Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Lactating Women Living in Poland—A Comparison with the Fatty Acid Profile of Selected Infant Formulas
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (1)
- Determine the differences between the fatty acid profile of colostrum, transitional milk, and mature milk of Polish women living in the Warmia and Mazury region;
- (2)
- Compare the fatty acid profile of breast milk from different periods of lactation with that of commercially available infant formulas in Poland;
- (3)
- Determine, using multivariate methods, which fatty acids are most responsible for the differences indicated between breast milk samples from different lactation periods and between breast milk and infant formulas.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals
2.2. Milk Sample Collection
2.3. Fat Extraction
2.4. Determination of the Fatty Acid Profile Using Gas Chromatography (GC)
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Fatty Acid Profiles
3.1.1. Saturated Fatty Acids (SFAs)
3.1.2. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFAs)
3.1.3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
3.1.4. Branched-Chain Fatty Acids (BCFAs)
3.1.5. Trans Fatty Acids (TFAs)
3.2. The Average Content of SFAs, MUFAs, PUFAs, BCFAs, and TFAs, and the Relationship between Selected Fatty Acids
3.2.1. Human Milk
3.2.2. Infant Formulas
3.3. Associations between Obtained Data—Multivariate Analysis
3.3.1. Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
3.3.2. Cluster Analysis (CA)
4. Discussion
4.1. Fatty Acid Profiles
4.1.1. Saturated Fatty Acids (SFAs)
4.1.2. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFAs)
4.1.3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
Human Milk
Infant Formulas
4.1.4. Branched-Chain Fatty Acids (BCFAs)
4.1.5. Trans Fatty Acids (TFAs)
4.2. The Average Content of SFAs, MUFAs, PUFAs, BCFAs, and TFAs, and the Relationship between Selected Fatty Acids
4.2.1. Human Milk
4.2.2. Infant Formulas
4.3. Associations between Obtained Data—Multivariate Analysis (Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis)
4.4. Limitations and Strengths of the Study
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AA | arachidonic acid |
ALA | α-linoleic acid |
BCFA | branched-chain fatty acid |
C | colostrum |
C10:0 | capric acid |
C12:0 | lauric acid |
C14:0 | myristic acid |
C14:1 n-5 | myristoleic acid |
C15:0 | pentadecylic acid |
C16:0 | palmitic acid |
C16:1 n-7 | palmitoleic acid |
C16:1 t7 | palmitelaidic acid |
C17:0 | margaric acid |
C18:0 | stearic acid |
C18:1 n6+n9 t | petroselaidic and elaidic acids |
C18:1 n-9 | oleic acid |
C18:1 t11 | vaccenic acid |
C18:2 c9t11 | rumenic acid |
C18:2 n-6 | linoleic acid |
C18:3 n-3 | α-linoleic acid |
C20:0 | arachidic acid |
C20:1 n-9 | eicosenoic acid |
C20:4 n-6 | arachidonic acid |
C20:5 n-3 | eicosapentaenoic acid |
C22:1 n-9 | ercucic acid |
C22:6 n-3 | docosahexaenoic acid |
C6:0 | caproic acid |
C8:0 | caprylic acid |
CA | cluster analysis |
CLA | conjugated linoleic acid |
DHA | docosahexaenoic acid |
EPA | eicosapentaenoic acid |
HM | human milk |
IF | infant formula |
iso C15:0 | isopentadecylic acid |
iso C16:0 | isopalmitic acid |
LA | linoleic acid |
LCPUFA | long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid |
MCFA | medium-chain fatty acid |
MM | mature milk |
MUFA | monounsaturated fatty acid |
PCA | principal component analysis |
PUFA n-3 | polyunsaturated fatty acid n-3 |
PUFA n-6 | polyunsaturated fatty acid n-6 |
RA | rumenic acid |
SCFA | short-chain fatty acid |
SFA | saturated fatty acid |
TFA | trans fatty acid |
TM | transitional milk |
VA | vaccenic acid |
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Nutritional Value in 100 g of Powder * | IF-I | IF-II |
---|---|---|
Energy (kcal) | 482 | 511 |
Fat (g), of which | 25 | 27.8 |
Saturated fatty acids (g) | 11 | 12.4 |
Monounsaturated fatty acids (g) | 10 | 11 |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g) | 4.2 | 4.4 |
Carbohydrates (g), of which | 51 | 54.3 |
Sugars (g) | 24 | 23.1 |
Protein (g) | 11 | 9.8 |
Preparation of 100 mL of milk | 13.8 g of powder + 90 mL of water | 12.8 g of powder + 100 mL of water |
Group of Fatty Acids | IF-I | IF-II | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
In 100 mL of the Prepared Milk * | % of Total Fatty Acids | In 100 mL of Prepared Milk | % of Total Fatty Acids | |
Saturated fatty acids | 1.52 | 43.65 | 1.59 | 44.60 |
Monounsaturated fatty acids | 1.38 | 39.68 | 1.41 | 39.57 |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids | 0.58 | 16.67 | 0.56 | 15.83 |
Fatty Acid | Common Name | Colostrum | Transitional Milk | Mature Milk | IF-I | IF-II |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C6:0 | Caproic | ND | 0.03 ± 0.05 b | 0.01 ± 0.05 b | 0.21 ± 0.02 a | 0.17 ± 0.00 a |
C8:0 | Caprylic | 0.08 ± 0.06 c | 0.26 ± 0.19 b | 0.33 ± 0.32 b | 2.25 ± 0.20 a | 1.78 ± 0.00 a |
C10:0 | Capric | 0.92 ± 0.40 b | 1.65 ± 0.63 a | 2.06 ± 1.04 a | 1.77 ± 0.13 a | 1.40 ± 0.01 a |
C12:0 | Lauric | 3.99 ± 1.69 c | 5.99 ± 2.94 b | 6.09 ± 2.30 b | 12.95 ± 0.41 a | 10.26 ± 0.06 a |
C14:0 | Myristic | 5.94 ± 1.52 b | 7.43 ± 2.47 b | 9.21 ± 2.22 a | 5.38 ± 0.05 b | 4.47 ± 0.02 b |
C15:0 | Pentadecylic | 0.36 ± 0.17 a | 0.40 ± 0.17 a | 0.40 ± 0.18 a | 0.06 ± 0.00 b | 0.04 ± 0.00 b |
C16:0 | Palmitic | 28.10 ± 6.06 a | 29.24 ± 6.14 a | 26.58 ± 8.75 a | 18.82 ± 0.17 a | 21.68 ± 1.44 a |
C17:0 | Margaric | 0.36 ± 0.11 a | 0.39 ± 0.11 a | 0.38 ± 0.15 a | 0.07 ± 0.00 b | 0.09 ± 0.00 b |
C18:0 | Stearic | 6.72 ± 1.55 a | 7.13 ± 2.03 a | 7.58 ± 2.01 a | 3.17 ± 0.02 b | 3.88 ± 0.10 b |
C20:0 | Arachidic | 0.03 ± 0.08 b | 0.02 ± 0.04 b | 0.07 ± 0.09 b | 0.33 ± 0.00 a | 0.29 ± 0.01 a |
C14:1 n5 | Myristoleic | 0.14 ± 0.10 a | 0.17 ± 0.06 a | 0.17 ± 0.09 a | 0.02 ± 0.00 b | 0.03 ± 0.02 b |
C16:1 n7 | Palmitoleic | 1.90 ± 0.66 a | 2.43 ± 3.53 a | 1.89 ± 0.76 a | 0.20 ± 0.01 b | 0.16 ± 0.00 b |
C17:1 n9 | cis-10-Heptadecenoic acid | 0.14 ± 0.03 a | 0.13 ± 0.03 a | 0.15 ± 0.05 a | 0.04 ± 0.01 b | 0.03 ± 0.00 b |
C18:1 n9 | Oleic | 31.46 ± 6.35 b | 30.05 ± 4.83 b | 29.18 ± 8.19 b | 37.34 ± 0.14 a | 35.10 ± 0.20 a |
C20:1 n9 | Eicosenoic | 0.46 ± 0.36 a | 0.40 ± 0.36 a | 0.39 ± 0.25 a | 0.43 ± 0.00 a | 0.15 ± 0.01 b |
C22:1 n9 | Ercucic | 0.14 ± 0.04 a | 0.09 ± 0.16 b | 0.10 ± 0.19 b | ND | ND |
C18:2 n6 | Linoleic (LA) | 8.49 ± 1.77 b | 8.59 ± 1.86 b | 8.83 ± 2.58 b | 12.76 ± 0.21 a | 16.62 ± 0.07 a |
C20:4 n6 | Arachidonic (AA) | 0.61 ± 0.18 a | 0.52 ± 0.22 b | 0.47 ± 0.28 b | 0.52 ± 0.11 b | 0.49 ± 0.07 b |
C18:3 n3 | α-linoleic (ALA) | 0.72 ± 0.52 c | 0.84 ± 0.69 c | 0.94 ± 0.60 c | 2.11 ± 0.03 a | 1.55 ± 0.01 b |
C20:5 n3 | Eicosapentaenoic (EPA) | 0.17 ± 0.21 a | 0.18 ± 0.26 a | 0.15 ± 0.28 a | 0.03 ± 0.01 b | 0.04 ± 0.02 b |
C22:6 n3 | Docosahexaenoic (DHA) | 0.44 ± 0.14 a | 0.41 ± 0.04 b | 0.33 ± 0.06 b | 0.42 ± 0.10 a | 0.45 ± 0.07 a |
iso C15:0 | Isopentadecylic | 0.06 ± 0.03 a | 0.07 ± 0.03 a | 0.07 ± 0.04 a | ND | ND |
anteiso C15:0 | Anteisopentadecylic | 0.10 ± 0.07 a | 0.12 ± 0.06 a | 0.10 ± 0.07 a | ND | 0.01 ± 0.00 b |
iso C16:0 | Isopalmitic | 0.07 ± 0.05 a | 0.09 ± 0.05 a | 0.08 ± 0.04 a | 0.06 ± 0.00 a | ND |
C18:1 n6+n9 t | Petroselaidic and Elaidic | 0.56 ± 0.29 a | 0.45 ± 0.23 a | 0.49 ± 0.25 a | 0.08 ± 0.02 b | 0.15 ± 0.02 b |
C18:1 t11 | Vaccenic (VA) | 2.99 ± 4.19 a | 1.74 ± 0.98 a | 1.52 ± 1.26 a | ND | ND |
C18:2 c9t11 | Rumenic (RA) | 0.21 ± 0.43 a | 0.13 ± 0.11 b | 0.18 ± 0.29 a | ND | ND |
C16:1 t7 | Palmitelaidic | 0.10 ± 0.05 a | 0.10 ± 0.06 a | 0.09 ± 0.07 a | ND | ND |
SFAs | 46.50 b | 52.54 a | 52.71 a | 45.01 b | 44.06 b | |
MUFAs | 34.24 b | 33.27 b | 31.88 c | 38.03 a | 35.47 b | |
PUFAs; n6 | 9.10 c | 9.11 c | 9.30 c | 13.28 b | 17.11 a | |
PUFAs; n3 | 1.33 c | 1.43 c | 1.42 c | 2.56 a | 2.04 b | |
BCFAs | 0.23 a | 0.28 a | 0.25 a | 0.06 b | 0.01 c | |
TFAs | 3.86 a | 2.42 b | 2.28 b | 0.08 c | 0.15 c | |
PUFA n6:PUFA n3 | 6.84:1 | 6.37:1 | 6.55:1 | 5.19:1 | 8.39:1 | |
DHA:LA | 0.05:1 | 0.05:1 | 0.04:1 | 0.03:1 | 0.03:1 | |
DHA:AA | 0.72:1 | 0.79:1 | 0.70:1 | 0.81:1 | 0.92:1 | |
LA:ALA | 11.79:1 | 10.23:1 | 9.39:1 | 6.05:1 | 10.72:1 |
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Purkiewicz, A.; Pietrzak-Fiećko, R. Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Lactating Women Living in Poland—A Comparison with the Fatty Acid Profile of Selected Infant Formulas. Nutrients 2024, 16, 2411. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16152411
Purkiewicz A, Pietrzak-Fiećko R. Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Lactating Women Living in Poland—A Comparison with the Fatty Acid Profile of Selected Infant Formulas. Nutrients. 2024; 16(15):2411. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16152411
Chicago/Turabian StylePurkiewicz, Aleksandra, and Renata Pietrzak-Fiećko. 2024. "Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Lactating Women Living in Poland—A Comparison with the Fatty Acid Profile of Selected Infant Formulas" Nutrients 16, no. 15: 2411. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16152411