A Mapping of Textile Waste Recycling Technologies in Europe and Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Main Stages of Textile Waste Management
Efforts Toward Textile Circularity in Spain
2. Materials and Methods
- Description of the process.
- Technologies and their description.
- Status of the technologies and future perspectives.
- Advantages and disadvantages.
3. Sorting
3.1. Description
3.2. Manual Sorting
3.3. Automated Sorting
- Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR)
- Radio-frequency identification (RFID)
3.3.1. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIR)
3.3.2. Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)
3.4. Status of the Technologies and Future Perspectives
4. Mechanical Recycling Technologies: General Description
- Mechanical process: Textile waste is broken down and transformed into new textile products using mechanical processes, without the need for heat or chemicals to dissolve the materials.
- Thermomechanical process: Melting of synthetic fibers before they can be spun into new fibers or form into other shapes [20].
4.1. Mechanical Process
4.2. Thermomechanical Process
4.3. Status of the Technologies and Future Perspectives
4.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical Processes
5. Chemical Recycling Technologies
5.1. General Description
- Glycolysis
- Methanolysis
- Hydrolysis (acid, alkali)
- Aminolysis
- Hydrothermal process
- Enzymatic hydrolysis
- Gasification
- Ammonolysis
- Pyrolysis
5.2. Glycolysis of PET
- Other Chemical Processes for Depolymerizing PET
5.3. Hydrothermal Process
5.4. Enzymatic Hydrolysis
5.5. Pyrolysis
- Oils: These can be used as fuel, lubricants, or chemicals.
- o
- Natural fibers, such as cotton and wool, produce oils containing a mixture of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, carboxylic acids, and alcohols. Wool, which contains proteins, may also contain nitrogen compounds such as amines and amides.
- o
- Synthetic fibers, such as PET, product oils rich in aromatic hydrocarbons, including terephthalic acid and its derivatives, and polyamide (nylon) oils containing caprolactam or its derivatives.
- o
- Blends and complex textiles produce oils with a wide range of organic compounds.
- Gases: These can be used as an energy source.
- o
- Natural fibers: Rich in CO, CO2, H2, and light hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethylene).
- o
- Synthetic fibers: depending on the polymer type, PET pyrolysis tends to produce more CO and CO2. Nylon may generate higher levels of nitrogenous gases such as ammonia or hydrogen cyanide.
- o
- Blends and complex textiles: Result in a complex mixture of CO, CO2, H2, light hydrocarbons, and in the case of lycra, elastane and nylon, possibly nitrogenous or sulfuric gases (SO2, H2S, SO3) if these elements are present in the feedstock.
- Charcoal: it can be reprocessed to generate fine spherical carbon black (CB) particles. CB can be used together with Carbon nanotubes or graphene as fillers in cement composite applications [67].
- o
- Natural fibers: Primarily composed of carbon, with a structure that can retain some of the texture of cellulose or proteinaceous material (although the protein structure itself is typically broken down during the pyrolysis process, the char might retain some of the original texture from these protein-containing materials before being further processed).
- o
- Synthetic fibers: Any solid residue that may contain carbon but with a higher degree of aromaticity, reflecting the synthetic origin.
- o
- Blends and complex textiles: Carbon content and mineral residues (inorganic fillers, metallic compounds, flame retardants, pigments…) reflecting the diversity of the feedstock.
5.6. Status of the Technologies and Future Perspectives
5.7. Advantages and Disadvantages
6. Legislation, Regulation, and Other Transversal Aspects
6.1. Strategy for the Circularity and Sustainability of Textile Products
- New Design Requirements: Introduce new design requirements for textile products under the Sustainable Products Design Regulation. These requirements would establish mandatory minimums for the inclusion of recycled fibers in textiles, making them more durable and easier to repair and recycle. According to the proposed regulation, sustainable textile products will become the norm in the EU. The proposal also aims to prohibit the destruction of unsold products under certain conditions, including unsold or returned textile products. This measure is ongoing and due for completion by 2024.
- Clearer Information on Textile Products and a Digital Product Passport: Implement clearer information on textile products and a digital product passport based on mandatory information requirements regarding circularity and other key environmental aspects. Strict eco-bleaching controls: Enforce stricter standards for eco-bleaching with the aim of protecting consumers, linked to the upcoming initiative on ecological claims.
- Measures to Address the Unintended Release of Microplastics from Textile Products: Implement measures to address the unintended release of microplastics, focusing on product design, manufacturing processes, pre-washing in industrial manufacturing plants, labeling, and the promotion of innovative materials.
- Harmonized EU Standards on Extended Producer Responsibility for Textile Products: Establish harmonized EU standards on extended producer responsibility for textile products, along with economic incentives to make products more sustainable (“ecological modulation of fees”), as part of the review of the Waste Framework Directive in 2023.
- Support for Research, Innovation, and Investments: Provide support for research, innovation, investments, and the development of necessary capabilities for ecological and digital transition.
- Addressing Challenges in Ending Textile Waste Exports: Tackle the challenges associated with ending the export of textile waste.
- Joint Creation of a Transition Route for the Textile Ecosystem: Collaboratively create a transition route for the textile ecosystem to establish the path forward and take concrete steps to achieve the 2030 goals set by the Textile Products Strategy.
6.2. Spanish Circular Economy Strategy (2030)—Government of Spain
- Mandatory separate collection for new waste streams: textiles, hazardous domestic waste, used cooking oils, and biowaste (deadline: 31 December 2024).
- The necessary regulations will be developed to apply extended producer responsibility (EPR) to textile waste, ensuring the resources needed for financing the separate collection of textile waste. Progress will be made in preparation for the reuse, recycling, and development of products with recycled materials. Work will be carried out on the implementation of information systems related to the market placement of textile products and their management (deadline: April 2025).
- The European Commission will assess the need for the inclusion of reuse and recycling targets in this waste stream (2024).
6.3. Law 7/2022 of 8 April 2022 on Waste and Contaminated Soils for a Circular Economy
- −
- Article 18. Prevention Measures: The destruction or disposal of unsold non-perishable products such as textiles, toys, or electrical appliances, among others, through landfill deposit is prohibited.
- −
- Article 25. Separate Collection of Waste for Valorization: Incineration, with or without energy recovery, and landfilling of separately collected waste for preparation for reuse and recycling are prohibited. Local entities will establish the separate collection of, at least, the following waste fractions of local competence:
- (a)
- Paper, metals, plastic, and glass.
- (b)
- Domestic biowaste by 30 June 2022 for local entities with a population above five thousand inhabitants and by 31 December 2023 for the rest. Separate collection of biowaste also includes separation and recycling at the source through domestic or community composting.
- (c)
- Textile waste by 31 December 2024.
- (d)
- Used cooking oils by 31 December 2024.
- (e)
- Hazardous domestic waste by 31 December 2024, to prevent contamination of other local competence waste streams.
- (f)
- Bulky waste (furniture and household items) by 31 December 2024.
- −
- Seventh Final Provision. Within a maximum period of three years from the entry until this law, extended producer responsibility schemes will be developed for textiles, furniture and household items and for non-packaging agricultural plastics.
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Textile Flow | Sweden | Italy | France | Germany | Netherlands |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consumption of new textiles | Data (2013) | Data (2018) | Data (2019) | Data (2018) | Data (2018) |
Separate/collection of used textiles | Data (2016) | Partial data (2018) | Data (2019) | Partial data (2018) | Data (2018) |
Fate of separately collected textiles | Data (2016) | Partial data (2018) | Data (2019) | Partial data (2018) | Data (2018) |
Consumption of secondhand textiles | Partial data (2016) | No available | Partial data (2019) | Partial data (2018) | Partial data (2016) |
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
Conventional Manual Sorting | |
Facilitates reuse and is a more cost-effective and efficient sorting process due to the increased expertise of the sorting staff. | Takes a long time to operate (a correct process of manual sorting usually takes about six months for a new employee to acquire the necessary skills to sort used textiles destined for reuse markets, and even longer to reach a high level of efficiency) |
It is expensive due to labor costs, and it is not possible to determine the detailed fiber composition. | |
Assisted Manual Sorting | |
Enables high-quality recycling and sorting for reuse to be carried out simultaneously, without the need for new equipment or an additional processing step. | Scanning technology is only applicable for non-reusable textiles as it cannot determine the composition of multi-layer garments or identify fabrics with another material in the core of the yarn. For example, voice sorting (TEIXAD) cannot sort small items and yarns that can be stored in the belt. Furthermore, the belt cannot handle large items such as quilts. |
Type of Technology | Specific Technology | TRL | References |
---|---|---|---|
Manual sorting | Manual labor | 9 | [2] |
Automated sorting | NIR | 8 | [39,45] |
RFID | 8 | [40,43,46] |
Parameter | Technology | |||
Manual | Manual + FTIR | RFID | Bar Code | |
Labor, GBP/ton | 200 | 160 | 70 | 70 |
Capital requirement, GBP (in thousands) | Inc. in ‘Labor’ | 424 | 645 | 1120 |
Running cost, GBP/ton | Inc. in ‘Labor’ | 5 | 7 | 6 |
Feedstock, GBP/ton | 550 | 550 | 550 | 550 |
Sales price, GBP/ton | 780 | 785 | 785 | 785 |
Profit, GBP/ton | 30 | 70 | 155 | 150 |
Margin, % of sales price | 4 | 9 | 20 | 19 |
Marker cost, GBP | 0 | 0 | 0.5–0.75 | 0.01 |
Marker attachment cost, GBP | 0 | 0 | 0.02 | 0.02 |
Type of Technology | Specific Technology | TRL | References |
---|---|---|---|
Mechanical processes | Mechanical recycling | 7–9 | [17] |
Thermomechanical recycling | 2–3 | [42,52] |
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
Mechanical Recycling | |
It can process practically any textile waste stream (material and structure). | Compared with chemical recycling technologies and mechanical recycling, it can process relatively small quantities of waste material |
Requires relatively little investment and space and requires less-highly skilled personnel. | The quality of the fibers obtained depends on the quality of the input material. |
The process uses relatively few resources (water and energy requirements are low, ranging between 0.3 and 0.5 kW per kilogram and about 20 L per ton of input material) [18]. | Recycled content is limited as the obtained fibers are usually not long enough and are mixed with virgin fibers. |
The original properties of the fiber are maintained, although these may be altered depending on the condition of the fiber [17]. | Textiles made with fiber blends can be more challenging to mechanically recycle due to differences in fiber properties. Additionally, the presence of contaminants (such as coatings, adhesives, elastane, etc.) complicates fiber recovery [34]. |
Stability and profitability, as it is an efficient and well-known process. Additionally, it involves simple operations at room temperature and standard pressure. | The number of times fibers can be recycled is limited because the process degrades the fibers with each cycle. There is also difficulty in reprocessing cotton or polymer blends. Mechanical shredding damages natural fibers more than synthetic fibers in mixed fabrics such as polyester and cotton [48]. |
Suitable for treating waste with a known history and composition, such as production waste or specific consumer waste from specialized collection centers. | Not suitable for recycling chemically contaminated textiles; hazardous substances remain in the recycled material, which is an obstacle to the expansion of this technology. |
Thermomechanical Recycling | |
Less energy consumption (around 20–30% lower) compared with the energy required for producing new synthetic fibers, which can be in the range of 55–125 MJ/kg. | Can only be used to recycle thermoplastics, which can be remolded with heat, but not thermoset polymers. |
Reduction in GHGs (greenhouse gas emissions), e.g., recycling 1 kg of polyester can save up to around 3 kg of CO2 emissions compared with producing new polyester fiber [42]. | The technology is highly sensitive to contaminants and to the state of the polymer (molecular weight and viscosity); it requires specialized equipment and specific conditions [46]. |
Thermomechanical recycling processes can handle large quantities of waste. Some industrial systems can process several tons of textile waste per hour. | Not suitable for post-consumer waste treatment due to the lack of predictability of the origin, composition, type, and amount of contamination. |
Requires a high temperature (approx. 250 °C) | |
The recovery rate for synthetic fibers in thermomechanical recycling can be high, often above 90%, depending on the purity and condition of the input material. | Thermomechanical treatment of polyester can release chlorinated organic compounds, silicones, and alkylphenols through evaporation [53] |
The input textile must be sorted by colors, or a dark dye or pigment should be added to avoid irregular colors. |
Catalyst | Ratio of Catalyst/PET | Ratio of EG/PET | T (°C) | BHET Yield (%) | PET Conversion (%) | References |
DES | 6 | 15 | 180 | 88 | 100 | [54] |
Niobia-based | Sulfated (40 wt %) niobia calcined | 6 | 195 | 85 | 100 | [55] |
Tetragonal ZnMn2O4 | 1.0 wt% | 17.2 | 260 | 92.2 | 100 | [56] |
[Bmim]ZnCl3 | 0.16 wt% | - | 190 | 83.8 | 100 | [57] |
Input | Output | Description | References |
---|---|---|---|
Waste cotton/polyester blended fabrics (WBFs) | Cellulose powder | Reaction conditions: 1.5 wt. % HCl in water, 3 h, 150 °C. Yield: Cellulose recovery 96.24%. | [61] |
Waste cotton fabrics (WCFs) | Microcrystalline cellulose | Reaction conditions: hydrothermal conditions (solid–liquid ratio 1:30, HCl concentration 0.6 mol/L, 150 °C, 100 min) Yield: 85.54%. | [62] |
Cotton/synthetic fibers | Volatile compound | Reaction conditions: 230 and 280 °C with a residence time from 30 min to 90 min. Yield: ∼98% volatile matter was detected. | [63] |
Input | Enzyme | Description | Glucose Yield (%) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Used jeans (Cotton: 86.1%, polyester: 13.9%) | Cellulase Trichoderma reesei and Aspergillus niger | Reaction conditions: 85% phosphoric acid, 50 °C, 7 h, and a ratio of 1:15 | 79.2 | [64] |
Textile from end-of-life euro banknotes (Pure cotton) | NaOH/Urea (Base) | Exposure of the ELEBs to milling processes and alkali and acid leaching to remove any contamination and to decrease the crystallinity of cellulose, thus increasing the degradation rate during the fermentation process. | 96.0 | [65] |
Cotton, 90% Wool, 5% Polyester, 5% | Cellic CTec3® and Savinase 12T® | Reaction conditions: 1 g of artificial and real blends were washed in mQ-H2O, heated up at boiling temperature for 30 min and subsequently dried at 105 °C for 6 h. These were then weighed and incubated with 75 mL of 50 mM Tris-HCl buffer pH 9 containing 8 U mL−1 of protease for two days at 50 °C. | 95.0 | [66] |
Input | Major Products | Description | Yield (%) | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solid | Liquid | Gas | ||||
Egyptian banknote ELCBs (Cotton 100%) | 2-Propanone, toluene, 3-furaldehyde, 2-furalmethanol, benzaldehyde, phenol, acetophenone | Reaction conditions: The conditions that achieve maximum activation energy (25 °C/min) up to 700 °C. Pyrolysis conversion of 84.35%. | 15.65 | 29.28 | 55.07 | [69] |
Flax, 100% | Activated carbon | Flax and hemp natural fibers are manufactured into a non-woven, pre-formed matting material and subsequently treated via chemical activation and pyrolysis to produce activated carbon. The conditions are from 450° to 600°. | 4.80 | NA | NA | [70] |
Type of Technology | TRL | Comments |
---|---|---|
Glycolysis | 5 | Recycling of polycotton blends using solvent-based dissolution and filtration. Expected TRL of 9 in 2025. |
Hydrothermal | 6–7 | Recycling of polycotton blends using hydrothermal technologies. Expected TRL of 9 in 2024. |
Enzymatic hydrolysis | 5–6 | Recycling of polycotton blends using an enzymatic route. Expected TRL of 9 in 2024. |
Pyrolysis | 6–7 | Recycling of natural fibers using pyrolysis technologies. Expected TRL of 6–7 in 2024. Recycling of synthetic fibers using pyrolysis technologies. Expected TRL of 4–6 in 2024. Recycling of blended textiles using pyrolysis technologies. Expected TRL of 3–5 in 2024. |
Type of Technology | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Glycolysis |
|
|
Hydrothermal process |
|
|
Enzymatic hydrolysis |
|
|
Pyrolysis |
|
|
Key Actions | Date |
---|---|
Actions within the framework of the Regulation on the eco-design for sustainable products after its adoption | |
Compulsory behavioral requirements for the environmental sustainability of textile products | 2024 |
Digital passport for textile products with environmental sustainability information requirements | 2024 |
Mandatory requirements for ecological public procurement and incentives from member states | 2024 |
Disclosure of the number of products discarded by major companies and their subsequent treatment, along with measures to prohibit the destruction of unsold textile products | 2024 |
Other Measures on Sustainable Production and Consumption | |
Consumer training in the context of ecological transition and assurance of the reliability of ecological claims | 2022 |
Review of the regulation on textile product labeling and evaluation of the possibility of introducing a digital label | 2023 |
Review of the criteria for the EU ecolabel for textile and footwear products | 2024 |
Environmental footprint category rules for apparel and footwear products | 2024 |
Initiative to address the involuntary release of microplastics from textile products | 2022 |
Review of the reference document on best available techniques for the textile industry | 2022 |
Implementation of the due diligence directive on corporate sustainability in the textile sector | From 2023 |
Actions Regarding Challenges in Waste Management | |
Extended producer responsibility requirements for textile products with ecological modulation of fees and measures to promote a hierarchy of textile waste | 2023 |
Commencement of efforts to establish targets for the preparation for the reuse and recycling of textile products | 2022 |
Implementation of restrictions on the export of textile waste outside the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the development of criteria to distinguish waste from secondhand textile products | From 2023 |
Actions to Facilitate the Transition | |
Launch of the transition pathway for the textile ecosystem | 2022 |
Guidelines on supporting the adoption of a circular economy and partnerships for a circular economy among social enterprises and other stakeholders, particularly in the textile sector | 2022 |
Guidelines on circular economy business models, including the textile sector | 2024 |
Launch of #refashionnow | From 2022 |
New European Bauhaus to support projects that increase sustainability of fashion while meeting demands related to aesthetics and inclusivity. | From 2022 |
Horizon Europe calls to support research and development in the textile sector | 2021–2027 |
Adoption of a common roadmap on circularity for industrial technology | 2022 |
Criteria for the circular manufacturing of apparel under the taxonomy regulation | 2022 |
Capacity building for the textile ecosystem within the European Skills Agenda and the renewed European Alliance for Apprenticeships | From 2022 |
Strengthening market surveillance through cooperation between law enforcement authorities and the launch of a set of EU instruments against counterfeiting | From 2022 |
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Lanz, I.E.; Laborda, E.; Chaine, C.; Blecua, M. A Mapping of Textile Waste Recycling Technologies in Europe and Spain. Textiles 2024, 4, 359-390. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles4030022
Lanz IE, Laborda E, Chaine C, Blecua M. A Mapping of Textile Waste Recycling Technologies in Europe and Spain. Textiles. 2024; 4(3):359-390. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles4030022
Chicago/Turabian StyleLanz, Inés Eugenia, Elena Laborda, Cecilia Chaine, and María Blecua. 2024. "A Mapping of Textile Waste Recycling Technologies in Europe and Spain" Textiles 4, no. 3: 359-390. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles4030022