant.

What do we see?

o A yam plant may have several stems.

The stems lie on the soil.
If you push a stick into the ground beside a yairs
the stems can be held upright,
because they hotd on to the stick.
The stem winds round the stick and clitnbs.
a~ The stems bear
.rather large green leaves
and clusters of little flowers.

7
m The stem can be upright,
for example,
that of millet, maize, cotton,
sorghum, cassava kapok tree or baobab.

flowers

.eaf

Stem

the trunk.
I

Maize plant
Kapok tree

Maize has only one stem. Trees:

The. stem is upright,
The stem is upright.
very tall,
It is .harder very thick,
than the stem hard.
of groundnuts
or yams. It is called the trunk.

The trunk of a tree is

its steni.
a The stem can be underground,
for example
th?*. ot ydrlic L dnion.

Let us look at an onion.

VUhat do we see?

A very thick stem,

in the ground;
this is the onion.

Long leaves
come out of the stem.

Roots grow in a ring

at the base
of the stem,
at the base of the onion.

e These stems
hold a lot of food.

An onion
HERBACEOUS STEMS AND WOODY STEMS

The stems of groundnuts, yams, maize,

millet, tomato and okra
are green and pliable.

They can be bent without breaking.

They arr7 ii ke grasses.
They a’-: called herbaceous stems.

The stems of cotton, kapok trees, coffee,

cocoa, of all trees,
are hard.

They tireak if you try to bend them.

You nave to strike hard to cut them with a machete.
They ax called woody stems.

ANMUAL STEMS AND PERENNIAL STEMS.

e The stems of groundnuts, maize, millet,

tomato and okra j
last for only one year:
They are called annual stems.

e The stems of the kapok tree, coffee, cocoa,

the underground stem of yams,
last for many years.
They are c&d perennial stems.

IQ
 hat thee stem does
It supports leaves and flowers.
It circulates sap.

TYE.CIR@ULATION 0-F SAP

Cut through the stem of a coffee tree or of a lemon tree.
What do we see?
First of al I, on the outside of the stem, there is the bark.
This is the skin of the tree.
Skin protects a man or an animal.
The bark protects a tree stem.
If a goat eats ‘the bark; or you cut it with a hoe,
the plant is no longer protected. It is injured.
Many diseases can get in through this injury.
You must not injure the bark.
Under the bark is the wood.
When the tree is old, the wood is thick,
the stem is hard.
Wood makes the stem hard.

In the wood you can see

many little holes.

wood These are little tubes

or vessels.

In a man’s body
the blood is carried
by blood vessels.

In E plant,
tit stem of a lemon tree
vessels carry the sap,

e Bn the centre of the stem is the pith.

If you cut a cotton stem
you can see the pith very easily.
It is less hard than the wood.
Often it is not the same colour.

11
I
I
How buds are made

A bud is made of
!ittle leaves;
they are hard The scales
protect
and very closely packed
and called scales. the inside
of the bud.
These seales
are stuck together.
They protect
the inside of the bud.

What are buds for?

Flowers come out of certain buds.

These are called flower buds.
Leaves or shoots come out of certain buds.
These are called leaf buds.

‘Where are the buds?

‘They are at the tip’of the stem and on the stem.

IB Those at the tip of the stem

errable the stem and shoots to grow.

e Those at the base of the leaves

produce shoots, leaves and flowers.

12
Where are the leaves found?

Leaves grow
from leaf buds.

Leaves are found

on stems
and side shoots or branches.

They are joined to the branches

by the leaf-stalk.
How a leaf is made
Pick up some leaves of a mango tree or coffee tree.
Let us look at them.

0 Leaves are usually of a green colour,

more or less dark.
e They are joined to the stem by a stalk
called the leaf-stalk.
I, The leaf-stalk is continued into the leaf
by the midrib.
Other smaller veins branch out from the midrib.
These are the primary and secondary veins.
The whole flat part of the leaf is called
the leaf blade or lamina.

Pr

14.
 THE LEAF-STALK
A Leaves

Some plants have

a short leaf-stalk.
For example,
coffee,
orange,
hibiscus,
guava.

Some plants have Leaf-stalks

a long leaf-stalk.
For example,
papaw or papaya,
sweet potato

Papaya leaves

Some plants
do not have a leaf-stalk. r Stem
The leaves of maize,
millet or rice
surround the stem.
There is no leaf-stalk.

Sheath
A-)

1’5
 THE VEINS

In the middle of the leaf there is the midrib.

On each side of the midrib
other veins branch off.
These are the primary veins.
They are smaller. These primary veins
divide into many still smaller veins.

Perhaps you have seen a leaf

that has been eaten by insects.
The leaf tissue has gone and only the veins are left.
It is like a spider’s web.

What ake the veins for?

They care the sap.

The sap passes along the stem vessels.
Then it enters the vein vessels.

Cut a palm frond and you will see the sap flow.
The vessels of the palm frond
carry the sap.

In a man’s body, the vessels carry the blood.

In a plant, the vessels carry the sap.

Sap is the blood of plants.

16
The shape of leaves

The leas/esof yam are not like those of cassava.

You can recognize a plant by looking at, the leaves.

1
Leaves are simple or compound.

Simple leaf
The simple leaf can be entire or lobed. ,

Entire simple leaf

Examples: yam
millet
okra.
hibiscus
maize
cocaa
teak
coffee

Lobed simple leaf

Examples: cassava
cotton

17
o Compound leaf

Look carefuliy at the drawing of a groundnut leaf.

What it shows is not four groundnut leaves.
It is a single leaf.

But this leaf is made up of

a midrib bearing
four little leaves.
These little leaves are called leaflets.
The midrib of a compound leaf is not a stem.
50 there is never a bud between the midrib and
the leaf lets.

Primary
veins

A groundnut leaf

38
 hat are leaves for?

To live, a rl-,an fee&

and breathes.
To live, a plant also feeds
and breathes.

THE PLANT FEEDS

The plant takes up food from the soil

through its roots.
It takes water and mineral salts from the soil
(see Booklet No. 1, page 17).
But it has to change the water and mineral salts.

,A baby drinks only milk.

Its hair grows
and so do its arms and IeGs.
It becomes strong and heavy.
The baby has changed
the milk in its stomach
into hair, fat, muscles., etc.

The leaf changes the water and mineral salts

taken from the soil by the roots.
Water and mineral salts make up the raw sap
(see Booklet No. 1, page 59, and Booklet No. 2,
page 21).

The leaf changes the raw sap into elaborated sap.

The leaf sends the elaborated sap into the buds,

flowers, fruits, stem and roots.

The elaborated sap feeds the whole plant.

e The leaf changes the raw sap
into elaborated sap.

The elaborated sap FEEDS: -!

Elaborated sap

Buds

Change Flowers

Raw sap
-4 8
vFruits

Leaves

and *
mineral salts
 HOW THE LEAF CHANGES RAW SAP
INTO ELABORATED SAP

o The leaf feeds the plant.

It receives the raw sap;
it changes the raw sap into elaborated sap.
This change is called
plant material synthesis.

What is plant material synthesis?

Heaps of sand, wood and bricks
are not a house.
To build a house
you have to put them together.
You join them with cement.
The cement c%nges the wood, sand and bricks
into a house.
Water and mineral salts
cannot feed the plant.
They have to be put together,
they have’to be joined.
How are water and mineral salts joined together?
a The leaves live in the air.
The air contains carbon dioxide gas.
The carbon dioxide gas
is made of oxygen and carbon.
The leaf keeps the carbon
and gives off oxygen.
a The carbon joins the mineral salts and the water.
The mineral salts and water
are changed into elaborated sap.
The elaborated sap can then feed the plant.

The carbon changes

the raw sap into elaborated sap.
This is plant material synthesis.

21
To join sand, wood and bricks with cement
requires wotk..
You can’t have a house
without men’s work, men’s energy.
To join water and mineral salts with carbon
also requires work ayd ehergy.

Light gives the leaf this energy.

Light enables the leaf
to change raw sap into elaborated sap.
At night there is no light,
and rhe raw sap is not changed.
 BRGMIIC MATTER IN THE PLANT

The plant gets water and mineral salts

from the soil.
This is inorganic matter.
This inorganic matter is changed
by light and carbon
and becomes elaborated sap.
The elaborated sap feeds the plant.
Just as blood enables a man
to make his muscles, hair, bones, I’
so elaborated sap enables a plant
to make leaves, wood, fruits.
The leaves, the wood, the fruits
are organic matter.

Inorganic matter has become orgamc matter.

The plant breathes.

To iive,
a man feeds and breathes.
To live,
a plant also feeds and breathes.
A plant breathes through its leaves.

The plant transpires.

When it is hot,
a man sweats, he transpires.
A plant also transpires.
The water in the sap evaporates,
the leaf gets dry.
The plant is thirsty.

23
The plant needs air and light
If a plant is not in the light,
it does not grow well.
Light dczs not come through the leaves
of a dense mango tree,
and almost nothing grows under it.
Grass needs light to grow.

Plants get most gosh from air and light:

if you pull out weeds;
if you prune trees such as coffee, cocoa.
if you grow crops on fairly high ridges,
as with groundnuts, cotton, salad plants,
if you make stems climb on sticks or branches,
for instance, cowpeas,
tomatoes,
yams.
With good air circulation,
there is less disease.
Well ventilated plants
resist disease better.

The iam climbs and the

air circulates freely.
Yam trails on the ground.
Air does not circulate.

Groundnuts on ridges
Groundnuts not earthed up.
Air does not circulate freely.

. Unpruned
coffee tree.
freely.
The plant needs water
When there is not enough rain,
the roots cannot find water,
the leaves wilt,
the plant grows badly.
If there is a great lack of water,
the harvest is very poor.
The plant feeds badly.
It does not produce many fruits or seeds.
It may die.

You understand now why you have to give the plant water.
When there is enough water, the plant grows well;
it produces plenty of seeds or fruits.

The plant has plenty of water. The plant /larzks water.

It grows well. The leaves wilt.
The plant grows badly.

26
Young plants do not have many roots.
They cannot seek out water that lies very deep.
They wilt quickly if they are left in the sun.
Seedlings must be protected by covering them,
for instance, with branches.
Seedlings must be well watered.

The plant needs its leaves

tf a plant has many big leaves,
the harvest will be good.
If a plant has few, small leaves,
the harvest wi II be less good.

Plants sown at the best density

(see Booklet No. 1, page 26)
will have the best leaves.
The roots will find enough food,
and the leaves will change this food into organic matter,
and the harvest will be good.

When plants of cotton or maize

are too close together,
the surplus plants are removed.

27
 Some insects eat leaves and buds.
Young leaves are eaten first,
because they are not hard.

When the insects are born,

the plants should already be strong.
The leaves, being harder,
will be less attacked.
Plants sown at the right time
will be strong
when the insects appear.

o Insects and diseases can be destroyed.

You should pull out diseased plants.

Let them dry.
Burn them.
Insects and diseases are killed by fire.

Certain seeds produce strong plants.

These strong plants
resist diseases and insects better
Sow seeds
which resist diseases and insects.

28
To kill insects or to prevent diseases,
pesticides can be used.
These pesticides are poisons.
You cover the leaves with them and the insects are killed.
Often you need a sprayer,
so that the pesticide covers
the whole plant;

These pesticides can be dangerous

to men and animals.
You have to be very careful.

You must use exactly the quantity written on the containers,

no more and no less.

I) Animals also eat leaves.

Leaves and plants must also be protected against animals,

such as goats, cows, agoutis, monkeys.

Put fences round the fields,

keep a watch on cows and goats;
put them in a paddock.
 SUGGE§%

FILL IN THE MISSING WORDS

The stem

The part of the plant that lives in the air is called __________________________
It bears ________________________________________________--------------
flowers and fruits.

The leaves

Leaves change the _________________________________

sap into ____________________
sap.
Leaves take ________________________________________--------------------------
from the air.
Carbon joins the ----_---_______________________I
and the water of the raw sap.
The raw sap --_____ elaborated sap, and it can then ---___---- the plant.

A good farmer protects his plants. He destroys the ____________________________

which attack crops.
He does not leave ______I____________________I____________----------
- _________
at Liberty.
,‘..,limals at liberty ____.___I____________L
leaves; they ______.__________________
crops.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

How is a groundnut stem made?

How is a cotton stem made?
What is the stem for?
What can you do so that a plant gets the most good from the air
and light?
Where are the buds7
Explain to a friend what leaves are for.
What is elaborated sap?
What can you do to protect your plants from insects and animals?

30
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Ltda.. Apartado 2681. Rua do Carmo 70-74. Lisbon - 2
Rep. Dominicana Fundacitin Dominicana de Desarrollo. Casa de las Gdrgolas. Mercedes 4 Santo Domingo.
Roumanie Ilexim. Calea Gr:vltel No 64-66. P 0. BOA 2001, Bucharest.
Saudi Arabia Khazindar Establishment. King Faysal Street, Riyadh.
Singapore MPH Distributors Sdn. 8hd.. 71/77 Stamford Road, Singapore 6.
Somalia ” Samater’s “. P.0 BOX 936 * Mooadishu.
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Sri Lanka M.D. Gunasena and Co Ltd.. ?17 Norris Road, Colombo 11.
Suissa Librairie Payoi S A, Lausanne et GenBve: Hans Raunhardt. Kirchgasse 17. Zurich 1.
Sweden CE Frltzes Kungl Hovbokhandel. Fredsgatan 2. 103 27 Stockholm 16.
Tanzania Dar es Salaam Bookshop. PO. Box 9030. Dar es Salaam.
Thailand Suksapan Panit. Mansion 9. Rajadamnern Avenue, Bangkok.
Togo Librairie du Bon Pasteur, B.P. 1164. LomB.
Turkey Gliven Kitabevi Miidafaa Cad. Gijven Building 12/S. Ankara.
United Kingdom Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. 49 High Holborn. London, W.C.1; P.O. Box 569. London.
SE.1 (trade and London area mail orders); 13a Castle Street. Edinburgh EH2 3AR:
109 St. Mary Street, Cardift CF1 IJW; 7 Linenhall Street. l3elfast BT2 8AY; Brazennose
Street. Manchester M60 8AS; 258 Broad Street. Birmingham 1: Southey House.
Wine Street, Bristol BSl 26’0.
United States UNIPUB. 650 First Avenue, P.0 Box 433. Murray Hill Station, New York. N.Y. 10016.
of America
IJruguay Juan Angel Peri. Alzaibar 1328. Casilla de Correos 1755. Montevideo.
~lenezusla Blume Distribuidora S.A , Calle 3. N’ 508. Ouinta Palmera Sola. Campo Alegre. Chacao.
Caracas.
Yugoslavia lugoslovenska Knllga. Terazije 27/t 1, Belgrade; Cankarjeva Zalozba. PC. Box 201.IV.
Ljubljana.
Other countries Requests from countries where sales agents have not yet been appointed may be
sent to: Distl,ibution and Sales Sectlon. Food snd Agriculture Organization of the
‘Jnited Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla. 00100 Rome, Italy.
Autrss p8ys Les commandes ou !es demandes de renseignements Bmanant de pays pour lesquels
des agents ou des ddpositaires n’ont pas encore BtB design& peuvent Btre adressees
a: Section distribution et ventes. Organlsation des Nations Unies pour I’alimeotetion
et I’agriculture. Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italic.
Los pedidos procedentes de paises en donde atin no han sido designados agentes
distribuidores. pcceden hacerse directamente a la Seccidn de Distribucidn y Venta,
FAO. Via delle Terme dl Caracalla. 00100 Roma. Italic.

P-89
ISBN 92-5-100141-3