Tangsa and Wancho of North-East India Use Animals not only as Food and Medicine but also as Additional Cultural Attributes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. The Tangsa Tribe
2.2. The Wancho Tribe
2.3. Field Survey Descriptions
3. Results
3.1. Animals Associated with Indigenous Hunting Systems of Animals and Commercialization
3.2. Animals Associated with Traditional Uses and Socio-Cultural Aspects
3.2.1. Tangsa Customs
3.2.2. Wancho Customs
3.3. Animals Associated with Indigenous Beliefs, Myth, Rituals and Customs, Cosmologies, Stories and Songs
3.3.1. Stories of the Tangsa
- 1)
- Story 1: The Origin of the Flying Lizard (Junglep)
- 2)
- Story 2: Transformation of a Man into a Tiger (Chaah)
- 3)
- Story 3: Dog (Heeh) and Pig (Wak) Story: Why Pigs Are Reared and Fed Separately and Dogs Get Just Leftovers
- 4)
- Black Bird (Black Drongo) and Rat Story: How the Bird Got Its Beautiful Tail Feathers Shortened
3.3.2. Stories of the Wancho
- 1)
- Story 1: Tiger (Sahnuh) and Cicada (Nyu): How Humans Learnt to Make Fire
- 2)
- Story 2: Owl (Akhuh): The Day and Night Decider and the Origin of the Owl’s Flat Head
- 3)
- Story 3: Crab (Saan) and Frog (Luk): How the Crab Got Its Colour and the Frog Lost Its Backbone
- 4)
- Story 4: Mongoose and Blackbird: How the Bird Got Its Tail Feathers Thinned and the Mongoose Got Sharp Teeth and a Long Mouth
- 5)
- Story 5: The Origin of the Monkey
- Song 1: Honey Bees: the messengers of love
“Nahkat peele jangpong thaiba
Zole taahpo kah ho le lah hai”
- Song 2: Cicada
“Sacchi sahpu ngu nu din sammai”
4. Discussion
4.1. Traditional Knowledge: Looking Back on the Way Forward
4.2. Living in Harmony with the Animals: An Achievable Goal?
4.3. What Do the Differences Mean to a Biodiversity under Threat?
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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1. Mammalia | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Purpose and Traditional Use |
1 | Ursus thibetanus, Melursus ursinus | Asiatic black bear, Sloth bear | Chabbaang | Hair, gall bladder | Decoration: Used for traditional hats and for making shoulder bands worn by men during festivals. Utilty: Knives used for cutting bamboo for house construction are rubbed with a piece of dried bear gall bladder, soaked in water. This helps to avoid the bamboo being attacked/damaged by pests. |
2 | 1) Macaca assamensis, 2) Macaca mulatta, 3) Trachypithichus pileatus | 1) Assamese macaque, 2) Rhesus macaque, 3) Capped langur | 1) Wii till 2) Woi 3) Raq | Hair | Magic: Hair used on traditional hat worn by male and for preventing evil spirit causing bad omen. |
3 | Hoolock leuconedys | Hoolock gibbon | Thukbai | Magic: Gibbons cause bad omens (accidents, unnatural deaths). Whenever an incident happens, villagers go and hunt a gibbon, kill it, cut its body into pieces and throw them away. It is believed that the spirit of the dead person has been taken away by the monkey. | |
4 | Manis pentadactyla | Chinese Pangolin | Bitsai | Scale | Magic: Believed that out of its many scales some would consist of imaginary pictures featuring deer, maidens, temples (used for worshiping) etc. Such scales are considered highly valuable and kept as treasures. The rest are sold. Food: The animal is killed for meat and the scales are traded to neighbour states and countries like Nagaland, Assam and Burma. |
5 | Vulpes bengalensis | Fox | Makakoi | Flesh, Blood | Bad food: Only few people consume its flesh, as some consider it as unclean as foxes feed on carcass. Magic: If blood is consumed no black magic can harm the consumer. |
6 | 1) Canis lupusfam. 2) Capra hircus | 1) Dog 2) Goat | 1) Heeh, 2) Kekai | Head | Magic: To appease a bad omen or evil spirit the head of dog or goat is severed and kept in front of the house; the body is buried near or in front of the owner’s house’s stairs; an event called “Khulek”. |
7 | Canis lupus fam. | Dog | Heeh | Sacrifice: During pregnancy or before birth or for a healthy delivery a dog is taken to the forest and tied only to a Bunyan tree (Min chung) and sacrificed with continuous chanting. | |
8 | Capra hircus | Goat | Kekai | Hair from beard | Decoration: Hair from the goat’s chin (most preferred) is used for making shoulder bands worn by men during festivals. |
9 | Sus scrofa domesticus | Domestic pig | Wak | Liver | Magic: For performing predictions; fortune telling before harvest and cultivation. |
10 | Sus scrofa | Wild boar | Wakngi | Teeth | Decoration: Teeth used for the men’s traditional cap for decoration and as a symbol of male power and strength. |
11 | Hystrix sp. | Porcupine | Wihaang | Spines | Decoration: Spines are worn by women on their head for beautification and as hair accessories during festivals. Magic: Used for performing black magic by some tribals. Utility: Spines are used for weaving local costumes, mainly for putting designs on them. |
12 | Cynopterus sphinx | Bat | Phaksak | Poor food: Only consumed by adults (mostly males) with most of the population believing its taste to be unpleasant and linked to bad omens. | |
13 | Nycticebus spp. | Slow Loris | Rangchuwi | Magic: In the past, it was believed that seeing this animal itself causes a bad omen, following the owner when leaving an earlier home and moving to the new house. | |
14 | 1) Panthera tigris, 2) Neofelis nebulosa, 3) Pantherapardus | Cat family: 1) Tiger 2) Clouded leopard 3) Common leopard | 1) Chaah 2) Pulkhu Chaah | Teeth | Exalted species: Some subtribes (e.g., like Jugli) do not eat bornbills and tigers as they consider them to be “Kings” (royal). It is believed that the tiger’s soul or spirit is related to humans and a person would soon die too. The cause of the death of the tiger, any marks on its body when hurt, would be seen as the exact place on the dead person. Magic: When someone kills any cat family member, a feast for all villagers with rituals to prevent a bad omen is given by sub-tribes Muklom, Tikhak and Longchang, as it is believed that the soul of a Shamma (priest) dwells in the tiger. Teeth (canines) are presented as a gift to the maternal uncle. The incisors are presented to village heads/elders like Gaon bura. Bones and skin are sold at the market. Decoration: Teeth of all cat family members are attached to swords of important elders, village heads like Gaon bura, village judges like ‘Walang’ etc. Teeth signify male power and symbolize good luck. |
15 | Bos bubalus | Buffalo | Loi | Head, Skin | Sacrifice: Buffaloes are sacrificed whenever there is an epidemic (spread of disease or any evil spirit) Decoration: The head is used for decorative purposes. Utility: The dried skin is used for shield called ‘Laak’, but also for making drums played at festivals or for making carpets to sit on. |
16 | 1)Cervus uni 2) Axis porcinus | 1) Sambar deer 2) Hog deer | Chok/Khihoi Nalang | Skin | Utility: The dried skin is used for making drums (the thinner the better) and also for making carpets to sit on. Deer skins are the most preferred for making drums. |
17 | Bos indicus | Cow | Maan | Skin | Utility: The dried skin is used for making drums and carpets. |
18 | Sciurus sp. | Squirrel | Chanchaang | Tail | Decoration & utility: Dried tails are used for decorative purposes and for making key chains/holders. |
2. Aves | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Purpose and Traditional Use |
1 | Hornbills: 1) Buceros bicornis 2) Aceros nepalensis 3) A. undulates 4) Anthracoceros albirostris | 1) Great hornbill 2) Necked hornbill 3) Weathered hornbill 4) Pied hornbill | 1) Wuraang 2) Wujung 3) Wungip 4) Wukengkap | Feathers (mostly tail), beak | Decoration: Tail feathers (alap) from male hornbills (especially the Great Hornbill) are considered most beautiful (with variable colours); used on hats worn by the first dancer who leads the dance troop (Lamshal waa) during festivals. However nowadays all male dancers wear it. Beaks are used for decorative purpose. Magic: Hornbills, considered “Kings” (royal), are usually not eaten. People feared to bring them home as they were considered to possess ill-causing spirits (the “evil spirit” called “Wuraang thang”) causing bad omens and deadly diseases. Moreover, it was believed that when a sick hornbill was killed, the person who killed or touched it would infected with the disease. Magic: Few subtribes hunted them, but then only when seen in pairs; it was believed to be a sin to kill a bird that was single. If only one was seen, it meant it was a male and a female was with the nest and the young; thus males must not be killed to keep female’s and young’s company. Only 3 eggs are were thought to be laid: one for Earth, one for Heaven (God), one for the young. |
2 | Spilornis cheela | Crested serpent eagle | Laang | Magic: Not edible, as considered to possess the spirit of a dead person. (If a person dies a few days later vultures are seen gliding in the sky and the eagle is believed to be the dead person’s spirit (jakhang). Family members place some food and sprinkle water outside the main entrance of the house, as an offering to the spirit). Few sub-tribes consume it, but then only older males do. | |
3 | Gallus domsticus | Domestic chicken | Wuu | Liver | Magic: Used during performing rituals to bring back a lost spirit considered to be the spirit taken away by a ghost. Magic: For fortune telling before harvest and cultivation. |
4 | Polyplectron bicalcaratum | Grey peacock pheasant | Wupoi | Wings, feathers | Food & Decoration: Killed for food, but wings and feathers used for decoration due to their colourful appearance. |
5 | Gyps spp. | Vultures | Not used | Taboo: Unpalatable and dirty | |
3. Reptilia | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Purpose and Traditional Use |
1 | 1) Python reticulatus 2) Python molurus | 1) Reticulated Python 2) Indian python | Paujung | Skin | Food & Magic: The flesh must be consumed either boiled or fried. When roasted, it is believed that the skin colour of the person who eats it, would change into snakeskin with time and age. Taboo: Not consumed by pregnant and lactating women as it is believed that the child feeding on breast milk would develop an allergy or skin problem. In case of pregnant women, it is thought that the child would be born with their tongue sticking out, constantly salivating and drooling. Decoration: The dried skin is used for decorative purpose. |
2 | Varanus sp. | Monitor lizard | Paupot | Magic: It is feared that when bitten, a person dies because of the poison. However, there is the belief that the person might survive if s/he (in disguise) reaches the river before the lizard as it is thought the lizard goes to the river after it has bitten a person. If the lizard reaches the water (river) first, the person would die. | |
3 | Testudo sp. | Tortoise | Kongsharang | Shell | Taboo: Pregnant women do not eat this reptile fearing their babies might never walk properly or may experience a delay in walking. Magic: The dried shell is hung outside the entrance door of the house in order to drive away any evil spirit or bad omens. |
4. Amphibia | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Purpose and Traditional Use |
1 | Unknown sp. | Frog | Likkai | Forelimb | Taboo: The forelimbs of a frog that are mostly found during late August (they come in groups) are used in the form of a necklace to protect both adults and children from evil spirits. Magic: Also believed that when eaten, the man who consumes the frog’s forelimbs will not die quickly (as frogs come in groups). |
2 | Bufo sp. | Toad | Lugmaanchai | Taboo: Toads are not consumed as they are considered to be poisonous and when eaten the person dies instantly. Also it is noted that it is not even eaten by other animals. | |
5. Pisces | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Purpose and Traditional Use |
1 | Labeo sp. | Cyprinid | Ngah | Social purpose: Common fresh water fishes are presented as a custom to invite relatives and close friends to special occasions like marriage by the Lungchang sub-tribes. | |
6. Insecta | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Purpose and Traditional Use |
1 | unidentified sp. | Cicada | Wajong | Utility: This insect with its first sound announces the beginning of the sowing of rice. Magic & Health: In the past some subtribes believed that consuming this insect could cause headache. Magic & Health: The insect’s sound is believed by some to be a sign of the start of sickness/fever, so that the villagers throw some plant leaves backward as a belief to avoid sickness/fever. | |
2 | Mantodea | Praying Mantis | Rawehpaanpah | Food & Health: Nymphs/eggs but not adults are eaten because the latter are believed to possess worms inside their stomach. | |
3 | Odontotermes sp. | Termite | Phinphoi | Food & Health: Only the nymphs are consumed. Adults when eaten are linked with a person’s swollen stomach and death. | |
6 | 1) Apis cerana 2) Apis mellifera 3) Apis dorsata 4) Apis florea 5) Apis andreniformis | Honey bees | 1) Nyahkaai 2) Nyahkhing 3) Nyahkaan 4) Nyahbi 5) Minmoi/Tangu | Honeycomb | Magic: The empty honeycombs of any honey-producing bees are hung on the entrance door with a belief to cast away evil spirits. |
7 | Xylocopa sp. | Carpenter bee | Bintin | Sting | Taboo & avoided: This bee is rare and avoided because its sting causes diseases like swelling of skin, wounds, pus, etc. |
7. Crustacea: Malacostraca | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Traditional Knowledge |
1 | Maydelliathelphusa lugubris | Freshwater crab | Khaan | Taboo & health: It is believed that crab food can cause malaria. Crabs are therefore completely avoided by some subtribes. |
1. Mammalia | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Purpose and Traditional Use |
1 | Ursus thibetanus, Melursus ursinus | Asiatic Black bear, Sloth bear | Chapnu | Hair, tooth, nails | Utilty: The fur is used for making traditional hats worn by male during festivals. Decoration: Teeth and nails used as ornament by males. Gift & trophy: One half portion of the hair (mainly from the head region that covers the ears) is presented to the king and the other half is kept by the owner of the slain bear. |
2 | 1) Macaca assamensis, 2) Macaca mulatta, 3) Trachypithichus pileatus | 1) Assamese macaque 2) Rhesus macaque 3) Capped langur | Mainak | Skin | Utilty: The skin is used for making caps and baskets that are worn during dancing by the males during festivals. |
3 | Manis pentadactyla | Pangolin | Hahbut | Trade & barter: Scales collected from a pangolin are sold to residents of the neighbouring states and countries. | |
4 | Canis lupus familiaris | Dog | He | Social purpose: Dogs are exchanged as gifts, to pay fines etc. but only within people sharing the same surname or subtribe. Food & health: Earlier eaten only by lower caste people, but presently preferred by all with the meat being considered medicinal. Magic & health: A dog is sacrificed by the oldest man of the community in the presence of all the villagers during an outbreak of an epidemic like measles, small pox, diarrhoea etc. The fresh blood is then touched by the villagers, (both sick and healthy), as it is believed that by doing this they would be healed from the diseases. Ritual food: Marriages of kings and queens from different villages are consummated by sacrificing a dog. The sacrifice is done by the king’s eldest brother (signifying the first-born son) by beheading it in a single blow. The newly married queen enters her in-laws’ house by stepping over the spilled blood on the ground. | |
5 | Hystrix sp. | Porcupine | Adi/Azi | Spines | Decoration: Spines used by women as local earring and by ladies as hair accessories during festivals. Utility: Used as forks to eat meat during festivals. |
6 | Nycticebus spp. | Slow Loris | Awai | Magic: Not eaten; hunted and killed if sighted, as it is believed to cause bad omens. | |
7 | All Cat family 1) Panthera tigris 2) Neofelis nebulosa 3) Panthera pardus | 1) Tiger, 2) Clouded leopard 3) Common leopard | Chahnu | Taboo: Not consumed as it is seen to be an incarnation of a King’s soul. Seeing tigers is considered rare for the same reason. Killing of any of the cat family is a serious issue among the villagers (they do not want to kill but have to for safety). Young and old alike would weave small local baskets and carry them to the forest to seek forgiveness from the gods of the Kings (as the great cats are the strongest of all animals in the forest) by singing and dancing. The whole village are considered to be guilty of the crime of killing the animal, which is why everyone participates in the ritual. | |
8 | Bos bubalus | Buffalo | Loi | Head/Skull | Decoration: For decorative purposes and to exhibit superiority. |
9 | Sciurus sp. | Squirrel | Heeh | Tail | Decoration: Used for decorative purpose. On the first day of the Oriya festival, male dancers wear the squirrel tail tied to a hat or local basket, worn around the waist. Smaller squirrel tails are tied to children’s baskets too. |
10 | 1) Cervus uni 2) Axis porcinus | 1) Sambar deer 2) Hog deer | Maikhi/Chok | Antlers | Decoration: Antlers used as decorations and adornment. Earrings made from antlers worn by males as ornamets. Social: The first person to accurately fire the bullet gets the right thigh of the animal. The 2nd person to hit or arrive at the spot, gets the shoulder portion; followed by third with the back portion. The head is always presented to the king of the village (all this is followed only during community hunting and not in individual hunting). |
11 | Talpa sp. | Mole | Thupha | Sighting this animal is believed to be a bad omen and leads to the abandonment of executing further plans or work. | |
12 | Sus scrofa | Wild Boar | Myla | Teeth | - The teeth are fixed to hats and worn by males during festivals. - Teeth are used for decorative purposes. |
13 | Bos frontalis | Mithun | Ngaa | - Head/Skull - Skin | - The head/skull is hung outside the house for decoration and as a symbol of superiority/strength. - After drying the skin is used as a shield and for defence during fights with the enemy; it is even used as a bulletproof shield. |
16 | Capra hircus | Goat | Zon | Hair | - The hair is painted red and black using locally made dyes. This painted hair is used as shoulder bands and on hats worn by males. Also tied to swords used for dancing during festivals. - Earlier, members of the high-class section of the tribe did not eat goat, but now they do. |
2. Aves | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Traditional Knowledge |
1 | Hornbills: 1) Buceros bicornis 2) Aceros nepalensis 3) A. undulates 4) Anthracoceros albirostris | 1) Great hornbill 2) Necked hornbill 3) Weathered hornbill 4) Pied hornbill | Ozang | Feathers (mostly tail), Beak | - The feathers are used as decoration in traditional hats, both by male and female dancers during festivals. The tail feathers of the great hornbill are more favoured than others. - The beak is also used for decorative purposes. |
2 | Spilornis cheela | Crested serpent eagle | Ola | This bird is considered to possess the spirit of a dead person and s therefore protected and neither hunted nor consumed. | |
3 | Bubo nipalensis, B. bubo | Owl | Akhuh | - Consumed only by the elderly people. - Considered the decider of day and night. | |
4 | Dicrurus paradiseus | Greater racket-tailed drongo | Waah | Feathers | - The feathers are used in traditional hats - Not edible. The bird chirps during dusk and dawn so people believe it to be the morning and night announcer. The chirps are taken as an indication of time to return from the fields in the evening, as it would get dark soon. |
5 | Dicrurus macrocercus | black drongo | Jajoi | It is believed this bird informs the people of the presence of fish in the stream and alerts them whether or not it’s worthwhile to go fishing. | |
6 | Corvus splendens | Crow | Okha | Not consumed as it is considered a sweeper/ scavenger and thus dirty. | |
3. Reptilia | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Traditional Knowledge |
1 | 1) Python reticulatus 2) Python molurus | 1) Reticulated Python 2) Indian python | Punu | - Hunters should not have eaten until a ritual is performed by a local priest, which is done by removing and using the horn-like outgrowth in the abdomen of the snake. The ritual is concluded by hanging the head of the snake outside the house of the priest (and let it wither away with time). The consequence of not performing the ritual is believed to lead to a cursed life of the hunter. - The snake is killed upon sight or the curse is believed to double or cause bad omens. - The horn-shaped outgrowth is believed to be poisonous and the reason for the withering away of the canopy over which the snake crawled. - Sighting a python could lead to the death of the person, and therefore the python must be killed and cut in two and thrown away to survive the sighting. It is then followed with rituals and feasting. | |
2 | Naja sp. | Cobra | Pucham | The soul of people is believed to dwell in this snake and killing it would welcome curses and an eventual death of the person. | |
4. Amphibia | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Traditional Knowledge |
1 | Anura (Hylidae) | Green Frog | Luk | Whole Body | Eaten before performing rituals during festival. |
5. Pisces | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Traditional Knowledge |
1 | Labeo sp. | Cyprinid | Nyah | - When a boy child is born, the family members and relatives (mostly males) go fishing. The person who names the child gets the maximum share of the caught fish. - Fishing is also done during the time of collection and separation of rice samplings from the nursery. | |
2 | Channa sp. | Snakehead fish | Nyah | This fish is fed to infants just before starting the consumption of solid food. | |
6. Insecta | |||||
Sl. | Scientific Name | Common Name | Local Name | Parts Used | Traditional Knowledge |
1 | Odontotermes sp. | Termite | Khunkhah | Termite mound | - Urinating or excreting on the termite mound (Hahpho) is believed to cause swelling of the private parts and buttocks. - Contacting the mud from the mound should be avoided and should never be used to build a fireplace in the house. |
2 | 1) Apis cerana 2) Apis mellifera 3) Apis dorsata 4) Apis florea 5) Apis andreniformis | Honey bee | 1) Nyaakat 2) Nyaakat 3) Nyaakat 4) Nyahsa 5) Nyahsa | Bee wax | - The presence of a beehive should be informed to the king and then the family, relatives and the villagers. A local prediction is performed using leaves (e.g., banana, betel leaf etc.) before collecting the honey to know the yield (size of honeycomb and quantity of honey and brood inside). Extraction is not performed if the yield is predicted to be low. - Messenger of love. The bee is believed to be the spirit of a lover and its buzzing conveying love. - Wax is used as a coat by rubbing it on local musical instruments, especially the mouth instrument called ‘Patwazah’ made of bamboo and rope to produce a better sound from the instrument. - Beeswax is used for joining copper materials and some iron materials too, mostly to shape the barrel of a gun to a desired curvature, but also for making ornaments. |
3 | Orthoptera | Any grasshoppers and crickets | Okuk | - Freshly caught from rice fields used in rituals: e.g., during Oriya festival and while planting Colocasia (taro) eaten in the belief of protecting the plant from the insect and for the healthy growth of the plant. - The insects are collected from the field and the rituals are performed by a priest to ensure healthy cultivation of rice, millets, colocasia etc. |
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Jugli, S.; Chakravorty, J.; Meyer-Rochow, V.B. Tangsa and Wancho of North-East India Use Animals not only as Food and Medicine but also as Additional Cultural Attributes. Foods 2020, 9, 528. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9040528
Jugli S, Chakravorty J, Meyer-Rochow VB. Tangsa and Wancho of North-East India Use Animals not only as Food and Medicine but also as Additional Cultural Attributes. Foods. 2020; 9(4):528. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9040528
Chicago/Turabian StyleJugli, Salomi, Jharna Chakravorty, and Victor Benno Meyer-Rochow. 2020. "Tangsa and Wancho of North-East India Use Animals not only as Food and Medicine but also as Additional Cultural Attributes" Foods 9, no. 4: 528. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9040528