The Influence of Process Parameters on the Microstructure and Microhardness of 304 Stainless Steel in Joule Heating Fused Filament Fabrication
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Principle and Equipment
2.2. Joule Heating Metal Wire Theory Analysis
2.3. Establishment of Joule Heating Fused Filament Finite Element Model
Model Assumptions and Analysis Steps Configuration
- (1)
- In the geometric model, material distribution is uniform, and the material is isotropic, following the principle of material yield.
- (2)
- The contact types between the roller and the wire, and between the wire and the substrate are assumed to be smooth and continuous.
- (3)
- The vacuum environment is assumed to be an absolute vacuum, with no gas convection, hence the heat transfer occurs through both thermal conduction and thermal radiation.
2.4. Experimental Materials
2.5. Detection Method
2.6. Experiment Plan
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Characteristics of Temperature Distribution Field
3.2. Metallographic Analysis
3.3. Microstructural Analysis
3.3.1. Model Assumptions and Analysis Steps Configuration
3.3.2. The Influence of Printing Speed on Microstructure
3.3.3. The Influence of Roller Pressure on Microstructure
3.3.4. Microhardness Analysis
4. Conclusions
- (1)
- Effect of Current Intensity: As the current intensity increases, the microstructure in the fusion zone of the single−channel forming layer transitions from fine to coarse, and the microhardness first increases and then decreases. Specifically, within the current intensity range of 380 A to 420 A, the changes in microstructure and microhardness are significant, with the optimal current intensity being 400 A.
- (2)
- Effect of Printing Speed: As the printing speed increases, the microstructure in the fusion zone of the single−channel forming layer initially becomes finer, then coarser, and the microhardness exhibits a similar trend of first increasing and then decreasing. Within the printing speed range of 800 mm/min to 1200 mm/min, the changes in microstructure and microhardness are notable, with the optimal printing speed being 1000 mm/min.
- (3)
- Effect of Roller Pressure: As the roller pressure increases, the microstructure in the fusion zone of the single−channel forming layer evolves from coarse to fine, and the microhardness follows the pattern of initially increasing and then decreasing. Within the roller pressure range of 0.2 N to 0.4 N, the changes in microstructure and microhardness are evident, with the optimal roller pressure being 0.3 N.
- (4)
- Optimal Process Parameter Combination: By optimizing the process parameters, a balance between heat input, cooling rate, and growth rate can be achieved, maximizing grain refinement and forming a high−hardness microstructure. Under the conditions of a current intensity of 400 A, a printing speed of 1000 mm/min, and a roller pressure of 0.3 N, the single−layer deposition exhibits a smooth surface and favorable morphology, with a width−to−height ratio (W/H) of 3.23 and a dilution rate (η) of 51.61%. The average microhardness of the deposition layer at this setting is measured at 238.17 HV.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Additive Manufacturing Technologies | Laser Fusion | Electron Beam Melting | Arc Fusion | Joule Heating Fusion |
---|---|---|---|---|
Forming Environment | Inert Atmosphere | Vacuum | Inert Atmosphere | Vacuum |
Equipment Cost | High | High | Low | Low |
Surface Quality | High | High | Higher | High |
Application Fields | Bio-manufacturing, Aerospace Engine Blades | Automotive Parts Manufacturing, Industrial Manufacturing | Manufacturing of Large Ship Hull Structures, Aircraft Frame Repair | Aircraft Repair, On-Orbit Manufacturing |
Material | Fe | Cr | Mn | Mo | Ni | Si | C | P | S |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
304 | 68.94 | 17.87 | 2.97 | 0.03 | 12.94 | 1.96 | 0.052 | 0.047 | 0.032 |
316 L | 67.72 | 17.73 | 2.91 | 2.11 | 12.81 | 1.87 | 0.018 | 0.046 | 0.035 |
Material | Density (g/cm3) | Specific Heat Capacity (kJ/kg·°C) | Melting Point (°C) | Thermal Conductivity (W/m·°C) | Electrical Resistivity (Ω·mm2/m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
304 | 7.93 | 0.50 | 1450 | 14.63 | 0.73 |
316 L | 7.98 | 0.502 | 1450 | 13.31 | 0.74 |
Number | Current Intensity/A | Printing Speed/mm·min−1 | Roller Pressure/N |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 380 | 1000 | 0.3 |
2 | 400 | 1000 | 0.3 |
3 | 420 | 1000 | 0.3 |
4 | 400 | 800 | 0.3 |
5 | 400 | 1000 | 0.3 |
6 | 400 | 1200 | 0.3 |
7 | 400 | 1000 | 0.2 |
8 | 400 | 1000 | 0.3 |
9 | 400 | 1000 | 0.4 |
Number | Current/A | Macroscopic Morphology | Cross-Sectional Morphology |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 380 | ||
2 | 400 | ||
3 | 420 |
Number | Speed/mm/min | Macroscopic Morphology | Cross-Sectional Morphology |
---|---|---|---|
4 | 800 | ||
5 | 1000 | ||
6 | 1200 |
Number | Pressure/N | Macroscopic Morphology | Cross-Sectional Morphology |
---|---|---|---|
7 | 0.2 | ||
8 | 0.3 | ||
9 | 0.4 |
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Li, S.; Chen, J.; Fan, L.; Xiong, J.; Gao, Z.; Yang, L. The Influence of Process Parameters on the Microstructure and Microhardness of 304 Stainless Steel in Joule Heating Fused Filament Fabrication. Crystals 2024, 14, 643. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14070643
Li S, Chen J, Fan L, Xiong J, Gao Z, Yang L. The Influence of Process Parameters on the Microstructure and Microhardness of 304 Stainless Steel in Joule Heating Fused Filament Fabrication. Crystals. 2024; 14(7):643. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14070643
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Suli, Jichao Chen, Longfei Fan, Jie Xiong, Zhuang Gao, and Laixia Yang. 2024. "The Influence of Process Parameters on the Microstructure and Microhardness of 304 Stainless Steel in Joule Heating Fused Filament Fabrication" Crystals 14, no. 7: 643. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14070643