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Corporate finance
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Corporate finance

Working capital
Cash conversion cycle
Return on capital
Economic value added
Just in time
Economic order quantity
Discounts and allowances
Factoring (finance)

Capital budgeting
Capital investment decisions
The investment decision
The financing decision

Sections
Managerial finance
Financial accounting
Management accounting
Mergers and acquisitions
Balance sheet analysis
Business plan
Corporate action

Finance series
 Financial market
Financial market participants
Corporate finance
Personal finance
Public finance
Banks and Banking
Financial regulation

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Domestic credit to private sector in 2005

Corporate finance[1] is an area of finance dealing with financial decisions business
enterprises make and the tools and analysis used to make these decisions. The primary goal of
corporate finance is to maximize corporate value [2] while managing the firm's financial risks.
Although it is in principle different from managerial finance which studies the financial
decisions of all firms, rather than corporations alone, the main concepts in the study of
corporate finance are applicable to the financial problems of all kinds of firms.
The discipline can be divided into long-term and short-term decisions and techniques. Capital
investment decisions are long-term choices about which projects receive investment, whether
to finance that investment with equity or debt, and when or whether to pay dividends to
shareholders. On the other hand, the short term decisions can be grouped under the heading
"Working capital management". This subject deals with the short-term balance of current
assets and current liabilities; the focus here is on managing cash, inventories, and short-term
borrowing and lending (such as the terms on credit extended to customers).
The terms corporate finance and corporate financier are also associated with investment
banking. The typical role of an investment bank is to evaluate the company's financial needs
and raise the appropriate type of capital that best fits those needs.
(In the UK, the terms “corporate finance” and “corporate financier” tend to be associated
with transactions in which capital is raised in order to create, develop, grow or acquire
businesses.)

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Capital investment decisions
○ 1.1 The investment decision
 1.1.1 Project valuation
 1.1.2 Valuing flexibility
 1.1.3 Quantifying uncertainty
○ 1.2 The financing decision
○ 1.3 The dividend decision
 • 2 Working capital management
○ 2.1 Decision criteria
○ 2.2 Management of working capital
• 3 Financial risk management
• 4 Relationship with other areas in finance
○ 4.1 Investment banking
○ 4.2 Personal and public finance
• 5 Related professional qualifications
• 6 References
• 7 See also

[edit] Capital investment decisions

Capital investment decisions [3] are long-term corporate finance decisions relating to fixed
assets and capital structure. Decisions are based on several inter-related criteria. (1) Corporate
management seeks to maximize the value of the firm by investing in projects which yield a
positive net present value when valued using an appropriate discount rate. (2) These projects
must also be financed appropriately. (3) If no such opportunities exist, maximizing
shareholder value dictates that management must return excess cash to shareholders (i.e.,
distribution via dividends). Capital investment decisions thus comprise an investment
decision, a financing decision, and a dividend decision.
[edit] The investment decision
Main article: Capital budgeting
Management must allocate limited resources between competing opportunities (projects) in a
process known as capital budgeting [4]. Making this capital allocation decision requires
estimating the value of each opportunity or project, which is a function of the size, timing and
predictability of future cash flows.
[edit] Project valuation
Further information: Business valuation, stock valuation, and fundamental analysis
In general [5], each project's value will be estimated using a discounted cash flow (DCF)
valuation, and the opportunity with the highest value, as measured by the resultant net present
value (NPV) will be selected (applied to Corporate Finance by Joel Dean in 1951; see also
Fisher separation theorem, John Burr Williams: theory). This requires estimating the size and
timing of all of the incremental cash flows resulting from the project. Such future cash flows
are then discounted to determine their present value (see Time value of money). These
present values are then summed, and this sum net of the initial investment outlay is the NPV.
See Financial modeling.
The NPV is greatly affected by the discount rate. Thus, identifying the proper discount rate -
often termed, the project "hurdle rate" [6] - is critical to making an appropriate decision. The
hurdle rate is the minimum acceptable return on an investment—i.e. the project appropriate
discount rate. The hurdle rate should reflect the riskiness of the investment, typically
measured by volatility of cash flows, and must take into account the financing mix. Managers
use models such as the CAPM or the APT to estimate a discount rate appropriate for a
particular project, and use the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) to reflect the
financing mix selected. (A common error in choosing a discount rate for a project is to apply
a WACC that applies to the entire firm. Such an approach may not be appropriate where the
risk of a particular project differs markedly from that of the firm's existing portfolio of
assets.)
In conjunction with NPV, there are several other measures used as (secondary) selection
criteria in corporate finance. These are visible from the DCF and include discounted payback
period, IRR, Modified IRR, equivalent annuity, capital efficiency, and ROI. Alternatives
(complements) to NPV include MVA / EVA (Stern Stewart & Co) and APV (Stewart
Myers). See list of valuation topics.
[edit] Valuing flexibility
Main articles: Real options analysis and decision tree
In many cases, for example R&D projects, a project may open (or close) paths of action to
the company, but this reality will not typically be captured in a strict NPV approach.[7]
Management will therefore (sometimes) employ tools which place an explicit value on these
options. So, whereas in a DCF valuation the most likely or average or scenario specific cash
flows are discounted, here the “flexibile and staged nature” of the investment is modelled,
and hence "all" potential payoffs are considered. The difference between the two valuations is
the "value of flexibility" inherent in the project.
The two most common tools are Decision Tree Analysis (DTA) [8] [9] and Real options
analysis (ROA) [10]; they may often be used interchangeably:
• DTA values flexibility by incorporating possible events (or states) and consequent
management decisions. (For example, a company would build a factory given that
demand for its product exceeded a certain level during the pilot-phase, and outsource
production otherwise. In turn, given further demand, it would similarly expand the
factory, and maintain it otherwise. In a DCF model, by contrast, there is no
"branching" - each scenario must be modelled separately.) In the decision tree, each
management decision in response to an "event" generates a "branch" or "path" which
the company could follow; the probabilities of each event are determined or specified
by management. Once the tree is constructed: (1) "all" possible events and their
resultant paths are visible to management; (2) given this “knowledge” of the events
that could follow, and assuming rational decision making, management chooses the
actions corresponding to the highest value path probability weighted; (3) this path is
then taken as representative of project value. See Decision theory: Choice under
uncertainty.
• ROA is usually used when the value of a project is contingent on the value of some
other asset or underlying variable. (For example, the viability of a mining project is
contingent on the price of gold; if the price is too low, management will abandon the
mining rights, if sufficiently high, management will develop the ore body. Again, a
DCF valuation would capture only one of these outcomes.) Here: (1) using financial
option theory as a framework, the decision to be taken is identified as corresponding
to either a call option or a put option; (2) an appropriate valuation technique is then
employed - usually a variant on the Binomial options model or a bespoke simulation
model, while Black Scholes type formulae are used less often; see Contingent claim
valuation. (3) The "true" value of the project is then the NPV of the "most likely"
scenario plus the option value. (Real options in corporate finance were first discussed
by Stewart Myers in 1977; viewing corporate strategy as a series of options was
originally per Timothy Luehrman, in the late 1990s.)
[edit] Quantifying uncertainty
Further information: Sensitivity analysis, Scenario planning, and Monte Carlo methods in
finance
Given the uncertainty inherent in project forecasting and valuation,[11] [9] analysts will wish to
assess the sensitivity of project NPV to the various inputs (i.e. assumptions) to the DCF
model. In a typical sensitivity analysis the analyst will vary one key factor while holding all
other inputs constant, ceteris paribus. The sensitivity of NPV to a change in that factor is then
observed, and is calculated as a "slope": ΔNPV / Δfactor. For example, the analyst will
determine NPV at various growth rates in annual revenue as specified (usually at set
increments, e.g. -10%, -5%, 0%, 5%....), and then determine the sensitivity using this
formula. Often, several variables may be of interest, and their various combinations produce a
"value-surface" (or even a "value-space"), where NPV is then a function of several variables.
See also Stress testing.
Using a related technique, analysts also run scenario based forecasts of NPV. Here, a scenario
comprises a particular outcome for economy-wide, "global" factors (demand for the product,
exchange rates, commodity prices, etc...) as well as for company-specific factors (unit costs,
etc...). As an example, the analyst may specify various revenue growth scenarios (e.g. 5% for
"Worst Case", 10% for "Likely Case" and 25% for "Best Case"), where all key inputs are
adjusted so as to be consistent with the growth assumptions, and calculate the NPV for each.
Note that for scenario based analysis, the various combinations of inputs must be internally
consistent, whereas for the sensitivity approach these need not be so. An application of this
methodology is to determine an "unbiased" NPV, where management determines a
(subjective) probability for each scenario – the NPV for the project is then the probability-
weighted average of the various scenarios.
A further advancement is to construct stochastic or probabilistic financial models – as
opposed to the traditional static and deterministic models as above. For this purpose, the most
common method is to use Monte Carlo simulation to analyze the project’s NPV. This method
was introduced to finance by David B. Hertz in 1964, although has only recently become
common: today analysts are even able to run simulations in spreadsheet based DCF models,
typically using an add-in, such as Crystal Ball. Here, the cash flow components that are
(heavily) impacted by uncertainty are simulated, mathematically reflecting their "random
characteristics". In contrast to the scenario approach above, the simulation produces several
thousand random but possible outcomes, or "trials"; see Monte Carlo Simulation versus
“What If” Scenarios. The output is then a histogram of project NPV, and the average NPV of
the potential investment – as well as its volatility and other sensitivities – is then observed.
This histogram provides information not visible from the static DCF: for example, it allows
for an estimate of the probability that a project has a net present value greater than zero (or
any other value).
Continuing the above example: instead of assigning three discrete values to revenue growth,
and to the other relevant variables, the analyst would assign an appropriate probability
distribution to each variable (commonly triangular or beta), and, where possible, specify the
observed or supposed correlation between the variables. These distributions would then be
"sampled" repeatedly - incorporating this correlation - so as to generate several thousand
scenarios, with corresponding valuations, which are then used to generate the NPV
histogram. The resultant statistics (average NPV and standard deviation of NPV) will be a
more accurate mirror of the project's "randomness" than the variance observed under the
scenario based approach. (These are often used as estimates of the underlying "spot price"
and volatility for the real option valuation as above; see Real options analysis: Model inputs.)
[edit] The financing decision
Main article: Capital structure
Achieving the goals of corporate finance requires that any corporate investment be financed
appropriately [12] . As above, since both hurdle rate and cash flows (and hence the riskiness of
the firm) will be affected, the financing mix can impact the valuation. Management must
therefore identify the "optimal mix" of financing—the capital structure that results in
maximum value. (See Balance sheet, WACC, Fisher separation theorem; but, see also the
Modigliani-Miller theorem.)
The sources of financing will, generically, comprise some combination of debt and equity
financing. Financing a project through debt results in a liability or obligation that must be
serviced, thus entailing cash flow implications independent of the project's degree of success.
Equity financing is less risky with respect to cash flow commitments, but results in a dilution
of ownership, control and earnings. The cost of equity is also typically higher than the cost of
debt (see CAPM and WACC), and so equity financing may result in an increased hurdle rate
which may offset any reduction in cash flow risk.
Management must also attempt to match the financing mix to the asset being financed as
closely as possible, in terms of both timing and cash flows.
One of the main theories of how firms make their financing decisions is the Pecking Order
Theory, which suggests that firms avoid external financing while they have internal financing
available and avoid new equity financing while they can engage in new debt financing at
reasonably low interest rates. Another major theory is the Trade-Off Theory in which firms
are assumed to trade-off the tax benefits of debt with the bankruptcy costs of debt when
making their decisions. An emerging area in finance theory is right-financing whereby
investment banks and corporations can enhance investment return and company value over
time by determining the right investment objectives, policy framework, institutional structure,
source of financing (debt or equity) and expenditure framework within a given economy and
under given market conditions. One last theory about this decision is the Market timing
hypothesis which states that firms look for the cheaper type of financing regardless of their
current levels of internal resources, debt and equity.
[edit] The dividend decision
Main article: The Dividend Decision
Whether to issue dividends,[13] and what amount, is calculated mainly on the basis of the
company's unappropriated profit and its earning prospects for the coming year. If there are no
NPV positive opportunities, i.e. projects where returns exceed the hurdle rate, then
management must return excess cash to investors. These free cash flows comprise cash
remaining after all business expenses have been met.
This is the general case, however there are exceptions. For example, investors in a "Growth
stock", expect that the company will, almost by definition, retain earnings so as to fund
growth internally. In other cases, even though an opportunity is currently NPV negative,
management may consider “investment flexibility” / potential payoffs and decide to retain
cash flows; see above and Real options.
Management must also decide on the form of the dividend distribution, generally as cash
dividends or via a share buyback. Various factors may be taken into consideration: where
shareholders must pay tax on dividends, firms may elect to retain earnings or to perform a
stock buyback, in both cases increasing the value of shares outstanding. Alternatively, some
companies will pay "dividends" from stock rather than in cash; see Corporate action. Today,
it is generally accepted that dividend policy is value neutral (see Modigliani-Miller theorem).
[edit] Working capital management
Main article: Working capital
Decisions relating to working capital and short term financing are referred to as working
capital management[14]. These involve managing the relationship between a firm's short-term
assets and its short-term liabilities.
As above, the goal of Corporate Finance is the maximization of firm value. In the context of
long term, capital investment decisions, firm value is enhanced through appropriately
selecting and funding NPV positive investments. These investments, in turn, have
implications in terms of cash flow and cost of capital.
The goal of Working capital management is therefore to ensure that the firm is able to
operate, and that it has sufficient cash flow to service long term debt, and to satisfy both
maturing short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. In so doing, firm value is
enhanced when, and if, the return on capital exceeds the cost of capital; See Economic value
added (EVA).
[edit] Decision criteria
Working capital is the amount of capital which is readily available to an organization. That is,
working capital is the difference between resources in cash or readily convertible into cash
(Current Assets), and cash requirements (Current Liabilities). As a result, the decisions
relating to working capital are always current, i.e. short term, decisions.
In addition to time horizon, working capital decisions differ from capital investment
decisions in terms of discounting and profitability considerations; they are also "reversible" to
some extent. (Considerations as to Risk appetite and return targets remain identical, although
some constraints - such as those imposed by loan covenants - may be more relevant here).
Working capital management decisions are therefore not taken on the same basis as long term
decisions, and working capital management applies different criteria in decision making: the
main considerations are (1) cash flow / liquidity and (2) profitability / return on capital (of
which cash flow is probably the more important).
• The most widely used measure of cash flow is the net operating cycle, or cash
conversion cycle. This represents the time difference between cash payment for raw
materials and cash collection for sales. The cash conversion cycle indicates the firm's
ability to convert its resources into cash. Because this number effectively corresponds
to the time that the firm's cash is tied up in operations and unavailable for other
activities, management generally aims at a low net count. (Another measure is gross
operating cycle which is the same as net operating cycle except that it does not take
into account the creditors deferral period.)
• In this context, the most useful measure of profitability is Return on capital (ROC).
The result is shown as a percentage, determined by dividing relevant income for the
12 months by capital employed; Return on equity (ROE) shows this result for the
firm's shareholders. As above, firm value is enhanced when, and if, the return on
capital, exceeds the cost of capital. ROC measures are therefore useful as a
management tool, in that they link short-term policy with long-term decision making.
[edit] Management of working capital
Guided by the above criteria, management will use a combination of policies and techniques
for the management of working capital [15]. These policies aim at managing the current assets
(generally cash and cash equivalents, inventories and debtors) and the short term financing,
such that cash flows and returns are acceptable.
• Cash management. Identify the cash balance which allows for the business to meet
day to day expenses, but reduces cash holding costs.
• Inventory management. Identify the level of inventory which allows for
uninterrupted production but reduces the investment in raw materials - and minimizes
reordering costs - and hence increases cash flow; see Supply chain management; Just
In Time (JIT); Economic order quantity (EOQ); Economic production quantity
(EPQ).
 • Debtors management. Identify the appropriate credit policy, i.e. credit terms which
will attract customers, such that any impact on cash flows and the cash conversion
cycle will be offset by increased revenue and hence Return on Capital (or vice versa);
see Discounts and allowances.
• Short term financing. Identify the appropriate source of financing, given the cash
conversion cycle: the inventory is ideally financed by credit granted by the supplier;
however, it may be necessary to utilize a bank loan (or overdraft), or to "convert
debtors to cash" through "factoring".
[edit] Financial risk management
Main article: Financial risk management
Risk management [16] is the process of measuring risk and then developing and implementing
strategies to manage that risk. Financial risk management focuses on risks that can be
managed ("hedged") using traded financial instruments (typically changes in commodity
prices, interest rates, foreign exchange rates and stock prices). Financial risk management
will also play an important role in cash management.
This area is related to corporate finance in two ways. Firstly, firm exposure to business risk is
a direct result of previous Investment and Financing decisions. Secondly, both disciplines
share the goal of enhancing, or preserving, firm value. All[citation needed] large corporations have
risk management teams, and small firms practice informal, if not formal, risk management.
There is a fundamental debate on the value of "Risk Management" and shareholder value that
questions a shareholder's desire to optimize risk versus taking exposure to pure risk. The
debate links value of risk management in a market to the cost of bankruptcy in that market.
Derivatives are the instruments most[citation needed] commonly used in financial risk management.
Because unique derivative contracts tend to be costly to create and monitor, the most cost-
effective financial risk management methods usually involve derivatives that trade on well-
established financial markets or exchanges. These standard derivative instruments include
options, futures contracts, forward contracts, and swaps. More customized and second
generation derivatives known as exotics trade over the counter aka OTC.
See: Financial engineering; Financial risk; Default (finance); Credit risk; Interest rate
risk; Liquidity risk; Market risk; Operational risk; Volatility risk; Settlement risk;
Value at Risk;.
[edit] Relationship with other areas in finance
[edit] Investment banking
Use of the term “corporate finance” varies considerably across the world. In the United States
it is used, as above, to describe activities, decisions and techniques that deal with many
aspects of a company’s finances and capital. In the United Kingdom and Commonwealth
countries, the terms “corporate finance” and “corporate financier” tend to be associated with
investment banking - i.e. with transactions in which capital is raised for the corporation.[17]
These may include
• Raising seed, start-up, development or expansion capital
• Mergers, demergers, acquisitions or the sale of private companies
• Mergers, demergers and takeovers of public companies, including public-to-private
deals
• Management buy-out, buy-in or similar of companies, divisions or subsidiaries -
typically backed by private equity
 • Equity issues by companies, including the flotation of companies on a recognised
stock exchange in order to raise capital for development and/or to restructure
ownership
• Raising capital via the issue of other forms of equity, debt and related securities for
the refinancing and restructuring of businesses
• Financing joint ventures, project finance, infrastructure finance, public-private
partnerships and privatisations
• Secondary equity issues, whether by means of private placing or further issues on a
stock market, especially where linked to one of the transactions listed above.
• Raising debt and restructuring debt, especially when linked to the types of
transactions listed above
[edit] Personal and public finance
Corporate finance utilizes tools from almost all areas of finance. Some of the tools developed
by and for corporations have broad application to entities other than corporations, for
example, to partnerships, sole proprietorships, not-for-profit organizations, governments,
mutual funds, and personal wealth management. But in other cases their application is very
limited outside of the corporate finance arena. Because corporations deal in quantities of
money much greater than individuals, the analysis has developed into a discipline of its own.
It can be differentiated from personal finance and public finance.
[edit] Related professional qualifications
Qualifications related to the field include:
• Finance qualifications:
○ Degrees: Masters degree in Finance (MSF), Master of Financial Economics
○ Certifications: Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA), Corporate Finance
Qualification (CF), Certified International Investment Analyst (CIIA),
Association of Corporate Treasurers (ACT), Certified Market Analyst
(CMA/FAD) Dual Designation, Master Financial Manager (MFM), Master of
Finance & Control (MFC), Certified Treasury Professional (CTP), Association
for Financial Professionals, Certified Merger & Acquisition Advisor
(CM&AA)
• Business qualifications:
○ Degrees: Master of Business Administration (MBA), Master of Management
(MM), Master of Science in Management (MSM), Master of Commerce (M
Comm), Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)
○ Certification: Certified Business Manager (CBM), Certified MBA (CMBA)
• Accountancy qualifications:
○ Qualified accountant: Chartered Accountant (ACA, CA), Certified Public
Accountant (CPA), Chartered Certified Accountant(ACCA), Chartered
Management Accountant (CIMA)
○ Non-statutory qualifications: Chartered Cost Accountant (CCA Designation
from AAFM), Certified Management Accountant (CMA)
[edit] References
 1. ^ See Corporate Finance, Aswath Damodaran, New York University's Stern School
of Business
2. ^ See Corporate Finance: First Principles, Aswath Damodaran, New York
University's Stern School of Business
3. ^ The framework for this section is based on Notes by Aswath Damodaran at New
York University's Stern School of Business
4. ^ See Investment Decisions and Capital Budgeting, Prof. Campbell R. Harvey, The
Investment Decision of the Corporation, Prof. Don M. Chance
5. ^ See Valuation, Prof. Aswath Damodaran and Equity Valuation, Prof. Campbell R.
Harvey
6. ^ See for example Campbell R. Harvey's Hypertextual Finance Glossary or
investopedia.com
7. ^ See Real Options Analysis and the Assumptions of the NPV Rule, Tom Arnold &
Richard Shockley
8. ^ See Decision Tree Analysis, mindtools.com and Decision Tree Primer, Prof. Craig
W. Kirkwood Arizona State University
9. ^ a b See: Jae K. Shim and Joel G. Siegel. Schaum's outline of theory and problems of
financial management , Ch.9 "Capital Budgeting Under Risk".
10. ^ See Identifying real options Prof. Campbell R. Harvey, Applications of option
pricing theory to equity valuation Prof. Aswath Damodaran, How Do You Assess The
Value of A Company's "Real Options"?, Prof. Alfred Rappaport Columbia University
& Michael Mauboussin
11. ^ See Probabilistic Approaches: Scenario Analysis, Decision Trees and Simulations,
Prof. Aswath Damodaran
12. ^ See The Financing Decision of the Corporation, Prof. Don M. Chance, Capital
Structure, Prof. Aswath Damodaran
13. ^ See Dividend Policy, Prof. Aswath Damodaran
14. ^ See Working Capital Management, Studyfinance.com; Working Capital
Management, treasury.govt.nz
15. ^ See The 20 Principles of Financial Management, Prof. Don M. Chance, Louisiana
State University
16. ^ See Professional Risk Managers' International Association and Global Association
of Risk Professionals
17. ^ Beaney, Shaun, "Defining corporate finance in the UK", The Institute of Chartered
Accountants, April 2005
[edit] See also
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