Real options analysis

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In finance, real options analysis or ROA (not to be confused with return on assets)
applies put option and call option valuation techniques to capital budgeting decisions. [1]
A real option itself, is the right — but not the obligation — to undertake some business
decision; typically the option to make, abandon, expand, or shrink a capital investment.
For example, the opportunity to invest in the expansion of a firm's factory, or
alternatively to sell the factory, is a real option.

ROA, as a discipline, extends from its application in Corporate Finance, to decision

making under uncertainty in general, adapting the mathematical techniques developed for
financial options to "real-life" decisions. For example, R&D managers can use Real
Options Analysis to help them determine where to best invest their money in research; a
non business example might be the decision to join the work force, or rather, to forgo
several years of income and to attend graduate school. Thus, in that it forces decision
makers to be explicit about the assumptions underlying their projections, ROA is
increasingly employed as a tool in business strategy formulation.[2]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Comparison with standard techniques

• 2 Valuation
o 2.1 Valuation inputs
o 2.2 Valuation methods
o 2.3 Technical considerations
• 3 History
• 4 See also
• 5 References
o 5.1 Notes
o 5.2 Bibliography
• 6 External links
o 6.1 Theory

o 6.2 Applications

[edit] Comparison with standard techniques

ROA is often contrasted with more standard techniques of capital budgeting, such as
DCF analysis / net present value (NPV). [1]
Using a DCF model, only the most likely or representative outcomes are modelled, and
the "flexibility" available to management is thus "ignored"; see Valuing flexibility under
Corporate finance. The NPV framework therefore (implicitly) assumes that management
will be "passive" as regards their Capital Investment once committed. Analysts usually
account for this uncertainty by adjusting the discount rate, (e.g. by increasing the cost of
capital) or the cash flows (using certainty equivalents, or applying (subjective) "haircuts"
to the forecast numbers). These methods normally do not properly account for changes in
risk over a project's lifecycle and fail to appropriately adapt the risk adjustment.

By contrast, ROA assumes that management will be "active" and may / can modify the
project as necessary. ROA models therefore consider "all" future outcomes, and
management's response to these. Because management responds to each outcome - i.e.
the options are exercised - the possibility of a (large) negative outcome is reduced (or
even eliminated), and /or greater profit is achieved. Risk is therefore "eliminated" under
ROA, and uncertainty is then accounted for using the techniques applied to financial
options. Here the approach is to risk-adjust the probabilities - as opposed to the discount
rate or cash flows, as for NPV - and the cash flows can then be discounted at the risk-free
rate. This technique is known as the equivalent martingale approach, and uses a Risk-
neutral measure. For technical considerations here, see below.

Given these different treatments of flexibility, the real options value of a project is always
higher than the NPV - the difference is most marked in projects with major uncertainty
(as for financial options higher volatility of the underlying leads to higher value). Note
however, that since ROA attempts to predict the future, the quality of the output will only
ever be as good as the quality of the inputs, which by their nature are sketchy. This
comment also applies to net present value analysis, although NPV does not require
volatility information (see below). Opinion is thus divided as to whether Real Options
Analysis provides genuinely useful information to real-world practitioners. ROA is
therefore increasingly used as a discussion framework, as opposed to as a valuation or
modelling technique.

[edit] Valuation
Extending the above it is clear that, in overview at least, the analysis and modelling of
real options and financial options are the same: [3] [4]

First, you must figure out the full range of possible values for the underlying
“ asset.... This involves estimating what the asset's value would be if it existed
today and forecasting to see the full set of possible future values... [These]
calculations provide you with numbers for all the possible future values of
the option at the various points where a decision is needed on whether to
continue with the project... [3] ”
However, also as above, ROA is distinguished from other approaches in that it takes into
account uncertainty about the future evolution of the parameters that determine the value
of the project, and management's ability to respond to the evolution of these parameters.[5]
[6]
It is the combined effect of these that makes ROA technically more difficult than its
alternatives. When valuing the real option, therefore, the analyst must consider the inputs
to the valuation, the valuation method employed, and whether any technical limitations
may apply.

[edit] Valuation inputs

Given the similarity in valuation approach, the inputs required for modelling the real
option correspond, generically, to those required for a financial option valuation.[4] [3] The
specific application, though, is as follows:

• The option's underlying is the project in question - it is modelled in terms of:

o spot price: the starting or current value of the project is required: this is
usually based on management's best guess as to NPV;
o volatility: uncertainty as to the change in value over time is required:
 the volatility in project NPV is generally used, usually derived via
monte carlo simulation; sometimes the volatility of the first
period's cash flows are preferred[6];
 project NPV is often difficult to estimate, and some analysts
therefore substitute a listed security as a proxy, using either the
volatility of the price of the security (historical volatility), or, if
options exist on this security, their implied volatility.

See further under Corporate finance for a discussion relating to the estimation of
NPV and project volatility.

• Option characteristics:
o Strike price: this usually corresponds to sunk costs. In general,
management would proceed (i.e. the option would be in the money) given
that the present value of expected cash flows exceeds this amount;
o Option term: the time during which management may decide to act, or not
act, corresponds to the life of the option. Examples include the time to
expiry of a patent, or of the mineral rights for a new mine. See Option
time value.

• Option style. Management's ability to respond to changes in value is modeled at

each decision point as a series of options:
o the option to contract the project (an American styled put option);
o the option to abandon the project (also an American put);
o the option to expand or extend the project (both American styled call
options);
o switching options, composite options or rainbow options which may also
apply to the project.

[edit] Valuation methods

The valuation methods usually employed, likewise, are adapted from techniques
developed for valuing financial options. Note though that, in general, while most "real"
problems allow for American style exercise at any point (many points) in the project's life
and are impacted by multiple underlying variables, the standard methods are limited
either as regards dimensionality, or as regards early exercise, or both. In selecting a
model, therefore, analysts must make a trade off between these considerations; see
Option (finance): Model implementation.

• The most commonly employed are Closed form solutions - often modifications to
Black Scholes - and binomial lattices; [6] the latter are probably more widely used
due to their flexibility, particularly given that most real options are American
styled, although cannot readily handle high dimensional problems.
• Specialised Monte Carlo Methods have also been developed and are increasingly
applied particularly to high dimensional problems, [7] although for American
styled real options this application is somewhat more complex.
• When the Real Option can be modelled using a partial differential equation, then
Finite difference methods for option pricing are sometimes applied. Although
many of the early ROA articles discussed this method,[8] its use is relatively
uncommon today - particularly amongst practitioners - due to the required
mathematical sophistication; these too cannot readily be used for high
dimensional problems.

Additional considerations include the fact that the stochastic nature of such projections
can sometimes make analysis using the Monte Carlo method infeasible, necessitating
other investigatory methods, such as Robinson differentials. Other new methods have
thus recently been introduced to simplify the calculation of the real option value and
make the numerical use of the methods easier for practitioners; these include the Datar-
Mathews method (2004,2007) and the Fuzzy Pay-Off Method for Real Option Valuation
(2008).

[edit] Technical considerations

Limitations as to the use of these models arise due to the contrast between Real Options
and financial options, for which these were originally developed.

The main difference is that the underlying is often not tradeable - e.g. the factory owner
cannot easily sell the factory upon which he has the option. As above, this results in
difficulties as to estimating the value (i.e. spot price) and volatility of the underlying
which are key valuation inputs - this is further complicated by uncertainty as to
management's actions in the future. Further, and relatedly, difficulties arise in applying
the rational pricing assumptions which underpin these option models: often the
"replicating portfolio approach", as opposed to Risk neutral valuation, must be applied.

Additional difficulties include the fact that the real option itself is also not tradeable —
e.g. the factory owner cannot sell the right to extend his factory to another party, only he
can make this decision; however, some real options can be sold, e.g., ownership of a
vacant lot of land is a real option to develop that land in the future. Some real options are
proprietary (owned or exercisable by a single individual or a company); others are shared
(can be exercised by many parties). Therefore, a project may have a portfolio of
embedded real options; some of them can be mutually exclusive. In all cases though,
there is limited (or no) market liquidity, and the assumptions regarding hedging as
required for the valuation, are often (usually) not realistic. Additionally, the valuation
obtained is largely unverifiable.

[edit] History
Whereas business operators have been making capital investment decisions for centuries,
the term "real option" is relatively new, and was coined by Professor Stewart Myers at
the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1977. It is interesting to note though, that in
1930, Irving Fisher wrote explicitly of the "options" available to a business owner (The
Theory of Interest, II.VIII). The description of such opportunities as "real options",
however, followed on the development of analytical techniques for financial options,
such as Black–Scholes in 1973. As such, the term "real option" itself is closely tied to
these new methods.

Real options are today an active field of academic research. Professor Eduardo Schwartz
(UCLA) was a pioneering academic in the field. Professor Lenos Trigeorgis (University
of Cyprus) has been a leading name for many years, publishing several influential books
and academic articles. An academic conference on real options is organized yearly
(Annual International Conference on Real Options).

Amongst others, the concept was "popularized" by Michael J. Mauboussin, the chief U.S.
investment strategist for Credit Suisse First Boston and an adjunct professor of finance at
the Columbia Business School.[9] Mauboussin uses real options in part to explain the gap
between how the stock market prices some businesses and the "intrinsic value" for those
businesses as calculated by traditional financial analysis, specifically using discounted
cash flows. Trigeorgis also has broadened exposure to real options through layman
articles in publications such as The Wall Street Journal.[10] This popularization is such
that ROA is now a standard offering in postgraduate finance degrees, and often, even in
MBA curricula at many Business Schools.

Recently, real options have been employed in business strategy, both for numerical-
valuation purposes and as a conceptual framework. The idea of treating strategic
investments as options was conceived by Timothy Luehrman [11] in two HBR articles:[4]
"In financial terms, a business strategy is much more like a series of options, than a series
of static cash flows". Using Luehrman's framework, investment opportunities are plotted
in an "option space" with dimensions "volatility" & value-to-cost ("NPVq"). The higher
either of these, the greater the option value inherent in the investment.

[edit] See also

 • Option
• Black-Scholes
• Financial modeling
• Fuzzy Pay-Off Method for Real Option Valuation

[edit] References
[edit] Notes

1. ^ a b Campbell, R. Harvey. "Identifying real options" , Duke University, 2002.

2. ^ See, for example, Justin Pettit: Applications in Real Options and Value-based
Strategy; Ch.4. in Trigeorgis (1996)
3. ^ a b c Copeland, T. and Tufano. P. (2004). A Real-World Way to Manage Real
Options. Harvard Business Review. 82, no. 3.
4. ^ a b c Timothy Luehrman: "Investment Opportunities as Real Options: Getting
Started on the Numbers". Harvard Business Review 76, no. 4 (July - August
1998): 51-67.; "Strategy as a Portfolio of Real Options". Harvard Business
Review 76, no. 5 (September-October 1998): 87-99.
5. ^ Jenifer Piesse and Alexander Van de Putte: Volatility estimation in Real
Options
6. ^ a b c Aswath Damodaran: The Promise and Peril of Real Options
7. ^ Marco Dias. Real Options with Monte Carlo Simulation
8. ^ Brennan, J. and Schwartz, E. (1985). Evaluating Natural Resource Investments.
The Journal of Business, Vol. 58, No. 2. (Apr., 1985), pp. 135-157.
9. ^ Michael J. Mauboussin, Credit Suisse First Boston, 1999. Get Real: Using Real
Options in Security Analysis
10. ^ http://sloanreview.mit.edu/business-insight/articles/2007/4/49410/stay-loose/
11. ^ valuebasedmanagement.net

[edit] Bibliography

• Amram, Martha; Kulatilaka,Nalin (1999). Real Options: Managing Strategic

Investment in an Uncertain World. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
ISBN 0-87584-845-1.
• Copeland, Thomas E.; Vladimir Antikarov (2001). Real Options: A Practitioner's
Guide. New York: Texere. ISBN 1-587-99028-8.
• Dixit, A.; R. Pindyck (1994). Investment Under Uncertainty. Princeton: Princeton
University Press. ISBN 0-691-03410-9.
• Moore, William T. (2001). Real Options and Option-embedded Securities. New
York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-21659-3.
• Müller, Jürgen (2000). Real Option Valuation in Service Industries. Wiesbaden:
Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag. ISBN 3-824-47138-8.
• Smit, T.J.; Trigeorgis, Lenos (2004). Strategic Investment: Real Options and
Games. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01039-0.
• Trigeorgis, Lenos (1996). Real Options: Managerial Flexibility and Strategy in
Resource Allocation. Cambridge: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-20102-X.
[edit] External links
[edit] Theory

• Identifying real options, Prof. Campbell, R. Harvey. Duke University, Fuqua

School of Business
• How Do You Assess The Value of A Company's "Real Options"?, Prof. Alfred
Rappaport Columbia University and Michael Mauboussin
• Real Options Tutorial, Prof. Marco Dias, PUC-Rio
• The Promise and Peril of Real Options, Prof. Aswath Damodaran, Stern School of
Business
• Game to learn about Real Options

[edit] Applications

• Applications of option pricing theory to equity valuation, Prof. Aswath

Damodaran, Stern School of Business
• Valuing Alternative Market Entry Strategies as “Real-Options”, Prof. Daryl G.
Waldron Trinity_University_(Texas)
• Real options in public infrastructures, course materials, Prof. Richard de
Neufville, MIT
• Strategic Technology Investment Decisions in Research & Development David
Lackner MIT Lean Advancement Initiative
• Patent Damages and Real Options: How Judicial Characterization of Non-
Infringing Alternatives Reduces Incentives to Innovate Hausman, Jerry A.,
Leonard, Gregory K. and Sidak, J. Gregory
• Establishing Licensing Rates Through Options Fernando Torres MSc