A Manual For Pyrotechnic Design Development and Qualification

NASA Technical Memorandum 110172
A MANUAL FOR PYROTECHNIC

DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND
QUALIFICATION
Laurence J. Bement
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
Mony L. Schimmel
SchimmeI Company, St. Louis, Missouri
June 1995
National Aeronautics and

Space Administration
Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia 23681 -0001
N95-31358
(NASA-TM-110172)
A MANUAL FOR
P Y R O T E C H N I C D E S I G N , DEVELOPMENT AND
QUALIFICATION
(NASA,
Langley
Research C e n t e r )
82 p
Uncl a s
G3/18
0058498
FOREWORD
The authors wish to acknowledge the efforts of Mr. Norman R.

Schulze, Code Q, NASA Headquarters, who provided the impetus
and funding for this manual. Mr. Morry L. Schimmel, the
coauthor of this paper, had a distinguished career with
McDonnell Douglas until 1984 and provided consultantion to
Langley Research Center until his death in 1995. Mr. E. R.
Lake, Ray Lake Company, St. ~ o u i s ,Missouri, contributed to
Chapter 5, Initiation ~ystems/Initiators. This manual has
provided the text for a 2-day short course taught in
conjunction with the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics (AIM).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1
2
3
Page
.......................................
Pyrotechnics Definition. Considerations for
Applications .......................................
Pyrotechnic Functional Principles ..................
Introduction
1
2
5
Pyrotechnic. Propellant and Explosive Materials as

Energy Sources
..................................... 14
Initiation Systems/Initiators ...................... 17
pyrotechnic System Safety .......................... 25
Test Methods and Functional Performance
Functional Reliability
............
28
.............................
45
14
... 50
Generate Performance-Based Specifications .......... 52
Pyrotechnic Component Design and Development ....... 53
Qualification ...................................... 55
Pyrotechnic Shock .................................. 56
Failure Modes and Effects Analyses ................. 58
15
Installation. Integration and Checkout
16
Shelf and Service Life Evaluation
10
11
12
13
17
18
System Approach for Applications of Pyrotechnics
............. 59
.................. 61
................ 63
Disposal Methods ................................... 71
Conclusions/Recommendations ........................ 72
References ......................................... 73
List of Tables ..................................... iii
Past Experience and Lessons Learned
List of Illustrations
..............................iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
Major Past and Current Pyrotechnic ~pplicationsin

Aeronautics
IX
Energy Sensor Performance Data on Test Cartridges
......................................... 9
I1
Major Past and Current Pyrotechnic Applications in
Astronautics ........................................ 9
I11 properties of a Time-Delay Mix
(Formula for D-16, MIL-M-21383) ..................... 15
IV
Properties of a as-Generating Material
(Hercules Hi-Temp) .................................. 15
V
Properties of Boron/Potassium Nitrate (B/KN03) ...... 16
VI
Properties of NASA Standard Initiator (NSI) ~ i x..... 16
VII Properties of Lead Azide ............................ 16
VIII Properties of Hexanitrostilbene (HNS) ............... 16
... 33
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Page
Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

linear actuators, describing function.
...............
valves, describing function. .........................
5
6

separation nuts, describing function.
................
Cross sectional views of explosive and pyrotechnically

actuated separation bolts, describing function.

cutters or guillotines.
Cross sectional views of mild detonating cord (MDC)actuated severance and separation approaches.
........
Cross sectional views of flexible linear shaped charge

(FLSC) severance.
......
..............................
....................................
Cross sectional view A-A on right of F-111 crew module

severance system.
10
....................................
Functional depiction of Rotor Systems Research Aircraft
(RSRA) in-flight escape system. ...................... 10
iii
10. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on Project

Mercury.
........................................ 11
11. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on Project
Gemini. .............................................. 11
12. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on the Command
Module and escape system, Project Apollo. ............ 12
13. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on the Lunar
Excursion Module, Project Apollo. .................... 12
14. Shuttle Transportation System pyrotechnics. .......... 13
15. Cross sectional view of NASA Standard Initiator (NSI). 19
16. Views of commercial or military center-fire percussion
19
primers.
17. Cross
Delta
........................................
sectional view of separation plane initiator for
Launch Vehicle. ................................ 20
18. Cross sectional view of rigid explosive transfer line,

21
also called shielded mild detonating cord (SMDC).
19.
20.
21.
22.
....
Views of SMDC tip fragment dispersion. ............... 22
Gaps at which SMDC fragments initiated acceptors;
donors and acceptors identical. ...................... 23
Cross sectional view of manually operated, explosive
transfer safe/arm. ................................... 26
Closed bomb firing and monitoring system. ............ 29
23. Typical current versus bridgewire break function time

curves to evaluate electrical initiation
characteristics of cartridges.
.......................
29
24. Typical current versus first pressure indication

function time curves to evaluate electrical initiation
30
.......................
25. Typical pressures produced by cartridge firings in a

closed bomb.
........................................ 30
26. Cross sectional view of McDonnell Energy Output Test

Fixture.
............................................ 33
27. Cross sectional view of NASA LaRC Dynamic Test Device. 34

28. Typical pressure traces recorded and the energies
produced in firing cartridges in the Dynamic Test
Device.
29. Cross
........................................ 35
sectional view of NASA Pin Puller. ............. 36
30. Typical pressure traces recorded and the energies

produced in firing cartridges in the NASA Pin Puller.. 36
31. Cross sectional view of NASA LaRC Ignitability Test
Method bomb.
........................................ 38
32. Typical pressure traces produced by the M42C1 and M42C2

percussion primers in the NASA Ignitability Test Method,
using 200 mg of FFG black powder.
38
33.
.......
Percussion primer ignitability performance
definitions. ........................................ 39
34. Ignitability comparison of three ignition materials,

each ignited by the M42C1 and M42C2 percussion
primers.
............................................ 40
35. Schematic diagram of test fixture to monitor fragment

patterns and velocities from rigid explosive transfer
line end tips.
36.
37.
.......................................
Test fixture to evaluate the output of linear
explosives. ........................................
Lockheed Super*Zip separation joint tapered plate test
configuration. .......................................
41
43
43
38. Graphic representation of statistical design margin,

comparing normal distributions of energy required to
perform a function to energy supplied by a cartridge.. 46
39. Levels of pyrotechnic redundancy established by the
Apollo Program.
...................................... 47
40. Example of false redundancy in the use of explosive

crossovers.
41.
42.
43.
44.
........................................ 49
Depiction of the need for the pyrotechnic specialist
to meet both safety and reliability requirements. .... 49
Cross sectional view of Viking pin puller. ........... 64
Statistical presentation of functional margin for
redesigned HALOE pin puller. ......................... 65
ShuttleICentaur deployment system, using the Lockheed
Super*Zip separation ring. ........................... 67
45. Radial cross sectional views of three types of Super*Zip

separation joints, and the programs to which they were
67
applied.
...................................
46. Identification of a portion of the parameters

evaluated in the Super*Zip separation joint.
......... 68
47. Severance performance, comparing web thickness to

explosive load, of several configurations of the
Super*Zip separation joint.
..........................
69
Chapter 1.- INTRODUCTION

Although pyrotechnic devices have been singularly responsible
for the success of many of the critical mechanical functions
in aerospace programs for over 30 years, ground and in-flight
failures continue to occur. Subsequent investigations reveal
that little or no quantitative information is available on
measuring
the effects on performance of system variables or
.
on determining functional margins. The three following
examples amplify these points. A pin puller design, that was
used for the successful deployment of an antenna on the
surface of Mars in 1976 in the Vikinq Lander Program, failed
to function in a second application in 1986 and was
abandoned. A spacecraft separation joint failed to function
in a 1984 ground test after more than 20 years of flight
successes; the same joint, which is designed for full
containment of explosive products, burst in 1994 during
release of a payload from the Space Shuttle cargo bay. A
"fully qualified" valve design, that was created for the
Geminl Program in the early 1960fs, structurally failed and
ignited hydrazine in 1994 throuqh previously unrecognized
failure modes. Improved guidelines for pyrotechnic design,
development and qualification are clearly needed.
The purpose of this manual is to provide an overview of and
recommendations for the design, development and qualification
of pyrotechnic components and the systems in which they are
used. This is a complex field in which there are few
specialists and even fewer quidelines on the approach to
create a device and assure it will perform its required task.
The field of pyrotechnics is generally considered to be an
art, not a science or engineering discipline. Also,
pyrotechnics are considered to be readily available, and,
therefore, can be managed by any subsystem in which they are
applied, such as structure, propulsion, electric power or
life support. This presentation is intended to dispel these
misconceptions.
The objectives of this manual are:
1. Remove the art from pyrotechnic applications.
2. Introduce engineering approaches.
3. Provide the logic for improved procurement, design,
development, qualification, integration and use.
Tests methods and logic are recommended that quantify
performance to improve widely cited go/no-go testing of under
and over-loaded energy sources. References are noted
throughout to allow the reader to obtain more detailed
information on all test methods.
This manual does not provide in cookbook^ answers and
approaches for any aspect of pyrotechnic operations. Not
only are devices unique, requiring individualized approaches
for design, development and qualification, but systems and
operational procedures are also specialized. The contents of
this manual are not intended for direct incorporation into
pyrotechnic specifications.
Chapter 2.- PYROTECHNICS DEFINITION, CONSIDERATIONS FOR

APPLICATIONS
2-1 Definition of Pyrotechnics
In aerospace technology pyrotechnics refer to a broad family

of sophisticated devices utilizing explosive, propellant and
pyrotechnic compositions to accomplish:
*
*
*
initiation
jettison
time delay
*
*
*
release
valvinq
actuation
*
*
severance/fracture
switching
Reference 1
The first use of the term wpyrotechnics'' for explosive and
propellant-actuated devices in the aerospace field was by
Harry Lutz of McDonnell Aircraft Company during the Mercury
program. In response to a concern voiced by program
management about using explosive devices in close proximity
to the astronaut, Harry said, "Don't call them explosives,
call them pyrotechnics." This was quickly shortened to
*@pyrostW
whlch sounded even less threatening.
2-2 Pyrotechnics Are Extensively A ~ ~ l i eBecause
d
of Their
Hiuh Efficiency
o High energy delivered per unit weight
o Small volume, compact
o Long-term storable energy
o Controllable initiation and output energies
Reference 1
Few sources of energy combine all fpur of these attributes.
Pyrotechnics contain the needed energy to accomplish a
desired function within small volumes. The only external
energy required is an initiation input. Initiation inputs to
devices (mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, explosive
transfer or laser) can be precisely established to prevent
inadvertent initiation, as well as to assure adequate
initiation energy. Pyrotechnics utilize solid material
compositions that are highly energetic and can be selected to
be stable under extremes of both thermal and vacuum
conditions.
2-3 Althouuh Successful, Pvrotechnics Are Reluctantly Used
o Unique Characteristics
Single shot
Cannot be functionally checked before flight
Short-duration, impulsive loads (pyrotechnic
shock)
Safety issues
--
*
*
Contain explosive materials

Inadvertent functioning:
+ only small forces sometimes required to
initiate
+ static electricity
+ lightning
+ electromagnetically induced energy
+ stray energy in firing circuits
o Limited engineering approaches/standards are available

for pyrotechnic applications
Cannot apply approaches for commonly used energy
sources (electric, hydraulic, pneumatic)
Lack of test methods and logic to demonstrate
functional margin
Go/no-go testing
--
o Failures continue to occur

Lack of understanding of mechanisms
Poor or no resolution of failures
Few sources for information (reliance on
manufacturers)
Reliability estimate based on successful
qualification
References 1, 2, 3 and 4
Clearly, the advantages of using pyrotechnics often outweigh
this burdensome list of disadvantages, concerns and
challenges, or there would be no applications. In the early
stages of the Shuttle program, an edict was made that there
will be no pyrotechnics used for the vehicle or for payloads.
Pyrotechnics violate one of their first ground rules, which
is that systems shall be reusable. However, over 400
pyrotechnic components fly on each Shuttle mission with some
used on each flight and others only for emergencies. A
primary requirement for Shuttle payload pyrotechnics is the
assurance that on functioning, the Shuttle will not be
damaged.
Pyrotechnics normally are used only once, since often
internal structural deformation is incurred in each firing.
These devices cannot be cycled like solenoid-actuated
switches to assure their functionality. The best assurance
of successful operation is that the devices are designed with
functional marglns and have been accurately manufactured.
The explosive, propellant and pyrotechnic-composition energy
sources will burn completely and quickly no matter if the
ignition input is intentional or inadvertent. Selecting lowlevel energy inputs to ignite these materials is a weight
advantage, but can be a safety hazard.
There are few guidelines for the design and application of
pyrotechnic devices. There is a lack of accepted test
standards to evaluate functional performance of devices.
Existing methods generally rely on go/no-go testing, which
means that a device either does or does not work.
No college courses are offered for this sophisticated
aerospace field, and past experience in other energy sources
cannot be applied, primarily due to the single-shot, dynamic
nature of pyrotechnic devices. Consequently, missioncritical functions are sometimes entrusted to pyrotechnic
devices with less than the required reliability. The lack of
understanding of these devices can lead to failures, as well
as inadequate failure resolution. Since there are few
sources of information, users are forced into a reliance on
manufacturers. In using noff-the-shelfM hardware, component
functional and system evaluation is often minimized with the
assumption that qualification exists. Furthermore,
manufacturers may have a different view of success than does
the user. Should a failure occur, there is a conflict
between finding out the exact cause and getting on with the
program schedule.
Statistical reliability and confidence is usually based on
information compiled by the manufacturer in functional
evaluations on any particular device and on its predecessor
designs. To achieve a statistical basis for a 99.9%
reliability with a 95% confidence level, more than 2000
identical devices would have to be evaluated. Such a number
is often cost prohibitive.
Chapter 3.-
PYROTECHNIC FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES
o Majority of pyrotechnically actuated functions

accomplished through piston/cylinder devices
o Other functions accomplished by linear explosives
o Figures 1 through 14 show basic principles
o Tables I and I1 show past applications
References 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
Before Actuation
A f t e r Actuation
THRUSTER
RETRACTOR OR
PIN PULLER
Figure 1. Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

linear actuators, describing function.

valves, describing function.

separation nuts, describing function.
6
PLANE OF
FRAGMENTING (STRUCTURAL BREAKUP)
PRESSURE (TENSION FA1LURE)
PLANE OF
SEPARATION
RIDGE CUT (SHOCK WAVE FAILURE)

,-PLANE
OF
HYDRAULIC (HOOPTTENSION FAILURE)
SHEAR (SHEAR PIN FAILURE)

7 P L A N E OF
1/ SEPARATION
I
PISTON (TENSION FAILURE)
~ i g u r e4. Cross sectional views of explosive and

pyrotechnically actuated separation bolts,
describing function.
PROPELLANT ACTUATED
MDC (TYPICAL)
EXPLOSIVE ACTUATED

cutters or guillotines.
METAL
SHEATH
EXPLOSIVE
CORE
-,
M I L D DETONATING C O R D ( M D C )
CONFINED
SEVERANCE
BREAK
BOLTS
Figure 6. Cross sectional views of mild detonating cord

(MDC)-actuated severance and separation approaches.
EXPLOSIVE
METAL
SHEATH
FLSC HAS GREATER DIRECTIONAL

SEVERANCE .ABILITY THAN M D C
Figure 7. Cross sectional views of flexible linear shaped

charge (FLSC) severance.
TABLE I.- Major Past and Current pyrotechnic Applications
in Aeronautics
i
PROGRAM
F-4 (DUAL PLACE)
(EXCLUDING ARMAMENT
REQUIREMENTS)
NUMBER OF
AIRCRAFT INSTALLED
PYROTECHNIC DEVICES USED
31
F-111 CREW MODULE
315
F-14 (DUAL PLACE)

(EXCLUDING ARMAMENT
REQUIREMENTS)
21 1
F-15 (SINGLE PLACE)

(EXCLUDING ARMAMENT
REQUIREMENTS)
44
F-4 ARMAMENT
CARTRIDGE REQUIREMENTS
FOR A MISSION CONFIGURATION
OF (24) 500 LB BOMBS AND 4
SPARROW MISS1LES
42
TABLE 11.- Major Past and Current Pyrotechnic Applications

in Astronautics
PROGRAM
MERCURY
NUMBER OF SPACECRAFT
INSTALLED PYROTECHNIC
DEVICES USED
46
GEMINI
139
SATURN
APPROX.
150
APO L LO
(CSMISLAILM)
314
APOLLO
(CSMISLA)
FOR SKY LAB
249
Typicd FLSC lastallation
Figure 8. Cross sectional view A-A on right of F-111 crew

module severance system.
Figure 9. Functional depiction of Rotor Systems Research

Aircraft (RSRA) in-flight escape system.
DEPLOYMENT
Figure 10. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on Project
Mercury.
Figure 11. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on Project

Gemini.
Figure 12. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on the

Command Module and escape system, Project Apollo.
EXPLOSIVE
VALVES
4 RE00
GUlLLOTlNE
1 REOD
EXPLOS1VE
VALVES
6 RE00
PYROTECHNIC
2 REOD
Figure 13. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on the Lunar

Excursion Module, Project Apollo.
.gure 14. Shuttle Transportation System pyrotechnics.
Chapter 4.- PYROTECHNIC, PROPELLANT AND EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

AS ENERGY SOURCES
o Energy delivery affected by burn rate
Time delay trains (pyrotechnic mixes): inches/second
Double-base propellant: inches/second
Metallmetal oxides: hundreds of feetisecond
Primary explosives: less than 10,000 feetisecond
Secondary explosives: over 20,000 feetisecond
--o Wide range of energy characteristics

-- Minimal
Energy delivered In various forms: heat, light, gas
to intense heat production
-- Time
Gas evolution: gasless to millions of psi
to peak pressure less than microsecond to
seconds
o combustion affected by:

Density and particle size of burning material
Initial free volume
Confinement
Shape of the volume
Heat transfer characteristics
Changing volume (stroking piston)
--
---
o Energy delivery can be tailored to meet a very wide

range of performance by adjusting the above parameters
Reference 4
The primary influence of energy deliverable by pyrotechnics,
propellants and explosive is burn rate. As the burn rate
changes, so do the products of the combustion. The forms of
energy delivered are heat, gas and light, depending on the
material or combination selected. Pyrotechnic compositions
produce intense heat and often intense light with very little
gas production. Propellants are used to deliver highpressure volumes of gas, often with only moderate heat.
Primary explosives rapidly (microseconds) develop hundreds of
thousands of psi of gas pressure, while high explosives
develop millions of psi in even a shorter time frame, with
very little heat production.
The combustion of these materials is affected by a number of
parameters. Compacted small particles will burn faster than
larger particle sizes at the same density. Of course, with
loose-particle combustion, the larger the surface area, the
more rapid the combustion. Gas producing materials are
generally affected by ambient pressure; the higher the
ambient pressure, -the faster the burn rate. Consequently,
propellants ignited in a large free volume must first
pressurize the volume, before the ambient pressure is raised
sufficiently to increase the burn rate. The shape of the
volume in which reactions occur affect heat transfer within
the combustible material itself, as well as transferring heat
to surrounding structure. The greater the surface area and
thermal transfer properties of the container, the more heat

loss and reduction in burn rate of the material. An
increasing volume, such as a stroking piston reduces burn
rate by lowering ambient pressure, as well as increasing the
surface area exposed to the hot gas. Energy delivery
characteristics can be tailored over a wide range by
adjusting the above parameters. Tables I11 through VIII
describe the properties of several widely used pyrotechnic,
primary explosive and secondary explosive materials.
TABLE 111.
- Pro~erties
of a Time-Delay Miy
ID-16. MIL-M-213831
3 bv Weiaht
Jnuredient
37
Manqanese
Barium Chromate
Lead Chromate
Burn rate: 8.7 seconds/inch
Virtually gasless output
Stability: Extended service life results
in longer delay
Application in sequencing pyrotechnic functions
o Formula:
o
o
o
o
Reference 10
TABLE 1V.- Pro~ertiesof a Gas-Generatinu Material (Hercules
Hi-Tem~l
o Formula:
Jnuredient
RDX
Nitrocellulose
% bv Weiaht
80
20
o Gas Composition: CO
co2
H2
;2*
0Zher
o Stability: less than 1% weight loss in 5 hr. at 275OF
(Source: Hercules Incorporated)
o RDX sublimes under vacuum (shouldn't be used for deepspace applications; container seal is a single-point
failure)
o Sensitive to ambient pressure for ignition and
burning (higher rate at higher pressures)
o Application as gas generating source for cartridges
TABLE V.- Proverties of Boron/Potassium Nitrate (B/KN031

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Gas generatin? material

Burn rate minimally affected by ambient pressure
High-temperature combustion, hot particles
Thermally stable
Vacuum stable
Long shelf life
Application as rocket motor igniter and gas generator
References 11 and 12
TABLE V1.- Proverties of NASA Standard Initiator (NSII Mix

o Zirconium/potassium perchlorate (Zr/KC104)
Burn rate of hundreds of feetlsecond
Rapid pressure rise
Output = hot particles, little gas
Electrostatically sensitive
Good hotwire initiation interface
Thermally and vacuum stable
Long shelf life
o Application as an initiator and as an energy source
----
References 4 and 13
TABLE VI1.- Proverties of Lead Azide
o Transfers from a deflagration to detonation, short
distance (about 0.1 inch)
o Detonation rate of about 7,000 feetlsecond
o Thermally stable (except for desensitizing agents:
dextrin)
o Vacuum stable (except for dextrin)
o Long shelf life
o Sensitive to impact, friction and electrostatics
o Application in detonators to initiate a highexplosive output
References 14, 15 and 16
TABLE VIII,
- Proverties of Hexanitrostilbene
(HNSl
o Detonates at a propagation velocity of 22,000

feet/second (32,000 psi compaction pressure)
o Thermally stable
o Vacuum stable
o Insensitive to non-explosive stimuli
o Application in detonators, linear explosives and
bulk charges
Chapter 5.- INITIATION SYSTEMS/INITIATORS

The basic initiation systems for aerospace systems are:
o Explosive transfer
o Shock tube
o Laser
o Electrical
o Mechanical
o Hot Gas
..
5-1 Electrical Flrlna Svstem Characteristics

o Provide reliable electrical energy to initiator
Direct current
Capacitor discharge
o Protect against inadvertent initiation
shielding: lightning, static electricity, radio
frequency, electromagnetically induced energy
Two-fault tolerant switches
o Control/sequence firing commands
o Provide electrical isolation from other electrical
circuits
o Greatest safety consideration is final connection to
device
Assure no energy in circuit
Remove shield from device and install final
connector
--
- - - -
--
. .
5-1-1 Electrical Initiator Characteristics

(NASA Standard Initiator (NSII. fiaure 15)
o Convert electrical energy to heat to ignite "firstfirew through high-resistance bridgewire
Direct current
Capacitor discharge
o Provide reproducible initiation characteristics
No-fire enerqy; 1-amp/l-watt, five minutes
Predictable ignition delay for recommended firing
energy
o prevent-inadvertent initiation
1-amp/l-watt no-fire dissipation
Stray energy (transients, radio frequency,
electromagnetic)
Electrostatic discharge
o Provide electrical isolation from structure
o Provide ignition for pyrotechnics, propellants and
explosive trains
o sometimes used as sole energy source for small
mechanisms
o Provide post-fire seal
---
--
References 4 and 13
5-1-2 Emlodina Bridaewire (EBW) ~nitiator

o Uses low-resistance conductor (gold) bridgewire
o Uses internal spark gap to prevent conducting low voltage
and current levels through bridgewire
o Uses several thousand-volt capacitor discharge firing
system, which couples through internal spark gap
o Bridgewire vaporizes (explodes) to provide an impulse to
directly initlate secondary explosives
o Eliminates the need for sensitive initiation materials
and primary explosives
o Provides post-fire seal
o Major drawbacks are bulky, heavy power supplies,
capacitors, switches and cables
5-2 Mechanical Initiation System Characteristics
o Provide mechanical input to initiator (primer)

Spring compression/release
Pneumatically driven
Impact driven
o Provide firing pin interface to primer
o Prevent inadvertent functioning of initiation handles
Two-step operation (squeeze/pull or rotate/pull)
Minimum force and stroke required
o Assure adequate energy to initiate primer
Threshold pneumatic and impact energy
2 X (50% flring energy level + 5 standard deviations)
--
---
Reference 22
5-2-1 Mechanical Initiator Characteristics (M42 Percussion Primer
exam~le)
o Convert mechanical energy to ignite primer mix
o Primer composition ignited by crushing/friction between
cup and anvil
o Provide reproducible initiation characteristics
No-Fire (1.92-ounce ball drop):
50% firing level drop height minus 2 standard
deviations
shall not be less than 2 inches (3.84 inch-ounces)
All-Fire (1.92-ounce ball drop):
50% firing level drop height plus 5 standard deviations
shall not exceed 13 inches (25.49 inch-ounces)
50% firing level approximately 10 inch-ounces
o Provide ignltion output (heat, gas, light, burning
particles)
o Primers themselves not sealed; must be sealed by assembly
into which it is installed
Figure 16 shows percussion primer designs.

Reference 22
3/8-24 THREAD
WASHER. INSULA TINC
ELECTRICAL
CUP. CLOSURE
DISK.INSUL ATMC
DISK. WSUL AT WlC
DISK, SEALING
EPOXY S E A L BOTH PINS
.586
.596 REF-
Figure 15. Cross sectional view of NASA Standard Initiator

(NSI)
\Rimer
Cup
\1
Legpd
Figure 16. Views of commercial or military center-fire

percussion primers.
tab Primer
o Used where full containment not necessary
o Sharp firing pin penetrates through cup o Achieves ignition by- fracturelfriction of primer
composition
o Input energy generally less than needed for
percussion primer
o Output comparable to percussion primer
The Separation Plane Initiator Assembly (figure 17) has a
number of valuable design features to assure operational
safety and reliability. The "remove before flight" Pip Pin
prevents any motion of the Firing Pin. The expanded diameter
of the Sear assembly shoulders on the bore of the Primer Pin
Yoke, preventing Firing Pin displacement and contact with the
Percussion Primer. The Spring was preloaded to keep the Sear
assembly shoulder engaqed, preventing rattle. The energy
content in the2Spring in inch-pounds is determined by the
equation 1/2kX , where k is the spring constant and X is the
compression distance. When the Wire Rope pulls on the Sear,
the Spring is compressed. The Sear releases the firing pin,
as the Sear clears the Primer Pin Yoke, allowing the Sear's
angular interlocking finger to slide off the corresponding
finger on the Firing Pin. The Support Disc prevents too
great a penetration by the Firing Pin into the Percussion
Primer.
O-RING.
FIRING P I N
SILICONE
PIP PIN -.
)--------.---- ( 2 . 9 6 3 )
I N I T I A T O R HOUSING
PERCUSSION PRIMER
'RIDGE. I N I T I A T O R .
ASSEMBLY
SILICONE
P R I M E R P I N YOKE
O-RING.
SILICONE
SUPPORT D I S C
YOKE SUPPORT
SPRING.
COMPRESSION
Figure 17. Cross sectional view of separation plane initiator

for Delta Launch Vehicle.
ROPE
l BLE
5-3 Hot Gas Svstem Characteristics

o Gas venerators pressurize pneumatic system plumbed to
initiate each aircraft system function (canopy
jettison, crewmember retraction, seat e~ection,etc)
o Mechanically initiated primer to qas generator
o Device shear pin retains firinq pin prior to stroke
o Gas pressure at device 1000 psi minimum;
shear pin fails at about 500 psi
o Gas generator boosters used for large volumes and
for long lengths of tubing
o System pressure integrity critical
5-4 Emlosive Transfer Line Characteristics
o Explosive impulse is transmitted to each system

function by mild detonatinq fuse within steel tubing
o Identical booster charges in thin-walled cups (tips)
at each end of line
o Initiation of input booster causes detonation
propagation through explosive cord to initiate output
tip
o Thls tip creates a pressure impulse and fragments to
initiate the next llne
o Tip output can also be used to accomplish work
o Explosive transfer lines can also be flexible with
fiberglass and steel overbraid for containment of
explosive products
o Transfer lines plumbed together like high-pressure
tubing; free rotating nut on inside shoulder of each
tip allows threading/seating into receiving ports
o Steel tubing allows assembly to be hermetically
sealed by welding cups to tube
o Insensitive to initiation by lightning, RF, EM1 and
bullet impact
o Will burn in fire, but will not build to detonation
References 5, 23, 24 and 25
M i l d deltonating
cord (MDC)
in.
Teflon extrusion
Resistance we1 d --I
Steel ferrule
Figure 18. Cross sectional view of rigid explosive transfer

line, also called shielded mild detonating cord
(SMDC)
21
Rigid explosive transfbr lines (figure 18) for hightemperature environments and the technology for their use
were developed for the F-111 escape system in the early
1960's. Explosive transfer from donors to acceptors is
primarily accomplished by cup fragments. The sketches in
figure 19 show the explosively driven shrapnel patterns
produced as the end tip cup explodes. The sketches in figure
20 show the gaps at whlch explosive transfers were
accomplished. The shrapnel fragments produced off the end
(bottom) of the cup proceed across the gap through the air in
a contoured front with approximately a one-degree divergence.
As.these fragments impact against an acceptor tip, a
sufficiently high impulse is introduced into the acceptor tip
to initiate detonation in the explosive. The donor cups must
be fully annealed after forming to produce the fragment
patterns shown in figure 19, so as to maximize the
reliability of transfer. Although gaps to five inches are
indicated between donor and acceptor, a maximum gap of 0.250
inch is recommended to accommodate the limits of variables,
such as cup wall thickness and properties, cup breakup, and
explosive density. In the "end to sidew configuration, the
cylindrical side of the acceptor tip is a poorer target; oncoming fragments can be deflected, reducing the amount of
energy transferred into the acceptor. In the side-to-end
transfer mode, the fragments produced off the sides of the
cylindrical cup are strips, like barrel staves. With the
radial expansion of these fragments, appreciable gaps occur
between fragments. Note, gaps must be at least 0.006 inch to
allow the formation of fraqments; this phenomenon can be
explained through the realization that the cup has to expand
slightly before it bursts to create high-velocity fragments.
From Lucite Cup Tests:
_r
Side s h o p e l cone
1 1
/ /
nd shropmol corn
opporimotely 25 f m m n t s
Side View
End View
Figure 19.
Views of SMDC tip fragment dispersion.

22
End to Side (909
Side to End (9P)

Ropid Dirpmrian
Poor Torget
I
S c c e a a ot
b=d-4=:-i
Donor
Figure 20. Gaps at which SMDC fragments initiated acceptors;

donors and acceptors identical.
5-5 Shock Tube Svstem characteristics (~hin-Laver~ n l o s i v e

(TLXI]
o Shock pulse (6500 feetlsecond) is transmitted to each

function in the system through plastic tube with
interior thin layer coating composed of HMX and
aluminum (50150)
o Deflagrating material in input of assembly is
inltlated by primer or other means
o Output cup can contain deflagratinq material to
transfer the impulse to the next llne or can contain
explosive materlal to initiate high explosive
functions
o Tube can be initiated by some projectile impacts
Reference 26
The main advantage of the Thin-Layer Explosive (TLX) approach
over explosive transfer lines is in weiqht. Since the shock
wave is less energetic, explosive containment is more easily
accomplished. However, this approach lacks the maturity of
explosive transfer lines, and difficulties have been
experienced in its application. Care must be taken to assure
adequate margins in line initiations in multi-port manifolds.
5-6 Laser System characteristics
o Coherent light transmitted to all functions within a

system through fiber optic cables
o Coherent, high-intensity light generated by lasing
gas, rods and diodes
o Llqht transmitted through connectors and window in
initiator or pigtail fiber
o Window and pigtail are sealed to prevent venting
o Fiber optic cables insensitive to lightning, RF, EM1
and bullet impact
The major thrust of laser-initiated pyrotechnic devices is
the near impossibility of initiating the devices with
anything but coherent light. This allows installation of the
pyrotechnic charges early in the assembly of subsystems and
systems, such as is accomplished with explosive transfer
llnes and exploding bridgewire devices. Laser systems can
safely allow early installation with weight savings over the
above-mentioned systems. However, a price is paid; system
complexity and electrical energy consumption is increased.
Although laser diodes are small enough to provide a lasing
source for each pyrotechnic device, eliminating the need for
complex mirrors or switching mechanisms, the electronics
necessary to power the diodes are more sophisticated and
consume considerably more energy than those needed to
directly fire a hot bridgewire system. This system also
lacks a significant flight history. Definitions and
standards are currently being developed to assure functional
margins at field connectors and at interfaces to the
pyrotechnic charges. Range safety personnel have yet to
establish safety and operational criteria. For example, is a
physical light barrier or an open electrical switch required
to assure the system is ttsafed,was has been required for
electrical and explosive initiation systems?
Chapter 6
- PYROTECHNIC SYSTEM SAFETY
6-1 Prowerties of Materials

o Explosive/pyrotechnic and propellant material safety
properties established by:
Impact sensitivity
Thermal stability (autoignition temperatures and
rates)
Vacuum stability
Electrostatic sensitivity
Friction sensitivity
compatibilities with other materials
Aging characteristics
Explosive input initiation sensitivity
o Safeguards for initiation systems mentioned above
----
Elaborate procedures have been established (usually with
military specifications) to provide comparative information
on each of the above properties for raw materials. For
example, lead azide often has desensitizing agents mixed into
it, and it is shipped under water, to reduce the opportunity
of inadvertent initiation. Also, loadinq facilities are
designed to accommodate inadvertent initiations; no matter
what care, procedures and logic are applied, initiations can
occur. However, once lead azide is properly loaded in
sealed, electrically conductive containers made of compatible
materials, it is very stable.
6-2 Safe/Arm Devices
o Safelam devices provide configurations for:
Input isolation (safe)
Input transfer (arm)
o Actuation accomplished by electrical input,
mechanical input, or both
Electrical
* Safe = ganged electrical switches to short circuit
and electrically ground firing leads to components
* Arm = same switches open shorts and connect to
electrical energy source
* Electrical command (manual backup) moves switches
* Verified visually and electrically
Mechanical
* Safe = Physical barrier interposed to prevent
transfer of explosive, gas, laser or other
initiation stimuli
* Arm = Barrier removed to allow stimulus
to transfer
* Commands can be manual, electrical
and/or pyrotechnic
* Verified visually and electrically
--
Figure 21. Cross sectional view of manually operated,

explosive transfer safelarm.
Safelam devices (figure 21) provide positive means for
assuring that stray energy or an inadvertent firing command
does not initiate the entire ballistic train. That is, in
the safe mode, a firing command (electrical, hot gas,
explosive, etc.) cannot be transmitted. Conversely, in the
arm mode, a firing command can be transmitted. Electrical
safing disconnects the firing circuit from the pyrotechnic
device, as well as provides a short circuit across the
bridgewire. Arming allows the firing circuit to be connected
and the short disconnected. These safe/arm commands are
usually provided with stepping motors to drive rotating
shafts to the desired position. The shaft location is
verified by electrical contacts in a separate circuit, as
well as visually. Mechanical barriers can block initiation
signal transfer by rotating a shaft or sliding a plate across
an interface to seal a passage or prevent explosive transfer
through a transfer charge or cavity. Again, safing and
arming commands can be electrical, manual and/or pyrotechnic
with visual and electrical verification. One of the worst
nightmares at a launch site is that a safelarm unit does not
properly cycle through its functions. Consequently,
elaborate care is applied to seal these devices to prevent
contamination of moving interfaces and to maintain electrical
contacts. Adding to this complexity is the use of built-in
explosive transfer charges, which require special handling,
storage and assembly procedures as a pyrotechnic device.
6-3 Com~onentSafeaaurds
o Components have additional safeguards

Hazardous material safety data sheets (OSHA)
Safing pins, Remove Before Flight
Shear pin strength set to withstand highest level
inadvertent input
Protective caps/connectors for resisting RF, EM1 and
electrostatic enerqies
o Procedures provide final safety protection
Handlinq, transport and storage
Inspection of components
Checkout of firing systems
Final assembly
Chapter 7
- TEST METHODS AND
FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE
7-1 Non-destructive Tests

o Non-destructive test inspection required to assure singleshot item is properly assembled
Dimensions of components and final assembly
X-ray to image high-density materials
N-ray to image organic compounds (explosive materials)
Reference 29
7-2 Functional Tests
o Test methods should represent the function of device

- Shape, size, volumes, masses, materials
Stroke
Resistance (friction, shear pin strength, mass,
mechanical force)
o Measure input initiation parameters
Electrical
Mechanical
Pneumatic
Explosive
Laser
o Measure output
- Work/energy
Pressure
Force
Stroke
o Industry standard measurement for cartridge output,
closed bomb, does not represent performance in a device
---
References 4, 30, 31, 32 and 33

In order to understand functional performance, test hardware
must accurately represent the device being tested. As
described in Chapter 4, a number of interrelated parameters
affect combustion efficiencies and, consequently, the
performance achieved. The test program should evaluate both
input (initiation), as well as output performance. The key
to evaluation tests is to reduce the expense of testing
flight hardware by using a controlled, reproducible
simulation. The widely used closed bomb firing system is
shown in figure 22. Although electrical initiation
evaluations can be made, such as in figures 23 and 24, the
closed bomb's use in measuring the output of cartridges
cannot predict performance in a device. That is, firing a
cartridge into a closed, fixed volume accomplishes no work,
and the parameters affecting combustion efficiencies in a
device are not simulated. As shown by the typical pressure
traces in a closed bomb, figure 25, it is not at all apparent
that the two NSI-derived Gas Generating Cartridges (NGGC) can
produce more than twice the energy of the two essentially
equivalent initiators, the Viking Standard Initiator (VSI)
and the NASA Standard Initiator (NSI). The energy delivered
by the NGGC, as determined by a specific output test
described in section 7-3-1, was 750, versus 340 inch-pounds
for the VSI.
28
I
CURRENT
CONSTANT
CURRENT
SOURCE
- VOLTAGE
M O N lTOR
MAGNET IC
TAPE
RECORDER
OSCILLO-
GRAPt-1
I
PERMANENT
RECORD
CAR'I'RIDGE
I
u
PRES.
(2)
XDUCERS
Figure 22. Closed bomb firing and monitoring system.
-t
4
VSI
+ HI-SHEAR. NO ENV
*
:
HI-SHEAR, POST ENV

UPCO, NO ENV
UPCO, POST ENV
Current Applied, amperes
Figure 23. Typical current versus bridgewire break function

time curves to evaluate electrical initiation
--
29
+k HI-SHEAR, NO ENV
HI-SHEAR, POST ENV
++
UPCO, NO ENV
UPCO. POST ENV
Current Applied, amperes
Figure 24. Typical current versus first pressure indication

function time curves to evaluate electrical
initiation characteristics of cartridges.
Hi-Shear NCCC
UPCO NCCC
VS I
NSI
I
I
.2
.4
.6
.8
1 .O
T i m e , millisecond
1.2
1.4
1.6
Figure 25. Typical pressures produced by cartridge firings in

a closed bomb.
7-3 T m e s of Functional Performance Tests and Determination
of Functional Marain
o Examples of functional performance tests
Piston/cylinder configurations
Ignitability
Explosive transfer or initiation of explosive acceptors
Explosive severance/fracture
Flexible linear shaped charge (FLSC)
* Lockheed's t@Super*Zipwseparation joint
Structural containment
---
o Functional margin ("how wellw something performs) is

determined by measuring and comparing
Energy required to accomplish function

to
Energy deliverable by pyrotechnic source
Relative rate of ignition produced by one initiator type
to
That produced by other initiators under consideration
Determininq minimum explosive load to accomplish function
(while maintaining flight configuration)
to
flight explosive load
Determining key functional parameters, measuring their
performance at limits of functionality
to
flight configuration
(For example, plate severance is enhanced by the bending
of the plate during fracture; tests would be conducted
at the thinnest and thickest limits of the plate.)
o Uniformity of performance is key to understanding
Conduct multiple tests, 5 to 10 minimum

Provides adequate definition if standard deviation is a
small percentage of the mean
Serious shortcomings exist with "go/no-90 testingw and the

widely cited +/- 15% "margin demonstration criteria."
"Go/no-go testingw is accomplished by assembling devices and
firing them without measuring functional parameters. That
is, they either do or do not accomplish the desired function.
The shortcoming is that there is no way to determine how
close the device was to failinq, either through inadequate
functional or structural containment margins. In testing
identical devices, more than 2000 successful, consecutive
functional tests would have to be conducted to obtain a
simplistic reliability prediction of 99.9%.
Margin criteria for pyrotechnically actuated devices were
first created for the Gemini Program in the early 1960's.
These criteria are the gojno-go firing of a few devices at
15% under and over-load to demonstrate that an 85%
pyrotechnic load would still function the device and a 115%
overload would not cause rupture of the device. Although
these criteria implied some confidence in performance, no
quantitative information is produced. Also, under certain
conditions, the performance of pyrotechnic devices actually
increased with an 85% load.
The following test methods are recommended to overcome these
shortcomings.
7-3-1 Recommended functional tests for piston/cylinder
confiaurations
- to
Energy iequired measured by dropping mass onto piston
find minimum energy required to accomplish function
Energy deliverable determrned by measuring

* Crush of honeycomb: Energy = Crush Dist nce X Strength
* Velocity of moving mass: Energy = 1/2mv9
References 4, 30, 31, 32 and 33
The enerqy required to accomplish the stroking of a piston in

a mechanical function is determined by controlled drop
testing of small masses onto the piston to be stroked. The
energy required to accomplish the function is the drop height
multiplied by the w e i ~ h tto provide a value in inch-pounds.
Ideally, a high velocity of the falling mass simulates the
dynamics of the pyrotechnically driven piston. While this
simulation may not be perfect, it is certainly better than
the current practice in which sellers and users of
pyrotechnic devices often have no idea of the energy required
for functioning.
The energy delivered by a gas generating cartridge can be

measured by the McDonnell Energy Output Test Fixture (Energy
Sensor) or by measuring the velocity of the piston. The
E n e r p Sensor, figure 26, represents an application of
worklng against a constant force, using calibrated aluminum
honeycomb against which the cartridge-driven piston strokes.
Energy is obtained by multiplying the amount of crush in
inches by the honeycomb's crush strength to provide a value
in inch-pounds. Several examples are shown for various
cartridges in table IX: the Vlking Standard Initiator (VSI)
and the NSI-derived Gas Generating Cartridge (NGGC).
Energy sensor
Cyl i n d e r
Anvi 1
I n i t i a t o r f i r i n g block
P i s ton
lloneycomb
retainer
Interface
/-
Adapter
P i s t o n cap 7
\L Honeyconlb cubes
L p i s t o n real
Figure 26. Cross sectional view of McDonnell Energy Output

Test Fixture.
TABLE IX
Cartridge
ENERGY SENSOR PERFORMANCE DATA ON TEST CARTRIDGES

(AverageIStandard Deviation)
No. Fired
Energy Delivered
inch-pounds
Performance Baseline (No Environments)

VSI
466121
Hi-Shear NGGC
815199
UPCO NGGC
812190
Post Environments
Hi-Shear NGGC
16
869180
UPCO NGGC
12
927158
To determine energy by measuring the velocity of the piston,

the LaRC Dynamic Test Device and a Pin Puller have been
employed. The Dynamic Test Device, figure 27, represents a
jettisoned mass application and employs a one-inch diameter,
one-pound mass that strokes one inch to clear the o-ring.
The velocity of the mass is measured by an electrically
grounded needle, mounted on the face of the mass,
sequentially contacting five, 0.25-inch spaced aluminum foil
nmakel@switches. The 0.25-inch spacing, divided by the time
interval, yields velocity. The pressure traces produced by
several different cartridges (the NSI-derived Gas ~enerating
Cartridge (NGGC) and the ~ i k i n gStandard Initiator (NSI) are
shown in fiqure 28. These pressure measurements cannot be
used as a dlrect indicator of energy delivered by the
cartridge. Once the total e n e r p 1s measured for any
particular pressure trace, the integral of a different trace,
which was produced in the same device, can be used as a
relative indicator of energy for the second trace.
I inder
ton
Pressure transducer face
Cartridge port
ring
u
Cross sectional view of NASA LaRC Dynamic Test
Device.
JI
aooo
(\
t-"PC0
NGGC
Hi-SI1e.r
?!
750 inch-pounds
NGGC
.2
.4
780 inch-pounds
340 inch-pounds
,VSI-
u -1
.6
.8
1 .O
Time. milli~cconds
1.2
1.4
- 7 -
1.6
Figure 28. Typical pressure traces recorded and the energies

produced in firing cartridges in the Dynamic Test
Device.
The NASA Pin Puller, figure 29, was developed for a
spacecraft function, and because it has rugged steel
construction, it has been useful for comparative testing. In
this case, energy was measured by the velocity of the pin and
the amount of crush in the calibrated Energy Absorbing Cup,
which crushed at the end of the stroke. Typical pressure
traces for the VSI and NGGC in the Pin Puller are shown in
figure 30. The test setup for this data collection allowed
the piston to jettison, rather than stopping at the end of
stroke. A loglcal question in comparing the energy delivered
by the same cartridges in three different test devlces is
"Why isn't the energy the same?I1 The Energy Sensor measures
more of the energy, because it doesnlt vent like the other
two test methods. The Dynamic Test Device has a very larqe
piston face exposed to the working gas, compared to the Pln
Puller. The Pin Puller has a tortuous path for the hot gas
to pass from the cartridges to the piston; the cartridge
starts the flow at 90 from the axis of the piston, is forced
through a 0.10-inch diameter orifice and then pressurizes a
narrow working face of the piston. It is also clear that the
initial free volumes among the three test methods were
completely different, which caused considerably different
combustion of the gas generating materials and pressures
produced. For example, the area exposed to the hot gas in
the Pin Puller produced a considerable heat sink, changing
both the temperature at which the combustion occurred, and,
Cartridge Port
\\
rOrifice
(2)
,-Energy
Ab8orbing Cup
Pressure Transducer port]
Figure 29. Cross sectional view of NASA Pin Puller.
UPCO NGGC
520 inch-pounds
Hi-Shear NGGC
VSI
450 inch-pounds
150 inch-pounds
1.6
Time. millirecond
Figure 30. Typical pressure tracer recorded and the energies

produced in firing cartridges in the NASA Pin
Puller.
consequently, the burn rate and the quantity of gas produced.

The amount of residue (unburned fuel) following the firings
in the three test methods was testimony to these effects; the
Pin Puller had the most.
These results clearly demonstrate why closed-bomb tests
cannot predict performance in a device. Care must be taken
in the selection of a cartridge enerp-measuring method, so
that the test closely simulates use in the production device.
7.3.2
- Recommended
test for determininv ignitability (output
initiation performance of cartridges and ignition
sensitivity of materials)
Pressure at one millisecond
Peak pressure
References: 34, 35 and 36
The principle for determining the output ignition performance

of initiatinq devices, such as percussion primers and
cartridges, 1s to fire the devices onto a controlled bed of
combustible material (referred to hereafter as ignition
material) and measuring the way this ignition material
responds (ignites and burns). Conversely, to determine the
sensitivity of materials to be ignited a controlled initiator
is fired onto the combustible material under evaluation. The
approach for these determinations is to enclose the ignition
material in a sealed volume and monitor the rise in pressure,
created from the burning material. Intuitively, the better
the initiator performs, the more rapidly the ignition
material ignites, burns and pressurizes the volume.
The NASA Ignitability Test Bomb, as shown in figure 31, was
initially desiqned to evaluate percussion primers. However,
the conflguratron can be modified to incorporate any type of
initiator. The iqnition material is placed in a
hemispherical cavlty in the ignition material holder. This
holder has vent holes to allow the gas to vent to the lower
portion of the volume, where pressure is measured. The
percussion primer is installed in the primer holder, which is
sealed withrn the adaptor. A firing pin is installed into a
port within the adaptor, and rests on the percussion primer.
A weight is dropped onto the firing pin from a controlled
height to assure adequate initiation of the primer. The data
recorded on a high-speed magnetic tape recorder consists of
the strike of the firing pin, as measured by an accelerometer
mounted on the drop weight, and two pressure traces. Figure
32 shows the pressure produced as a response to the input of
two different percussion primers, the M42C1 and M42C2 fired
into 200 milligrams of FFG particle size black powder.
Clearly, the M42C1 ignites the black powder more quickly.
DROP W E I G H T W I T H A C C E L E R O M E T E R
I t N l T A B l L l T Y T E S T BOMB
P R I M E RHOLDER
~ G N ~ T I O MNA T E R I A L
~ G N ~ T ~MO
A TNE R I A L HOLDER
PRESSURE T R A N S D U C E R
VENT HOLES (6)
Figure 31. Cross sectional view of NASA LaRC Ignitability

Test Method bomb.
Figure 32. Typical pressure traces produced by the M42C1 and

M42C2 percussion primers in the NASA Ignitability
Test Method, using 200 mg of FFG black powder.
38
Figure 33 shows how these data were compiled for analysis.

The time from the firing pin strike to an indication of 100
psi pressure was defined as primer output delay. This is a
slightly longer time interval than that required for the
primer to be initiated by the firing pin. Because the first
indication of pressure rlse is often difficult to detect, the
100 psi level was arbitrarily selected. This level provides
a more precise start point. The pressure achieved wlthin the
first millisecond, following the 100-psi pressure level, was
selected for ratioinq to the peak pressure achieved, and was
defined as ignitabillty. The initlator that produces a
hiqher pressure at one millisecond, as compared to other
initiators, indicates a greater ignitability and thus, a
faster initiator. The initiator selected for any particular
application does not necessarily depend on a high rate of
ignition; some applications, such as initiating time delays,
require a soft, slow initiation, so as to not to damage the
delay columns.
\\,
F I R I N G P I N STRIKE
PRIMER OUTPUT DELAY

1 me
PRESSURE
psig
IGNITION TIME ZERO
at
'
FUNCTION TIME
IGNITABILITY
PRESSURE AT I m s
pW( PRESSURE
Figure 33. Percussion primer ignitability performance

definitions.
The ignitability Test Method can be similarly applied to any
initiator, whether electrical, explosive or laser.
For evaluating the relative sensitivity of various ignition
materials, fiqure 34 shows the response of three different
materials to initiation inputs from M42C1 and M42C2
percussion primers. Clearly, the FFG black powder was more
sensitive to ignition than was the much coarser A cannon
black powder. The most difficult to iqnite was the Type I
particle size BKN03. The same ignitabllit~definition,
ratioing the pressure achieved at one millisecond to the peak
pressure, applies.
C1, FFG
BLACK POWDER
C2, FFG
BLACK POWDER
TIHE
- MILLISECONDS
Figure 34. Ignitability comparison of three ignition

materials, each lgnited by the M42C1 and M42C2
percussion primers.
7.3.3
- Rmaommended ~ e s t sfor Explosive Transfer
o For explosive transfer from a donor to an acceptor, measure

Fragment velocity/energy delivered by the donor
Fragment velocity/energy required to initiate
--
References 5, 23, 24, 29, 30, 31, 37 and 38

Initiation of high explosives across hermetically sealed
interfaces is accomplished primarily by high velocity
fragments from the donor. In the case of explosive transfer
lines (described in Chapter 5) the 0.005-inch wall thickness
302 stainless steel cup fragments, and the particles
accelerated to velocities of 8,000 to 10,000 feetlsecond as
the 65-milligram explosive load within the cup explodes. The
shape, impact pattern and velocity of the fragments depend on
parameters such as: 1) cup material, properties and
thickness, 2) explosive material, particle size and loading
pressure, and 3) the medium through which the fragments pass
(usually air). The test setup used to monitor the donordelivered fragments is shown in figure 35. Fragments are
created off the end and off the side of the cup. Aluminum
foil nmaken switches, spaced known distances from the cup
provide time intervals to calculate velocities. The energy
Pattern 1 7
V,
V2 Vj
Pattern
L i n e detonation t r a n s f e r v e l o c i t y
A x i a l t i p fragment v e l o c i t y
Side t i p fragment v e l o c i t y
Pattern 1
Pattern 2
Radial fragment p a t t e r n i n a c r y l i c
End fragment p a t t e r n i n a c r y l i c
Figure 35. Schematic diagram of test fixture to monitor

fragment patterns and velocities from rigid
explosive transfer line end tips.
de ivered by these fragments is obtained by calculating 112

mv , where m is the mass of either the end or side of the
cup. The impact patterns, created by these fragments, are
obtained using the acrylic witness plates. Explosive
transfer line performance has been uniform and reliable over
the 30-year history of their application.
The energy required to initiate an acceptor explosive is
obtained by impacting acceptors with fragments of known
velocities. To determine the minimum threshold for
initiation, donor tips were manufactured with smaller
quantities and densities of explosive materials, as well as
using different types of donor cup materials.
7.3.4
- Recommended Tests for Explosive Beverance/Fracture
o For linear explosive severancelfracture, use tapered plate

Flexible linear shaped charge (FLSC)
- Mild detonating fuse
Lockheedfs "Super*ZipU separation joint
o Measure maximum fracture capability in each test

o Test setup must simulate flight applications
Material properties
-.Structure
Explosive load
Explosive backup
o Functional margin achieved by sizing explosive load, based

on the ratio of either:
the explosive flight load

to
the minimum explosive load required to sever structure
The minimum structural thickness severed by the flight

explosive load
to
the flight structural thickness
The use of tapered plates, as shown in figures 36 and 37

provides a way of determining the limit performance of each
lenqth of linear explosive for every test. That is, the
maximum thickness of the plate is set so that the linear
explosive cannot fracture along its entire length. With this
method, system parameters, such as explosive load, sheath
materials and separation distance between the explosive and
the plate to be severed can be optimized. For this
information to be applicable to the flight system, the test
setup must accurately simulate the flight configuration. The
linear explosive test fixture in figure 36 shows a method to
measure the severance capability, as well as the energy
delivered by a length of the explosive (using the McDonnell
Energy Sensor), and the velocity of explosive propagation
down the length of the explosive. Figure 37 shows the test
setup for the Lockheed ffSuper*Zipwseparation joint in which
an explosively expanded tube fractures plates on both sides
of the tube at the notched area (ligament). For this
investigation the thickness of the plate was tapered and the
depth of the notches was held constant. The most influential
parameter in achieving fracture was the thickness of the
plate; the plate must bend at the bolt line to fail at the
notched areas in tension.
Figure 36. Test fixture to evaluate the output of linear

explosives.
4
0.037 ligament
t-
0.095 hgarnenl
Figure 37. Lockheed Super*Zip separation joint tapered plate

test configuration.
7.3.5
- Recommended
Tests for Demonstration of Structural
Containment
o Successful functioning shall not create a hazard

Venting of fluids/gases
Fragments/debris
o Require fail-safe demonstrations
Lock-shut (fire, while preventing mechanisms from
stroking)
Function with minimum containment structure
Increase explosive load
Reduce initial free volume in combustion chamber
o Functional margin based on comparing
Fliaht structure to minimum structure that maintained
integrity
Explosive load where rupture occurred to flight
explosive load
Pressure where rupture occurred to flight pressure
---
Note: It is not necessary to test devices to rupture failure

if acceptable structural margin can be demonstrated.
Chapter 8
FUNCTIONAL RELIABILITY
o Device reliability achieved by

Understanding of device mechanism through development
* Effects of variables
* Functional limits
* Energy delivery mechanisms
* Effects of environments
Determininq functional margins
Qualification testing/environmental survivability
* Measure performance before and after environments
* Compile further performance data to substantiate
functional margin demonstration
Go/no-go testinq of a small number of devices does
not measure reliability
o Reliability can be determined by statistical comparison
of energy required to energy deliverable
--
Functional reliability must be evaluated on each device.
Each device should be evaluated through three phases:
development, determination of functional margins, and
qualification. This should be followed by system integration
and demonstration. The information collected throughout this
effort can be analyzed to produce classical statistical
reliability estimations. Every test firinq should be
designed to produce functional data that will contribute
toward defining reliability.
For each component, functional evaluations should be
conducted to understand the device's mechanisms and the
effect of parameter variability. Tests should be conducted
to functional limits. That is, tests should be conducted to
determine where devices fail to function to evaluate
parameters, such as structural strength and minimal
pyrotechnic energy input, and where structural failures
(rupturing) occur. The manner in which energy is delivered
within and by the device should be determined. The most
influential environment affectinq combustion is temperature.
At cold temperatures, both ignition sensitivity and burn rate
decrease. This combination normally produces the lowest
energy output. At high temperatures, the reverse occurs.
Also, at high temperatures, structural strength can be
reduced. The combination of higher combustion efficiency and
lower structural strength can push devices beyond structural
limits.
Currently applied go/no-go tests do not provide information
on functional performance, and contribute very little to
reliability predictions. When a device successfully passes
qualification testing, which typically requires 10 to 200
firings, the specification reliability is assumed to have
been met. The reliability/confidence predictions currently
in existence have been created by compiling the success of
past devices that are remotely similar to a particular device

under evaluation. Unfortunately, this logic is flawed, since
the primary assumption in large-sample statistical evaluation
is that all devlces in the sample are identical. Examples of
devices that have achieved significant, large-sample
statistical demonstration from actual firings are explosive
transfer lines and the NASA Standard Initiator (NSI).
A statistical reliability estimate can be obtained through
the analysis of all the functional performance data collected
through development, qualification, integration and checkout
of the device under evaluation. As shown in figure 38,
comparing the distributions of energy required to perform a
function to the energy delivered will provide a statistical
baseline. Clearly, the greater the separation between these
two distributions the more assurance that the function will
be accomplished. the 3.89 standard deviation refers to a
typical distribution where 99.9% of the data is included.
However, if the two distributions overlap, failures can
occur. Statistical tables, as described in reference 40,
predict reliability, based on small-sample distributions.
M E A N ENERGY
ENERGY REQUIRED
TO PERFORM FUNCTION
MEANENERGY
LEVEL
ENERGY SUPPLIED
BY CARTRIDGE
MARGIN
O F SAFETY
I
INCREASING ENERGY
POTENTIAL
INCREASING ENERGY
Figure 38. Graphic representation of statistical design

margin, comparing normal distributions of e n e r p
required to perform a function to energy supplled
by a cartridge.
o System reliability enhanced by redundancy

Use of parallel, independent paths to perform a single
function
Prevent single-point failures
Degree of redundancy depends on system tradeoffs
* depends on criticality of functlon
* achieved by design approach
o Use of redundancy to assure success introduces
contradictions
Increases complexity of systems
Increases chances of inadvertent functioning
o Does not alleviate need for quality assembly or
functional margin demonstrations of components and
interfaces
Reference 1
Redundancy is defined as accomplishing a function through two
completely independent paths. In example A, figure 39, two
electrical firing systems each give a command to Single
A. REDUNDANT FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS

SYSTEM A
FUNCTION
DEVICE B
SBASl B
SYSTEM B
6. REDUNDANT DEVICES
DEVICE A
SYSTEM
FUNCTION
SYSTEM
FUNCTION
=STEM
FUNCTION
DEVICE B
C. REDUNDANT CARTRIDGES
DEVICE
CARTRIDGE B
D . REDUNDANT SBASl
SEAS1 A
SBASl B
Figure 39. Levels of pyrotechnic redundancy established by

the Apollo Program.
Bridgewire Apollo Standard ~nitiators (SBASI, the predecessor

to the NSI), which in turn ignites the cartridge e n e r w
sources to one of two devices, such as pin pullers, either of
which releases an interface to accomplish a desired function.
In this case, each system works independently without any
influence on the other. However, as shown in example B, the
two pin pullers could be designed to directly accomplish the
function without an interface. In example C, two independent
systems through the cartridge level could provide inputs into
a pin puller; in this case, either cartridge has sufficient
energy to independently actuate the pin puller and accomplish
the function. Finally, independent SBASIs could be used to
ignite a single cartridge to actuate the pin puller. Single
point failures occur in the system in example B, the system
and the pin puller in example C, and the system, device, and
cartridge in example D. The level of redundancy depends on
the criticality of the function and is achieved by design.
That is, simplified designs may actually be an improvement
over total redundancy. For example, system complexity in
terms of the number of components and interfaces can increase
the opportunity of failure. Furthermore, the possibility of
inadvertent functioning increases with twice as many firing
systems. In any case, the use of redundancy does not
alleviate the need for designing, demonstrating and producing
components and interfaces of the hiqhest quality and with the
ability to resist inadvertent functioning or failure to
function. Redundant systems should not be counted on to
accomplish the function; each system should be expected to
accomplish the function, even if the other did not exist.
A special word of caution is warranted for the use of crossovers in explosive transfer lines, figure 40. Designers have
fallen into the trap of putting cross-overs at the output
tips of devices, such as time delays. The concept is that,
since the output of time delays won't function
simultaneously, the earliest arrival will trigger the system.
Or, if one path had stopped functioning, a cross-over would
reinitiate that path. However, the fallacy lies in the
possibility that the first input to arrive may cause the
cross-over to malfunction, which in turn can destroy the
second time delay output, causing a loss of propagation in
the second path.
This discussion on success and failure leads to the
contradictory problem faced by the pyrotechnic specialist.
As shown in figure 41, the need to prevent inadvertent
initiations must be balanced against the need to assure that
initiation has been achieved. To prevent initiation, all of
the safety features described above are employed. These
features may be so successful that initiation is prevented.
A great deal of effort must be made in assuring that these
safety features are successfully disabled to properly "armw
the system to allow an initiation command to be transmitted.
Conversely, to assure initiation is achieved, the sensitivity
of devices to initiation commands must be increased to a
reasonable level without unduly impacting safety features.
HlGH EXPLOSIVE OUTPUT
<
EXPLOSIVE
TlME DELAY
HlGH EXPLOSIVE OUTPUT
FALSE REDUNDANCY
HIGH EXPLOSIVE OUTPUT
TlME DELAY
--',
<
HIGH EXPLOSIVE OUTPUT
1
TRUE REDUNDANCY
Figure 40. Example of false redundancy in the use of

explosive crossovers.
SAFETY
PSYCHOLOGY
(NO FIRE)
RELIABILITY
(ALL FIRE)
._._ .... . ...:

, , ,_ .........................
, , , , , , , , , , , , , _.
,
...:....>..
... :
.:::
.:
_:_
. . . ,, , , ,.:;. ,
, ,,
, ,
PYROTECHNIC
Figure 41. Depiction of the need for the pyrotechnic

specialist to meet both safety .and reliability
requirements.
49
Chapter 9
SYSTEM APPROACH FOR APPLICATION OF PYROTECHNICS
o Appoint a pyrotechnic manager

o Compile system requirements
Performance
Physical envelope
Interface with flight vehicle
Environments
Schedule
Reliability/simplicity
Service
cost
Project experience
Management preference
----
The most important task for project management is to

recognize that pyrotechnics must be a separate engineering
discipline from those that are obvious, such as structure,
electrical power, propulsion, telemetry and thermal control.
Pyrotechnic subsystems accomplish a wide variety of critical
functions, such as initiation, staging, ejection and release,
and, consequently, must interface with most other on-board
systems.
A compilation of the requirements on a quantitative basis is
the most valuable framework for driving the design,
development, qualification and integration of pyrotechnic
systems. Realizing that tradeoffs will have to be made
throughout the effort, flexibility in requirements and
approach must be emphasized. A classic example is
establishing a requirement for emerqency escape from an
aircraft over a range of zero veloclty/zero altitude through
supersonic speed at high altitude. The problem is that
escape under supersonic conditions may require many times the
cost, time and effort, than for subsonic escape.
Historically, the preponderance of in-flight escapes for
supersonic aircraft have been at subsonic conditions.
The two statements on project experience and management

preference cannot be discounted. It is often wise to
continue the use of hardware and logic that is well proven
and is familiar to project personnel. Project management
often has a preference, based on experience, which becomes
the baseline from which all concepts are compared. That is,
when another approach is offered, advantages and
disadvantages should be compared to the project experience
and preference.
o Compile history of similar past applications
NASA LeRC compiling catalog
Contact past program managersldesigners
Drawings
Functional performance/understanding
Environmental demonstrations
System performance
o Negotiatelselect approach and functions that most closely
meet requirements
Cannot be unilateral decision
Interfacing system managers may not appreciate
pyrotechnic engineering logic
This kind of homework is valuable in preparing trade studies

and supporting recommendations. Unfortunately, few projects
have the time to document the logic used in making selections
of devices. Even more important is determining the
@@pedigreewof the selected hardware: 1) development history,
including functional margin demonstrations, 2) qualification
demonstration, and 3) lessons learned from failures. Since
there is very little engineering training in the unique
energy sources offered by pyrotechnics (reference 3 ) ,
personnel with limited hands-on experience are often assiqned
and reluctantly accept program responsibility. Few positions
within a project require such preparation (starting from a
modest technology baseline with llmited definitive standards
or specifications for design, development, qualification and
integration). Consequently, when the project concludes,
these personnel are grateful to have successfully "survivedw
the experience and few stay on in the field for the next
project. NASA Lewis Research Center is compiling a catalog
of pyrotechnic applications and devices, which should be
useful in beginning the search cycle. Most of the
information on pyrotechnic devices is from manufacturers.
They have listings of past successful applications of their
devices and often the qualification reports. Unfortunately,
since current specifications do not require quantitative
functional margin demonstrations, the insight into how these
devices and systems were developed is often lacking.
Pyrotechnic devices are presented by manufacturers as "offthe-shelf," like nuts and bolts, needing only "minimalw
modification to meet the specific requirements of the current
mission. The pyrotechnic manager, while developing
requirements, is faced with digesting this myriad of
information from the manufacturers on their hardware,
After compiling needed information, conducting trade studies
and making recommendations to the project, the pyrotechnic
manager must be prepared to negotiate the final approaches.
These negotiations must be made with the managers that are
responsible for systems that interface with the pyrotechnic
systems. These negotiations will likely continue throughout
the life of the project. Recognizing that little engineering
logic has been available for pyrotechnic applications, it is
necessary to assist the managers of interfacing systems with
the speclfic information needed to achieve integration.
o Compile detailed performance requirements
o Determine integration approach
o Obtain approval from interface managers
Once general agreement has been achieved regarding the logic
and principles to be used in applying pyrotechnic systems
within the project, detailed specifications can then be
compiled. It is important to provide information in the
specifications that maintains an overview of what the
objectives of the pyrotechnic subsystems are and how the
pyrotechnic devices are to be integrated into the system.
Managers that interface with pyrotechnics must approve the
specifications, and be kept abreast of the developmental
status,
Chapter 10
GENERATE PERFORMANCE-BASED SPECIFICATIONS
o
o
o
o
Describe approach to system

Define system physical and performance requirements
Define component physical and performance requirements
Require demonstration of functional margin for components
and systems contracted; go/no-go testing alone unacceptable
o Require demonstration of environmental resistance
(qualification)
o Confirm functional margin in lot acceptance testing:
require performance demonstration at a level greater than
worst-case flight conditions
Pyrotechnic specifications should be constructed to insure
that the functions to be accomplished and the logic to be
used are clearly understandable. The function for each
pyrotechnic device, as well as the overall system, should be
readily apparent. This will assist in assuring that all
interfaces are defined and that the end goals are
accomplished. Physical envelopes should be defined so as not
to restrict the types of devices and their functional
approaches. Performance of devices should be defined in
quantitative parameters and margins, based on the functions
to be accomplished, rather than attempting to specify
physical details of design. For example, a pin puller should
be described in terms of the loads to be accommodated and the
functional margins required (energy deliverable by the
cartridge, versus energy required to accomplish the
function). In the field of pyrotechnics, it is very
difficult to produce a device with a "build-to-printeg
specification, since very subtle changes can significantly
affect performance. Every functional test should be designed
to yield quantitative performance information; go/no-go
testing should be eliminated.
Once functional margins have been established for devices
under system requirements and conditions, then the devices
can be subjected to environmental qualification. The design
and demonstration accomplished to this point should provide
confidence that these devices should be capable of
withstanding all environments. At this point, quantitative
measurements of performance must be non-invasive. Devices
must be assembled as flight-configured units and measurements
cannot influence the performance during functioning.
However, external measurements can be made, such as observing
the velocity of a pin during stroking. Also, quantitative
functional data can be obtained after a firing through x-ray
and teardown of the device to reveal internal, precalibrated,
metal deformation, such as an enerp-absorbing cup or the
amount of penetration of a piston in a tapered bore.
Performance verification and functional margin demonstration
should be accomplished for acceptance of new lots of devices.
For example, the test should be configured to require a
worst-case flight condition. Again, quantitative functional
data should be collected non-invasively and/or from post-test
evaluation.
Chapter 11
- PYROTECHNIC
COMPONENT DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
o Utilize engineering experience

- Energy delivery capabilities
Materlals/conflgurations
Scalinq
Compatible materials
Pyrotechnic charge
o Monltor functional performance
o Determine/evaluate key functional parameters
--
Reference 4
The first cut at selecting and sizing the device, its
components, and its performance should be based on the
company's experience with comparable hardware. As described
in chapters 3 and 4, the possibilities and combinations are
nearly unlimited. One approach would be to use existing
hardware with minimal modifications and hardware that had
been qualified previously on a similar application. The
foundation to a successful design effort 1s to monitor
performance to determine and evaluate key functional
parameters; that is, those parameters, when slightly changed,
that most influence performance.
o Conduct development
Adjust performance to optimize
Conduct functional evaluation to limits of requirements
* Forces/loads
* Materials/conditions
* Environments
o Establish structural integrity
Locked shut
Pyrotechnic overload
At conditions of maximum stress, i.e. temperature
Dual-cartridge device must survive simultaneous firings
o Determine functional marginlreliability
--
Development should be conducted to optimize the first five
parameters (energy delivery, materials/configurations,
scaling, compatibility and pyrotechnic charge) by conducting
functional evaluations to the limits of requirements.
Also affecting this optimization is the requirement to
maintain structural integrity. That is, the resistance to
rupture of the pressurized structure can be evaluated by a
locked-shut test (preventing stroke or motion of a piston),
or a pyrotechnic overload at conditions of maximum stress,
such as at temperature extremes. For those devices that
utilize dual energy sources, such as cartridges or explosive

cords, for redundancy (the device must function with the
output of either energy source) firings must be conducted
with simultaneous initiation of both energy sources. This
must be done, even though in the system, only one cartridge
is fired at a time; the possibility exists that both energy
sources can be fired. Functional performance measurements
should be taken during these tests to quantify the degree to
which structural containment was achieved, or how close the
structure was to failing. Maximizing the performance of a
device is contradictory to maintaining structural integrity.
That is, using a large pyrotechnic charge to achieve a large
functional margin will increase the potential of structural
failure. A second contradictory factor is the generation of
pyrotechnic shock, described in chapter 13, which is
increased by greater dynamics from large pyrotechnic loads.
At this point, the structural margin and reliability of the
device, as described in chapters 7 and 8 can be determined.
Chapter 12
o
o
o
o
- QUALIFICATION
Determine the survivability of design to environments

Demonstrate subsystem performance
Compile additional data on functionality (margin)
Various test philosophies
Test all units through all environments
Subdivide test units to allow sequential exposures
o Number of test units depends on:
Criticality of subsystem
Expense
Complexity
Ease of evaluation
o Final firings should be conducted in system-level tests
Worst-case loads
Worst-case environments
Structural integrity
---
--
References 2, 4, and 41
The objectives of component and subsystem qualification are
to demonstrate the capability to withstand environments and
to compile additional information on performance. By
determining the level of performance, based on dynamic or
passive energy measurements, this data will provide further
substantiation of functional margin demonstrations. Two
basic approaches exist in regard to conducting environmental
exposure tests: 1) exposing all test units to all
environments, and 2) subdividing the test units for
sequential exposure to environments. For example, with 5
groups of test units and 5 environments, group 1 would be
subjected to environment 1 and functionally tested, group 2
would be subjected to environments 1 and 2 and functionally
tested, group 3 would be subjected to environments 1, 2 and 3
and functionally tested, etc. With a thorough understanding
of the effects of environments from the developmental effort,
qualification testing should produce no surprises. However,
without a thorough development, test units are subdivided for
sequential exposures. This allows for determination of which
environment had a deleterious effect on performance. At the
conclusion of environmental exposures, the test units should
be functioned at physical and environmental extremes, as well
as demonstrate structural integrity.
Chapter 13
- PYROTECHNIC SHOCK
o Pyrotechnically induced mechanical environment

Suspected cause of Galileo computer memory loss
Magellan, Mars Observer powered down before firing
pyrotechnics
o Dynamic, impulsive compressive/tensile waves generated by:
Rapid pressurization of gas-actuated mechanisms
Impact of mechanical interfaces
Sudden release of loads at loaded interfaces
o Contains frequencies to over 40 khz
o Dynamicists/accelerometers ignore readings above 10 khz
Accelerometers resonate, produce large output
- Limitations on simulators
Assume higher frequencies do not damage
o Viking project required pyrotechnic shock testing
- Impacting mass simulator induced considerable damage
Abandoned above approach for system-level demonstrations
o Recommend system-level demonstrations
Actual or closely simulated structure
Actual pyrotechnic devices
Test item mounted on structure as flown
Eliminates concern of simulation
o Comparison testing
Use Hopkinson Bar with strain gages
Frequency response to 80 khz
Each pyrotechnic design generates reproducible strain
--
Reference 42
Recent spacecraft failures have been associated with a
mechanical environment called pyrotechnic shock. Following
the loss of memory on a backup computer in the Galileo
spacecraft, the Magellan and Mars Observer spacecraft have
been powered down, prior to firing pyrotechnics. A firing
command for pyrotechnically actuated valves was the last
signal to be transmitted to the Mars Observer before
communications with the spacecraft were lost. Since the
spacecraft had no onboard systems in operation, no diagnostic
information could be obtained to analyze the failure of the
spacecraft.
When pyrotechnic devices are functioned, dynamic, impulsive
waves of compressive and tensile strain are produced within
the device and through the release of loads at structural
interfaces. On functioning, pyrotechnic devices produce
strain by rapid, high pressurization of gas-actuated
mechanisms and the impact of these mechanisms at the limits
of the function. An example of the sudden release of loads
is a bolted interface released by explosive bolts. These
strain waves contain frequencies to over 40 khz. A 10 khz
upper frequency level is an artificial constraint applied by
dynamicists, due to the limitations of accelerometers and the
equipment used to simulate pyrotechnic shock inputs. An
assumption is made that frequencies above 10 khz cannot
damage structure. However, small-mass electronics have
exhibited sensitivities in this regime.
Pyrotechnic shock testing was an early requirement on the

Viking Program, the soft landing of two instrumented payloads
on the surface of Mars. Impact test pyrotechnic simulations
always produced severe overtests, destroying many test items.
The pyrotechnic shock simulation requirements were
continuously reduced and, ultimately, were abandoned in favor
of system-level demonstrations.
Only system or subsystem pyrotechnic shock tests should be
conducted, using the actual or closely simulated structure,
with the actual pyrotechnic device and the test item mounted
and functioned as in flight. To compare the shock produced
by various pyrotechnic devices, a Hopkinson bar setup should
be employed.
The complex shock waves generated by individual pyrotechnic
systems, monitored on a Hopkinson bar with high-response (80
k h z ) strain ?ages, have demonstrated a remarkable degree of
reproducibility. The Hopkinson bar is a one-inch diameter,
10-foot long steel bar, which represents a simplified
structure. The shock wave propagates undisturbed down the
length of the bar with only a simple reflected wave at the
end of the bar opposite to the end on which the pyrotechnic
device was mounted. The length of the bar allowed the
complete initial transient pulse to be recorded without
interference from the reflected wave. Multiple firings
(reference 39) of separation nuts produced strain signals
that overwrote one another.
However, pyrotechnic shock simulation is questionable, since
the dynamlcs of a mechanism are difficult to duplicate and
the accelermometer-based data acquisition cannot provide
linear response. Therefore, it is difficult to be assured of
good simulations, risking the possibility of over or undertesting.
Chapter 14
FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS ANALYSES
o Consider and list what can "go wrongIt1such as:

Improper assembly (mechanical hardware and firing system)
Inadvertent command
Out-of-sequence command
Mechanical hanqup
o What can result if incidents occur
o Put emphasis on preventing incidents and demonstrating
system capabilities
Device and system design/functional margins
Personnel awareness
System schematics/diagrams
Procedures
o Use mockups of devices and subsystems
--
Failure Modes and Effects Analyses (F'MEAs) are more than just
a paperwork qame to be played after a pyrotechnic device and
its application have been designed, developed and qualified.
FMEAs (what can Itgo wrong," and what can result) should be
considered throughout the effort, from the earliest
conceptualizations, through qualification. In fact,
considering FMEAs at the conclusion of the design process is
a mistake, since it is almost certainly too late to modify
devices or system designs. The emphasis should be placed on
preventinq incidents and demonstrating device and s stem
capabilities. The best way of preventing failures s through
design, using logic, such as the positioning of components to
assure proper assembly and the demonstration of functional
margins. Equal in importance is the awareness of personnel
concerning what the system is supposed to accomplish and how,
by way of device and subsystem schematics, as well as system
diagrams and assembly and checkout procedures.
Chapter 15
INSTALLATION, INTEGRATION AND CHECKOUT
o Final assurance system will accomplish the required task

o Require end-to-end schematics/diagrams
Show all commands (software)
Electrical wiring and switching
Required end function and location
Labeled interfaces
o Simplified labeling of all components and interfaces
o Provide detailed mockups of final functions (since flight
pyrotechnics cannot be functioned)
o Require end-to-end checkouts
Power up electrical firing circuits
Verify proper firing signals, related to commands
Verify signals reached the correct point for function
Reference 43
Installation, integration and checkout is not only the final
assurance the system will accomplish the required task, it is
the last opportunity to detect and correct any flaws in the
hardware or software of the systems. Since pyrotechnic
devices generally cannot be functioned during checkout of
electrical or other firing systems, it is imperative that
personnel are aware of what they are testing and what is
expected to occur on any given firing command. This
information should be included on end-to-end system
schematics, diagrams and procedures. One drawing should
contain sufficient information, (referring to supporting
drawings, hardware and procedures), to allow personnel to
trace an entire command subsystem from generation (what the
command is supposed to look like), through how it is
transferred to the pyrotechnic device, and what is supposed
to occur when the command is received. Simplified,
standardized labeling should be continuous throughout all of
the components of a subsystem; do not allow labeling to be
independent among individual subsystems and designers.
Accurate mockups (with appropriate sensors and indicators to
acknowledge the arrival of the command) of the devices and
subsystems into which these firing systems are to be
installed are also valuable in assuring that the system will
function as required and that the correct installations will
be accomplished. That is, personnel should be able to
understand that command A should be transmitted through
electrical circuit A to fire the primary energy source, not
just that a final connection was made. End-to-end checkouts
should be performed on the assembled subsystems by powering
up electrical (or other) firing circuits to verify the proper
firing signals were generated, and related to the commands at
the correct sequence, as well as to verify that the signals
were correct and reached the correct point to accomplish the
function.
The problem encountered, particularly by large projects, is

the lack of ownership of the pyrotechnic hardware. That is,
no one assumes the responsibility of assuring the success of
the hardware in meeting the required function from design
through the final installation and checkout. Unfortunately,
the same personnel generally do not follow the hardware
throughout its lifetime, and it is handed from one
organization to another to accomplish each phase of the
proqram. At each interface, the next team may assume that
thelr predecessors did their job, and details in
understanding the hardware can be lost.
Chapter 16
SHELF AND SERVICE LIFE EVALUATION
o Shelf and service survivability demonstrated by performance

o Determine/utilize key performance parameters
o Establish a performance baseline
At original manufacturing cycle
Or use youngest available, identical units
o Sample and function units from shelf/service
o Compare to baseline
o Frequency of sampling dependent on
Design
Performance
Criticality of function
--
--
The survivability of pyrotechnic devices under long-term
shelf and service conditions should be evaluated by
demonstrating performance before and after such exposures.
The long-term stability of devices cannot be accurately
predicted, nor demonstrated through accelerated aging
techniques. Past assumptions have been made that 1) all
reactive materials have a predictable deterioration mechanism
to allow predictions of allowable lifetimes, and 2) elevating
the temperature would predictably accelerate the
deterioration.
Key performance parameters must be determined and a baseline
established for comparison to the performance produced by
devices removed from the shelf or after a lonq time in
service. For example, in the evaluation of rigid explosive
transfer lines, functional measurements included the velocity
of explosive propagation down the explosive cord, and the
velocity and pattern of the explosively accelerated fragments
off the end and side of the transfer cups. The purity of the
explosive materials was evaluated, and degradation studies
were conducted, which corroborated functional performance
decreases with loss in chemical purity. However, for
percussion primer-initiated devices, a chemical analysis of
the multi-ingredient primer mix would be not only complex,
but would be difficult to correlate to functional
performance. Furthermore, the failure modes of percussion
primers are contamination and displacement of the mix, due to
mechanical inputs, such as vibration. Therefore, the
evaluation emphasis was placed on determining functionality
with the highly sensitive ignitability test method.
The frequency of removing samples from service for evaluation
depends on the design, the performance of the device and the
criticality of its function. To use the rigid explosive
transfer llne example, the design of the line provides for
hermetic sealing of all explosive materials, the materials
selected were extremely pure and very stable under time and
temperature, and the assemblies were very rugged with the

explosives compacted at 32,000 psi. The performance of
transfer lines is highly reproducible, producing standard
deviations of 1 to 5% of the mean values of performance.
Obviously, transfer lines serve a critical function,
initiating virtually all the escape system functions in a
wide variety of fighter aircraft. Therefore, the original
allowable service life was 18 months before changeout and
further evaluation was required. However, as experience
increased, service life was extended with the finding that
lines removed from 9 years of service on Army helicopters
could not be functionally or chemically differentiated from
new lines. The Army is leavinq all these lines in their
fleet, removing a sample of unlts at periodic intervals for
evaluation, and expecting no changes for the lifetime of
their aircraft. For the Air Force's B-1B aircraft, service
life was extended from 3 to 20 years in a single step.
Chapter 17
PAST EXPERIENCE AND LESSONS LEARNED
Two examples of past failures of completely different

pyrotechnic devices are provided to present logic for
evaluation and correction.
17-1
- Failure Investiaation of
Vikina Pin Puller
o Successful performance on Mars Lander

o Planned to utilize original hardware lot, 20 years later
o Second user had failure
Duplicate unit
Same manufacturer
Same design/drawings
o Contributors to failure
Lack of o-ring seals
NSI combustion inefficiency/quenching
Deformation of cylinder bore
o After redesign, pin puller went from inadequate
functional margin to a capability of 6 times the energy
required to stroke
o Confinement margin demonstrated by dual-cartridge firing
at 200F under vacuum
--
Reference 4
Following the successful use of the Viking Lander pin puller
(figure 42) on the surface of the planet Mars, two other
programs selected it for further application. A NASA Langley
Research Center project, the Halogen Occultation Experiment
(HALOE), used residual Viking pin pullers. The Jet
Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) planned to go to the manufacturer
of these pin pullers to produce another lot, conduct a deltaqualification for their unique requirements, and fly it on
the Magellan spacecraft. However, early in their evaluation
effort, a unit only stroked half the required distance.
Following a JPL analysis and resolution, another unit failed
to stroke at all. This design was then abandoned by JPL and
another previously qualified pin puller was selected and
used. Meanwhile, NASA Langley Research Center had made a
commitment to use this device and elected to conduct a
failure investigation.
As shown in figure 42, the energy sources were the Viking
Standard Initiators (VSIs), which are virtually identical to
the NASA Standard Initiator (NSI). Firing either or both
units would accomplish the function. The outputs of the VSIs
each pressurized a blind port, that has a 0.100-inch diameter
orifice to vent the gas behind the piston. An 80-pound
strength shear pin prevented premature motion. An energy
absorbing cup was crushed by the excess energy achieved by
the piston/pin at the end of the stroke.
The Viking development effort relied on monitoring the peak
pressure produced in the pin puller to obtain an
understanding of functional margin. A transducer was
installed in the port opposite to the VSI that was fired. It
ENERGY ABSORBING CUP
Figure 42. Cross sectional view of Viking pin puller.

was found through off-loading of the pyrotechnic charge in
the VSI that the pin puller would function with only half the
normal peak pressure. Accordingly, the project assumed a
functional margin of 2, or twice the capability that was
necessary. Furthermore, Viking never experienced a failure;
more than 150 consecutive, successful go/no-go tests,
including a rigorous environmental qualification program and
a number of subsystem functional demonstrations were
accomplished by the time the spacecraft flew. How could a
Mfully-qualifiedw device with such a pedigree fail to
function 20 years later?
The Langley failure investigation revealed that peak
pressure, as the only test parameter, meant virtually
nothing. It was also found that the o-rinq seals were
inadequate: (1) the chemical chromate coatlng (Alodine) was
wiped from the interior of the piston bore and adhered to the
o-ring, preventing a seal, and (2) the molybdenum
disulfide/graphite dry lubricant was wiped from the pin and
piled up on the upstream pressure side of the pin o-rings and
prevented a seal. The net effect was to decrease the
pressures achieved in the working volume, and ultimately, to
reduce the combustion efficiency and to quench the combustion
of the cartridge mix. The bottom of the VSI port
occasionally deformed to grip the piston.
The resolution was to change the pin puller's housing
material and the dry lubricant on the pin. A steel body was
flown, but hard-anodized aluminum performed as well under
additional testing. The dry lubricant was an
electrolitically deposited nickellTeflon coating. The energy
required to function the pin puller was obtained by dropping
a small mass onto the pin; drop height, multiplied by the
drop weight, produced a value of inch-pounds. The energy
absorbing capability of the cup was calibrated by increasing
the drop height. Thus, after each firing, disassembling the
pin puller and measuring the cup crush provided an energy

delivery value for the cartridge. These data are summarized
in figure 43. A value of 25 inch-pounds was determined to
stroke the piston/pin and deform the e n e r p absorbing cup to
prevent rebound. In a sample of only 5 pin puller functional
tests, conducted using actual spacecraft structure, the
average value of energy delivered by the cartridge was 165
with a standard deviation (sigma) of 22 inch-pounds.
Assuminq a normal probabilistic distribution, statistical
tables indicated that the probability of failure for both pin
That
pullers on the mission was equal to or less than 0.4%.
is, the probability for success of both pin pullers was equal
to or greater than 99.6%.
FUNCTIONAL MARGIN GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

CHANGED FROM DETERMINISTIC TO PROBABILISTIC
ENERGY DELIVERABLE BY NSI
(SYSTEM TEST)
DETERMINISTIC
ENERGY
REQUIRED
TO FUNCTION
NO
CUP
ZRUSH
ORIGINAL
DETERMINISTIC
MARGIN
CRlTERlON
X 3
CUP CRUSH
136
ENERGY, IN-LBS
165
190
PROBA,BILITY OF FAILURE ; 0.4% FOR 2 PIN PULLERS (BASED ON SAMPLE OF F I V E TEST
Figure 43. statistical presentation of functional margin for

redesigned HALOE pin puller.
17.2
- Joint
Failure Investiaation of
Lockheed S u ~ e r * Z iSe~aration
~
o Flew for 20 years as stage and shroud separation

o Failure occurred in ground test at cold temperature
o Contributors to failure
Structural material changed
from fracture sensitive to
fracture resistant
Did not adequately control thickness of structural
material
o Cold temperature had no effect on performance
o Functional margin:
Flight explosive load 27% greater than needed
Capability of fracture 71% greater thickness than needed
o Confinement margin was demonstrated by
Determining mechanism that caused tube rupture
Determined explosive load that induced tube rupture
Compared to flight load
--
References 2 and 39
The Lockheed Super*Zip separation joint was developed and
qualified in the late 1960's for payload shrouds (opening the
shroud lonqitudinally and across the nose) and for payload
release (c~rcumferential,cylindrical severance, as shown in
figure 44). In 1984, during a cold-temperature ground-test
demonstration of the ShuttleICentaur system, the joint failed
to separate around the entire circumference. This is one of
the worst possible failure modes, in that a partial
separation would prevent payload release, requiring astronaut
extravehicular activity to dump the payload. The Shuttle
cannot land with the partially released payload on-board.
Landing loads might cause the remainder of the joint to fail,
dropping the payload into the cargo bay, and destroying the
Orblter
The configurations of this separation joint are shown in

figure 45. The principle of operation is the explosive
expansion of a flattened tube, which induces a tensile load
in the material in the two side plates between the notched
areas.and the tube to achieve separation. The explosive
cord, on detonating, transfers its energy through-the rubber
extrusion and into the tube. All products of the explosion
are contained by the tube. The material that was initially
selected to be severed was fracture-sensitive aluminum, 7075T6. The first question is, "Why are the three joints
different?Ig One joint (Galileo) has one explosive cord and
two (Centaur and IUS) have two cords. Firing either one or
both cords achieves separation, but firing both cords can
cause tube rupture. The first joint has a reduction in
thickness at the bolt lines in the side plates, and the other
two do not. The first joint has a materlal thickness at the
notches of 0.025 inch, while the other two have a thickness
of 0.042 inch. Different fasteners are used. The flanges
interfacing the two halves of the system to be separated are
different to accommodate structural designs selected. The
Galileo design was selected for its lighter weight.
Figure 44. Shuttle/Centaur deployment system, using the

Lockheed Super*Zip separation ring.
IUS
Figure 45. Radial cross sectional views of three types of

Super*Zip separation joints, and the programs to
which they were applied.
Parameters within this system, a portion of which are shown

in ficpre 46, were evaluated, and their effects on
functionality were quantified. It was learned that the
fracture mechanism was the following: 1) the detonation of
the explosive cord caused zones at the notches (ligaments) to
or preweakened by damaging grain boundaries, 2)
be ttbruisedtl
the expansion of the tube forced the doublers to bend,
hinging inboard of the line of fasteners, and an explosive
impulse on the major axis of the tube created a tensile load
in the doubler to 3) structurally fail the ligament. The key
point is the bending of the doubler, which is determined by
the cube of the plate thickness. A decision was made by the
Shuttlelcentaur Project Office to anneal the previously
qualified 7075-T6 aluminum to a 7075-T73 condition to avoid
concerns about corrosion-resistant properties of the T6
material. A short panel was made up wlth the T73 material,
test-fired successfully and declared acceptable.
Unfortunately, the functional margin of the system had been
reduced to nearly zero. That is, an examination of the
doublers in the failed test revealed that thicknesses to
0.085 inch fractured successfully, and thicknesses above
0.086 experienced separation failures! Thus, while fracture
properties of the material was the most important variable, a
close second was doubler thickness. The evaluation parameter
used throughout the experimental effort to judge and compare
performance was the doubler thickness.
If
End nngs (2)
Silicone rubber extrusion
F'igure 46. Identification of a portion of the parameters

evaluated in the Super*Zip separation joint.
Using this doubler thickness as a performance parameter, a

tapered doubler plate (figure 37) was machined to permit the
evaluation of a particular variable within a length of 8
inches. That is, as the doubler thickness increased, it
became stiffer to resist fracture. The doubler thickness was
varied from 0.065 to 0.123 inch to prevent total fracture
within the limits of the variables evaluated, but allowed
maximum severance to be measured in each firing. Figure 47
shows the results of several variables, comparing doubler
thickness for successful fracture to explosive load. The
7075-T6 doubler material easily produced the highest
performance in the dual-cord flight configuration. The top
curve indicates that a single, on-center cord is more
efficient than the flight configuration at explosive loads to
just under 11 grains per foot. At 11 grains per foot, tube
splits occurred in the dual-cord configuration, venting
explosive products. Separate tests revealed that the tube in
the single-cord configuration could easily withstand much
higher explosive loads. The mechanism that produced tube
rupture was the impact of the tube against the end ring
nearest to the cord fired, inducing a thinning of the tube
wall. As the tube continued to expand, it failed in tension
at this thinned site.
F~~ght
lolm
(0 042 In. Irgamaml
Figure 47. Severance performance, comparing web thickness to

explosive load, of several configurations of the
Super*Zip separation joint.
Explosive margin for this separation joint was established by

ratioing loads:
minimal flight load
min. load to break thickest doubler
9.5
For the Shuttle/IUS:
1.27
7.5
A second margin was established by ratioinq the plate bending

moments for successful severance (plate thicknesses cubed) at
the minimum flight load to the maxlmum allowable flight
thickness.
(minimum severed thickness)

-
(maximum allowable t h i ~ k n e s s ) ~
For the Shuttle/IUS:
(0.08213
1.71
Chapter 18
DISPOSAL METHODS
o Environmental restrictions
Burning to atmospheric discharge
Burial in land fills
Discharqe into streams/water
o Biggest Military problem = base cleanup/weapons disposal
o Government approach
Closed-cycle burning, minimal discharge
Chemically dissolving/separation/recycling
o U.S. Army Defense Ammunition Center and School
Savanna, Illinois 61074-9639
(815) 273-8901
--
--
Applying pyrotechnic (explosive and propellant-actuated)

devices has been considered to be an art, rather than an
engineerin7 science. When failures occurred after completing
qualification, past designers had few test methods that
quantitatively defined performance and functional and
structural containment margins. Their recourse was limited,
other than to provide more pyrotechnic energy. However, if
this scenario was true, why has the application of
pyrotechnics been so successful? What is the need for change
if so few failures have occurred? Finally, with the failures
that have occurred, why haven't clear resolutions been made
and specifications improved to prevent recurrence?
Over the years a number of justifications have been offered.
Pyrotechnic devices contain explosives, which really can't be
measured because of their high energy levels and dynamics.
These devices are just like electronic "black boxes;" it is
not necessary to understand the internal components. This is
the way we've always tested these devices. These people know
what they're doing; they have been making and applying these
devices for a lot of years. Besides, the devices we're using
now are just like the designs that have been flying for
years. We don't have time to do research. We have to fix
this failure quickly to meet flight schedules. Don't worry,
once we get this system together, it'll work. Trust me.
Success with pyrotechnic devices has been achieved through
large functional margins. Even though functional margins
were not defined, it is not difficult to use plenty of
explosive or propellant to make each device work. The major
problem with widely cited requirements {go/no-go testing and
+/-15% pyrotechnic loads) is that functional or containment
margins are not defined. Without failures there is no way to
determine how close the device is to failure. That is, when
the device has a minimal energy source, if all the devices
within a group (usually numbering less than 200) function,
the assumption is made that functional reliability is
adequate. However, should system parameters vary in an
amount that would be trivial in pneumatics or hydraulics
systems, such as surface finish, o-ring lubrication or the
initial free volume into which the energy source is fired,
failure can occur. Similarly, when the device has too large
a charge, which could introduce structural failure, the
assumption is made that since all test units maintained
structural integrity containment reliability has been
achieved. More than 2000 uidenticallgdevices must be
subjected to simple go/no-go testing to assure functional and
structural reliability.
The primary purpose of this manual is to alter the concept
that the use of pyrotechnics is an art and refute the abovestated wjustificationsB~that applications don't need to be
understood by providinq information on pyrotechnic design,
development and qualification on an engineering basis.
Included are approaches to demonstrate functional reliability
with less than 10 units, how to manage pyrotechnic-unique
requirements, and methods to assure that the system is
properly assembled and will perform the required tasks.
REFERENCES
Lake, E.R.; Thompson, S. J.; and Drexelius, V.W.: A Study
of the Role of Pyrotechnics on the Space Shuttle Program.
NASA CR-2292, September 1973.
Bement, Laurence J. and Schimmel, Morry L.:
Integration of Pyrotechnics into Aerospace Systems.
Presented at the 27th Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium, May
12-14, 1993, NASA Ames Research Center, California.
Bement, Laurence J.: Pyrotechnic System Failures:
Causes and Prevention. NASA TM 100633, June 1988.
Determination of pyrotechnic ~unctionalMargin.
Presented at the 1991 SAFE Symposium, November 11-14,
1991, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Schimmel, Morry L.: The F-111 Crew Module: ~ a j o r
Challenge for Thermally Stable Explosives. Presented at
the Symposium on Thermally Stable Explosives, U.S. Naval
Ordnance ~aboratory-WhiteOak, silver Spring, Maryland.
June 23-25, 1970.
Bement, Laurence J.: Rotor Systems Research Aircraft
(RSRA) Emergency Escape System. Presented at the 34th
Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society,
Washington, DC, May 1978.
Simmons, William H.: Apollo Spacecraft Pyrotechnics.
NASA TM X-58032, October 1969.
Falbo, Mario J. and Robinson, Robert L.: Apollo
Experience Report. NASA TN D-7141, March 1973.
Graves, Thomas J.: Space Shuttle
A Pyrotechnic
Overview. Presented at the European Space Agency
Conference on Explosives and Pyrotechnics, Space
Applications, October 23-25, 1979, Toulouse, France.
Ellern, Herbert: Modern Pyrotechnics. Chemical
Publishing Company, 1961.
MIL-P-46994/B, Amendment 3: General specification for
boron/potassium nitrate
Drexelius, V. W. and Schimmel, M. L.: A Simplified
Approach to Parachute Mortar Design. Presented at the
Seventh Symposium on Explosives and Pyrotechnics,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, September 7-9, 1971.
Design and Performance Specification for NSI-1 (NASA
Standard Initiator-1). SKB26100066. Januarv 3. 1990.
Meyer, Rudolph: ~xplosives. printed by ~ e c l a g
Chemie, 1977.
properties of Explosives of Military Interest. AMCP
706-177, AD 764340. U.S. Army Materiel Command, January
1971.
Rouch, L. L. and Maycock, J. N.: Explosive and
Pyrotechnic Aging Demonstration. NASA CR-2622, February
1976.
17. Material Specification for HNS Explosive, WS5003J.
Naval Surface Weapons Center, February 1981.
18. Kilmer, E. E.: Heat-Resistant Explosives for Space
Applications. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 5,
No. 10, October, 1968.

MIL-STD-1576 (USAF): Electroexplosive Subsystem
Safety Requirements and Test Methods for Space Sys,tems,
July 31, 1984.
DOD-E-83578A (USAF): Explosive Ordnance for Space
Vehicles (Metric), General Specification for, October 15,
1987.
NSTS 08060, Revision G: Space Shuttle System
Pyrotechnic Specification.
Lake, E. R.: Percussion Primers, Design Requirements.
McDonnell Douglas Corporation Report MDC A0514, Revision
B, April 5, 1982.
Schimmel, Morry L. and Kirk, Bruce: Study of
Explosive Propagation Across Air Gaps. McDonnell
Aircraft Corporation Report B331, December 24, 1964.
Schimmel, Morry L.: Quantitative Understanding of
Explosive Stimulus Transfer. NASA CR-2341, December
1933.
Bement, Laurence J.: Helicopter (RSRA) In-Flight
Escape System Component ~ualification. Presented at the
Tenth Symposium on Explosives and Pyrotechnics, San
Francisco, ~alifornia,February, 1979.
Persson, Per-Anders: Fuse. U.S. Patent 3,590,739,
July 6, 1971.
Chenault, Clarence F.; McCrae, Jr., Jack E.; Bryson,
Robert R. and Yang, Lien C.: The Small ICBM Laser
Ordnance Firing System. AIAA 92-1328.
Ankeney, D. P.; Marrs, D.M.; Mason, B. E.; Smith, R.
L. and Faith, W. N.: Laser ~nitiationof Propellants and
Explosives. Selected Papers, SP93-09, on Laser Ignition.
Published by the Chemical Propulsion Information Agency,
September 1993.
Drexelius, V. W. and Berger, Harold: Neutron
Radiographic Inspection of Ordnance Components.
Presented at the Fifth Symposium on Electroexplosive
Devices, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, June 13 and 14,
1967.
Bement, Laurence J.: Monitoring of
Explosive/Pyrotechnic Performance. Presented at the
Seventh Symposium on Explosives and Pyrotechnics,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, September 8-9, 1971.
Schimmel, Morry L. and Drexelius, Victor W.:
Measurement of Explosive output. Presented at the Fifth
Symposium of Electroexplosive Devices, the Franklin
Institute, June 1967.
Bement, Laurence J. and Schimmel, Morry L.: Cartridge
Output Testing: Methods to Overcome Closed-Bomb
Shortcomings. Presented at the 1990 SAFE Symposium, San
Antonio, Texas, December 11-13, 1990.
Bement, Laurence J.; Schimmel, Morry L.; Karp, Harold
and Magenot, Michael C.: Development and Demonstration of
an NSI-Derived Gas Generating Cartridge (NGGC).
Presented at the 1994 NASA Pyrotechnic Systems Workshop,
Albuquerque, New Mexico, February 8 and 9, 1994.

Ignitability Test Method. Presented at the 1988 SAFE
Symposium, Las Vegas, Nevada, December 5-8, 1988.
Ignitabilit~Test Method
Part 2. Presented at the 1989
SAFE Symposium, New Orleans, LA, December 4-8, 1989.
Bement, Laurence J.; Doris, Thomas A. and Schimmel,
Morry L.: Output Testing of Small-Arms Primers.
Presented at the 1990 SAFE Symposium, San Antonio, Texas,
December 11-13, 1990.
Bement, Laurence J. and Schimmel, Morry L.: Approach
for Service life Extension of Explosive Devices for
Aircraft Escape Systems. NASA TM 86323, February 1985.
Bement, Laurence J.; Kayser, Eleonore G. and
Schimmel, Morry L.: Service Life Evaluation of Rigid
Explosive Transfer Lines. NASA TP2143, August 1983.
Investigation of Super*Zip Separation Joint. NASA TM
4031, May 1988.
Hahn, G. J.: Which Statistical Interval Do I Use?
Confidence, Tolerance, and Prediction Intervals
Vive
La Difference! General Electric Statogram Newsletter,
Vol. 18, No. 1, February 2, 1970.
Bement, Laurence J.: Helicopter (RSRA) In-Flight
Escape System Component Qualification. Presented at the
Tenth Symposium on Explosives and Pyrotechnics, San
Francisco, CA, February 1979.
Bement, ~aurenceJ. anh Neubert, Dr. Vernon H.:
Development of Low-Shock Pyrotechnic Separation Nuts.
Presented at the 8th Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium,
Hampton, Va October 18, 19, 1973.
Wingate, Robert T.; Holloway, Tommy W.; Bement,
Laurence J.; Gunn, Charles R.; Hudkins, Keith L.;
Stephens, Robert M.; Wonsever, Josef A.; and Moses,
Robert W.: Anomaly Investigation Board STS-51 TOS/ASE
Deploy Hardware. NASA Headquarters, January 7, 1994.
--
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
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1. m
Y USE WLY ( h w &I&)
II REPORTTYPE AND DATES COVERED
12 REPORT DATE
A Manual for Pyrotechnic Design, Development and Qualification
Laurence J. Bement and Mony L. Schimmel
I
I
7. PERFORMINO ORQANIUTWN ll*YE(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)
297-50-00-02
8. PERFORMW ORQANIUTKWJ
REFORT NUMBER
NASA Langley Research Center

Hampton, VA 23681-0001
a. SPONSORINQI uwnosrrmMENCY
WE(S) ANO *DDRESS(ES)
lo.
NationalAeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, DC 20546-0001
SPONSORINQ IYON~ORLNG
MENCY REPOIIT NWBER
NASA TM 110172
I
It. SUWLEMENTARY NOTES
Bernent: Langley Research Canter, Hampton, VA

Schimmel: Schimrnel Company. St. Louis, MO
IZL DISTRIBUTION/ aV*IUBIUTY STATEMENT
12b. DISTRIBUTION COOE
Unclassified Unlimited
Subject Category 18
Availability: NASA CASI, (801) 621-0390
13. ABSTRACT (Nuhm 200 d)
Although pyrotechnic devices have been singularly responsible for the success of many of the critical
mechanicalfunctions in aerospace programs for over 30 years, ground and in-flight failures continue to occur.
Subsequent investigations reveal that little or no quantitative information is available on measuring the effects on
performance of system variables or on determiningfunctional margins. hrotechnics are considered to be
readily available; and, therefore, can be managed by any subsystem in which they are applied, such as
structure, propulsion, electric power, or lie support. The primary purpose of this manual is to alter the concept
that the use of pyrotechnics is an art and refute qustlicationsathat applicationsdo not need to be understood by
providing information on pyrotechnic design, devebprnent, and qualification on an engineering basis. Included
are approaches to demonstrate functional reliabilii with less than 10 units, how to manage pyrotechnic-unique
requirements, and methods to assure that the system is properly assembled and will performthe requiredtasks.
I&
SUBJECTTERNS
1A NUMBER OF PUYO
Pyrotechnic; Explosive; Spacecraft; Aircraft; Design; Development; Qualification

7. S W R I T V CWSlFlCATlON
OFREPORT
Unclassified
ISN 754001-2805500
18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF TCRI PAGE
Unchsslied
19. SECURITY CWSlFICATKm

OF ABSTRACT
;,,-,,
81
A05
20. UYITATIW OF ABSTRACT
I
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NASA Technical Memorandum 110172

A MANUAL FOR PYROTECHNIC

National Aeronautics and

The authors wish to acknowledge the efforts of Mr. Norman R.

Pyrotechnic. Propellant and Explosive Materials as

Test Methods and Functional Performance

Installation. Integration and Checkout

Shelf and Service Life Evaluation

System Approach for Applications of Pyrotechnics

Major Past and Current Pyrotechnic ~pplicationsin

Energy Sensor Performance Data on Test Cartridges

Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

Cross sectional views of explosive and pyrotechnically

Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

Cross sectional views of flexible linear shaped charge

Cross sectional view A-A on right of F-111 crew module

10. Depiction of pyrotechnic devices used on Project

18. Cross sectional view of rigid explosive transfer line,

23. Typical current versus bridgewire break function time

24. Typical current versus first pressure indication

25. Typical pressures produced by cartridge firings in a

26. Cross sectional view of McDonnell Energy Output Test

27. Cross sectional view of NASA LaRC Dynamic Test Device. 34

30. Typical pressure traces recorded and the energies

32. Typical pressure traces produced by the M42C1 and M42C2

34. Ignitability comparison of three ignition materials,

35. Schematic diagram of test fixture to monitor fragment

38. Graphic representation of statistical design margin,

40. Example of false redundancy in the use of explosive

45. Radial cross sectional views of three types of Super*Zip

46. Identification of a portion of the parameters

47. Severance performance, comparing web thickness to

Chapter 1.- INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2.- PYROTECHNICS DEFINITION, CONSIDERATIONS FOR

In aerospace technology pyrotechnics refer to a broad family

2-3 Althouuh Successful, Pvrotechnics Are Reluctantly Used

Contain explosive materials

o Limited engineering approaches/standards are available

o Failures continue to occur

PYROTECHNIC FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES

o Majority of pyrotechnically actuated functions

Figure 1. Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

Figure 2. Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

Figure 3. Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

FRAGMENTING (STRUCTURAL BREAKUP)

PRESSURE (TENSION FA1LURE)

RIDGE CUT (SHOCK WAVE FAILURE)

HYDRAULIC (HOOPTTENSION FAILURE)

SHEAR (SHEAR PIN FAILURE)

~ i g u r e4. Cross sectional views of explosive and

Figure 5. Cross sectional views of pyrotechnically actuated

Figure 6. Cross sectional views of mild detonating cord

FLSC HAS GREATER DIRECTIONAL

Figure 7. Cross sectional views of flexible linear shaped

TABLE I.- Major Past and Current pyrotechnic Applications

F-111 CREW MODULE

F-14 (DUAL PLACE)