Acute Effects of Walking and Standing on Executive Function in Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Feasibility Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design and Procedures
2.2. Participants
2.3. Demographics
2.4. Physical Activity
2.5. Heart Rate
2.6. Anthropometrics
2.7. Stroop Color and Word Test Children’s Version
2.8. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
2.9. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Recruitment of the Sample
3.2. Randomization Protocol
3.3. Measurement and Retention Rates
3.4. Acceptability of the Intervention
3.5. Treatment Adherence and Implementation
3.6. Inhibition
3.7. Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting
3.8. Heart Rate
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Area of Feasibility | How Area Is Evaluated |
---|---|
Recruitment of the sample | The number of participants screened per month; number enrolled per month |
Randomization protocol | Participants are willing to be randomized |
Measurement protocol | Assessment completion rate at the end of the study |
Retention of the sample | The number of participants in each group who remained in the study |
Acceptability of the intervention | The level of satisfaction and perceived appropriateness to continue as assessed by those who delivered and received the intervention |
Implementation | The rate of delivery to those enrolled |
Variables | Walking (n = 7) M (SD) or n (%) | Standing (n = 7) M (SD) or n (%) | Sitting (n = 8) M (SD) or n (%) | Total (n = 22) M (SD) or n (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 9.69 (1.75) | 9.18 (1.46) | 9.65 (1.19) | 9.51 (1.42) |
Range | 6.42–11.50 | 6.92–11.25 | 8.33–11.92 | 6.42–11.92 |
Median | 10.25 | 9.42 | 9.25 | 9.59 |
Sex | ||||
Male | 5 (71.4%) | 5 (71.4%) | 5 (62.5%) | 15 (68.2%) |
Female | 2 (28.6%) | 2 (28.6%) | 3 (37.5%) | 7 (31.8%) |
Race | ||||
White | 5 (71.4%) | 7 (87.5%) | 19 (86.4%) | |
Black | 1 (14.3%) | 7 (100%) | 1 (12.5%) | 2 (9.1%) |
Hispanic/Latino | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (4.5%) | ||
Grade Level | 4 (2.16) | 3.43 (1.27) | 4.13 (.99) | 3.86 (1.49) |
Range | K-6 | 2–5 | 3–6 | K-6 |
Median | 5 | 3 | 4 | 4 |
Kindergarten | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (4.5%) |
First | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Second | 1 (14.3%) | 2 (28.6%) | 0 | 3 (13.6%) |
Third | 0 | 2 (28.6%) | 2 (25%) | 4 (18.2%) |
Forth | 0 | 1 (14.3%) | 4 (50%) | 5 (22.7%) |
Fifth | 4 (57.1%) | 2 (28.6%) | 1 (12.5%) | 7 (31.8%) |
Sixth | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 1 (12.5%) | 2 (9.1%) |
BMI * (Percentile) | 57.29 (38.51) | 54.71 (29.10) | 56.38 (30.18) | 56.14 (31.12) |
Range | 1–98 | 6–97 | 7–98 | 1–98 |
Median | 39 | 59 | 59 | 59 |
Underweight (≤5) | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (4.5%) |
Normal weight (5–84) | 3 (42.9%) | 6 (85.7%) | 6 (75%) | 15 (68.2%) |
Overweight (85–94) | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 1 (12.5%) | 2 (9.1%) |
Obese (≥95) | 2 (28.6) | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (12.5%) | 4 (18.2%) |
Number of days past week active 60 min | 5 (1.13) | 4 (1.60) | 4 (1.31) | 5 (1.44) |
Range | 4–7 | 2–7 | 2–6 | 2–7 |
Median | 5 | 4 | 4 | 5 |
Met PA Guidelines | 2 (28.6%) | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 3 (13.6%) |
Did not meet PA Guidelines | 5 (71.4%) | 6 (85.7%) | 8 (100%) | 19 (86.4%) |
ADHD Type | ||||
Inattentive | 2 (28.6%) | 1 (14.3%) | 2 (25%) | 5 (22.7%) |
Impulsive/Hyperactive | 2 (28.6%) | 0 | 0 | 2 (9.1%) |
Combined | 2 (28.6%) | 6 (85.7%) | 6 (75%) | 14 (63.6%) |
Unknown | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (4.5%) |
ADHD Medication Use | 5 (71.4%) | 3 (42.9%) | 6 (75%) | 14 (63.6%) |
Family history ADHD | 3 (42.9%) | 4 (57.1%) | 6 (75%) | 13 (59.1%) |
First degree family member (1 Member) | 1 (14.3%) | 3 (42.9%) | 2 (25%) | 6 (27.3%) |
First degree family member (2 Members) | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 3 (37.5%) | 4 (18.2%) |
No first-degree family member | 4 (57.1%) | 4 (57.1%) | 3 (37.5%) | 11 (50%) |
Unanswered | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (4.5%) |
Learning D/O | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (12.5%) | 3 (13.6%) |
Unknown | 1 (12.5%) | 1 (4.5%) | ||
Household income | ||||
<$75,000 | 1 (16.7%) | 2 (28.6%) | 3 (42.9%) | 6 (27.3%) |
75,000 and above | 5 (83.3%) | 5 (71.4%) | 4 (57.1%) | 14 (63.6%) |
Unanswered | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (12.5%) | 2 (9.1%) | |
Marital status | ||||
Single | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 2 (25%) | 3 (13.6%) |
Married | 6 (85.7%) | 6 (85.7%) | 6 (75%) | 18 (81.8%) |
Divorced | 0 | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 1 (4.5%) |
Highest level of education of family member | ||||
≤HS a/equivalent | 0 | 2 (28.6%) | 1 (12.5%) | 3 (13.6%) |
≥BA b degree | 5 (23.8%) | 4 (57.1%) | 5 (62.5%) | 14 (63.6%) |
Other | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (14.3%) | 2 (25%) | 4 (18.2%) |
Unanswered | 1 (14.3%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (4.5%) |
Condition | Pretest Score | Posttest Score | Change Score |
---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | |
Range; Median | Range; Median | Range; Median | |
Walking | 49.00 (8.27) | 47.71 (5.94) | −1.29 (5.94) |
38–59; 49 | 39–55; 50 | −9–6; −1 | |
Standing | 43.86 (5.76) | 49.00 (6.27) | 5.14 (5.90) |
35–52; 44 | 41–59; 48 | −6–12; 7 | |
Sitting | 38.88 (7.42) | 44.50 (7.21) | 5.63 (5.04) |
23–46; 41 | 36–53; 45 | −4–13; 7 |
Variable | Walking | Standing | Sitting |
---|---|---|---|
Stroop Color–Word Test | −2.63% | 11.72% | 14.45% |
WCST: total errors | 5.86% | 12.53% | 4.91% |
WCST: perseverative responses | 9.64% | 11.16% | 6.34% |
WCST: perseverative errors | 9.97% | 10.22% | 5.14% |
WCST: non-perseverative errors | 0.25% | 13.92% | 3.39% |
WCST: percent conceptual level responses | 5.56% | 13.51% | 5.88% |
WCST | Pretest Score | Posttest Score | Change Score |
---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | |
Range; Median | Range; Median | Range; Median | |
Walking | |||
Total errors | 53.57 (11.37) | 56.71 (12.01) | 3.14 (6.59) |
35–65; 58 | 40–71; 60 | −8–13; 4 | |
Perseverative responses | 51.86 (11.84) | 56.86 (11.67) | 5.00 (9.93) |
32–67; 55 | 43–72; 61 | −8–21; 3 | |
Perseverative errors | 51.57 (12.2) | 56.71 (12.66) | 5.14 (10.56) |
33–67; 53 | 40–73; 61 | −6–24; 1 | |
Non-perseverative errors | 55.43 (11.22) | 55.57 (11.27) | 0.14 (6.12) |
41–69; 55 | 41–70; 56 | −9–11; 0 | |
Percent conceptual level responses | 54.00 (14.45) | 57.00 (12.21) | 3.00 (7.62) |
33–75; 58 | 39–70; 63 | −8–14; 4 | |
Standing | |||
Total errors | 55.86 (9.79) | 62.86 (7.34) | 7.00 (11.24) |
39–70; 56 | 52–71; 64 | −9–19; 10 | |
Perseverative responses | 55.00 (11.62) | 61.14 (7.95) | 6.14 (13.26) |
35–69; 57 | 49–72; 63 | −12–22; 2 | |
Perseverative errors | 55.86 (11.20) | 61.57 (7.81) | 5.71 (12.45) |
37–71; 56 | 51–73; 63 | −10–23; 3 | |
Non-perseverative errors | 53.29 (7.16) | 60.71 (7.25) | 7.43 (10.10) |
42–65; 54 | 51–70; 60 | −9–16; 14 | |
Percent conceptual level responses | 57.14 (12.55) | 64.86 (7.73) | 7.71 (13.39) |
35–73; 58 | 52–73; 68 | −11–24; 5 | |
Sitting | |||
Total errors | 53.38 (9.16) | 56.00 (13.43) | 2.63 (8.94) |
41–67; 53 | 35–76; 56 | −10–13; 4 | |
Perseverative responses | 53.13 (8.18) | 56.5 (10.28) | 3.38 (8.48) |
41–65; 53.5 | 42–70; 56 | −8–12; 7.5 | |
Perseverative errors | 53.5 (8.38) | 56.2 (10.7) | 2.75 (8.86) |
40–65; 54 | 41–71; 55 | −9–12; 7 | |
Non-perseverative errors | 51.63 (9.2) | 53.38 (13.85) | 1.75 (8.8) |
37–63; 53.5 | 33–77; 55 | −9–18; 1 | |
Percent conceptual level responses | 53.25 (9.42) | 56.38 (16.42) | 3.13 (10.6) |
41–62; 57 | 30–80; 56 | −11–20; 1.5 |
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Barudin-Carreiro, A.; Camhi, S.M.; Stanish, H.I.; Wright, J.A. Acute Effects of Walking and Standing on Executive Function in Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Feasibility Study. Children 2024, 11, 341. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11030341
Barudin-Carreiro A, Camhi SM, Stanish HI, Wright JA. Acute Effects of Walking and Standing on Executive Function in Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Feasibility Study. Children. 2024; 11(3):341. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11030341
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarudin-Carreiro, Amanda, Sarah M. Camhi, Heidi I. Stanish, and Julie A. Wright. 2024. "Acute Effects of Walking and Standing on Executive Function in Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Feasibility Study" Children 11, no. 3: 341. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11030341