Scavenger Activity and Anti-Predator Behaviour in an Apennine Wolf Area
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Carcasses and Feeding Sites
2.3. Movement- and Heat-Triggered Camera Systems
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Scavenger Guild Members
3.2. Scavenger Behaviour at Feeding Site
3.3. Scavenger Guild Members’ Interaction or Interference
3.4. Temporal Partitioning and Illumination
3.5. Carcass/Feeding Site Characteristics
4. Discussion
4.1. Test Predictions
4.2. Feeding Time and Anti-Predator Investment in the Main Scavenger Species
4.2.1. Red Fox
4.2.2. Pine and Stone Marten
4.2.3. Badger
4.2.4. Grey Wolf and Domestic Dogs
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Diurnal | Crepuscular | Nocturnal | Lunar Cycle | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
light | dawn | dusk | dark | full moon | new moon | |
badger (Meles meles) | 6.7 | 93.3 | 17.4 | 24.0 | ||
bird of prey | 75.0 | 25.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | ||
corvids Corvidae spp. | 80.0 | 20.0 | ||||
grey wolf (Canis lupus) | 11.0 | 8.2 | 80.8 | 21.1 | 15.8 | |
hare (Lepus europaeus) | 23.5 | 18.4 | ||||
marten (Martes martes, Martes foina) | 100.0 | 14.5 | 27.6 | |||
porcupine (Hystrix cristata) | 3.4 | 96.6 | 15.8 | 20.0 | ||
red deer (Cervus elaphus) | 66.7 | 33.3 | 28.6 | 7.1 | ||
red fox (Vulpes vulpes) | 4.4 | 1.4 | 1.0 | 93.2 | 28.9 | 23.9 |
roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) | 60.0 | 4.3 | 6.7 | 29.1 | 22.4 | 17.7 |
wild boar (Sus scrofa) | 3.9 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 94.0 | 28.5 | 21.0 |
95% Confidence Interval | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | Variables | β | SE | t | p | Exp Coef | Lower | Upper |
MARTEN | ||||||||
season | ||||||||
summer | 1.51 | 1.461 | 1.034 | 0.36 | 4.525 | 0.078 | 261.05 | |
late winter | –0.856 | 1.55 | –0.552 | 0.61 | 0.425 | 0.006 | 31.451 | |
mid-winter | 0 | 1.414 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.02 | 50.728 | |
early winter | 0.000 a | |||||||
cause of death | ||||||||
wolf-killed | 0.000 a | |||||||
traffic | 1.51 | 0.365 | 4.136 | 0.014 | 4.525 | 1.643 | 12.465 | |
natural | 0.000 a | |||||||
human | 0.000 a | |||||||
consumtion level | ||||||||
1 | 2.773 | 1.031 | 2.69 | 0.055 | 16 | 0.915 | 279.914 | |
90–95% | 0.000 a | |||||||
0–85% | 0.000 a | |||||||
vegetation density | ||||||||
low | 0.000 a | |||||||
medium | 0.000 a | |||||||
high | 0.000 a | |||||||
visibility | 0.000 a | |||||||
poor | 0.000 a | |||||||
good | 0.000 a | |||||||
human disturbance | ||||||||
>1 km | 0.000 a | |||||||
<1 km | 0.000 a | |||||||
snow cover | ||||||||
yes | 0.000 a | |||||||
no | 0.000 a | |||||||
RED FOX | ||||||||
season | ||||||||
summer | 0.643 | 0.458 | 1.403 | 0.167 | 1.901 | 0.757 | 4.778 | |
late winter | 0.538 | 0.489 | 1.099 | 0.277 | 1.712 | 0.64 | 4.581 | |
mid-winter | 0.589 | 0.454 | 1.296 | 0.201 | 1.802 | 0.722 | 4.496 | |
early winter | 0.000 a | |||||||
cause of death | ||||||||
wolf-killed | –0.347 | 0.583 | –0.596 | 0.554 | 0.707 | 0.219 | 2.283 | |
traffic | 0.239 | 0.376 | 0.636 | 0.528 | 1.27 | 0.596 | 2.706 | |
natural | 0.162 | 0.494 | 0.328 | 0.744 | 1.176 | 0.435 | 3.177 | |
human | 0.000 a | |||||||
consumtion level | ||||||||
1 | –0.709 | 0.717 | –0.989 | 0.328 | 0.492 | 0.116 | 2.081 | |
90–95% | –0.484 | 0.764 | –0.634 | 0.529 | 0.616 | 0.132 | 2.867 | |
0–85% | 0.000 a | |||||||
vegetation density | ||||||||
low | 1.354 | 0.609 | 2.223 | 0.031 | 3.874 | 1.138 | 13.191 | |
medium | 0.971 | 0.573 | 1.695 | 0.097 | 2.641 | 0.834 | 8.364 | |
high | 0.000 a | |||||||
visibility | ||||||||
poor | –0.37 | 0.419 | –0.883 | 0.382 | 0.691 | 0.297 | 1.605 | |
good | 0.000 a | |||||||
human disturbance | ||||||||
>1 km | 0.397 | 0.437 | 0.908 | 0.368 | 1.488 | 0.617 | 3.587 | |
<1 km | 0.000 a | |||||||
snow cover | ||||||||
yes | –0.177 | 0.428 | –0.413 | 0.681 | 0.838 | 0.354 | 1.981 | |
no | 0.000 a | |||||||
WOLF | ||||||||
season | ||||||||
summer | 0.654 | 1.28 | 0.511 | 0.611 | 1.924 | 0.149 | 24.88 | |
late winter | –24.031 | 390,269.2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | ||
mid-winter | –0.752 | 1.526 | –0.493 | 0.624 | 0.472 | 0.022 | 9.967 | |
early winter | 0.000 a | |||||||
cause of death | ||||||||
wolf-killed | 25.734 | 352,113.8 | 0 | 1 | 1.50 E+11 | 0 | ||
traffic | 1.772 | 1.291 | 1.372 | 0.175 | 5.88 | 0.445 | 77.742 | |
natural | –24.007 | 476,795.3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | ||
human | 0.000 a | |||||||
consumtion level | ||||||||
1 | 26.306 | 0.949 | 27.718 | 0 | 2.66E+11 | 3.98E+10 | 1.77E+12 | |
90–95% | 25.816 | 1.63E+11 | ||||||
0–85% | 0.000 a | |||||||
vegetation density | ||||||||
low | –1.426 | 672,826.6 | 0 | 1 | 0.24 | 0 | ||
medium | 23.313 | 473,917.0 | 0 | 1 | 1.33E+10 | 0 | ||
high | 0.000 a | |||||||
visibility | ||||||||
poor | 24.147 | 352,113.8 | 0 | 1 | 3.07E+10 | 0 | ||
good | 0.000 a | |||||||
human disturbance | ||||||||
>1 km | –0.167 | 1.312 | –0.127 | 0.899 | 0.846 | 0.061 | 11.665 | |
<1 km | 0.000 a | |||||||
snow cover | ||||||||
yes | 0.421 | 1.095 | 0.384 | 0.702 | 1.523 | 0.17 | 13.608 | |
no | 0.000 a | |||||||
WILD BOAR | ||||||||
season | ||||||||
summer | 1.068 | 0.429 | 2.488 | 0.016 | 2.911 | 1.233 | 6.868 | |
late winter | –0.033 | 0.501 | –0.065 | 0.948 | 0.968 | 0.355 | 2.638 | |
mid-winter | 0.021 | 0.494 | 0.042 | 0.967 | 1.021 | 0.38 | 2.742 | |
early winter | 0.000 a | |||||||
cause of death | ||||||||
wolf-killed | –0.106 | 0.615 | –0.173 | 0.864 | 0.899 | 0.263 | 3.078 | |
traffic | 0.385 | 0.408 | 0.945 | 0.348 | 1.47 | 0.65 | 3.324 | |
natural | –0.049 | 0.498 | –0.099 | 0.921 | 0.952 | 0.352 | 2.576 | |
human | 0.000 a | |||||||
consumtion level | ||||||||
1 | 0.563 | 0.7 | 0.803 | 0.425 | 1.755 | 0.433 | 7.122 | |
90–95% | 0.284 | 0.75 | 0.379 | 0.706 | 1.328 | 0.297 | 5.95 | |
0–85% | 0.000 a | |||||||
vegetation density | ||||||||
low | 0.777 | 0.609 | 1.275 | 0.207 | 2.175 | 0.643 | 7.358 | |
medium | 0.311 | 0.542 | 0.574 | 0.568 | 1.365 | 0.461 | 4.039 | |
high | 0.000 a | |||||||
visibility | ||||||||
poor | –0.547 | 0.415 | –1.32 | 0.192 | 0.578 | 0.252 | 1.325 | |
good | 0.000 a | |||||||
human disturbance | ||||||||
>1 km | 0.653 | 0.464 | 1.405 | 0.165 | 1.92 | 0.759 | 4.86 | |
<1 km | 0.000 a | |||||||
snow cover | ||||||||
yes | –0.456 | 0.448 | –1.018 | 0.313 | 0.634 | 0.259 | 1.553 | |
no | 0.000 a |
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Ståhlberg, S.; Apollonio, M. Scavenger Activity and Anti-Predator Behaviour in an Apennine Wolf Area. Sustainability 2023, 15, 11056. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411056
Ståhlberg S, Apollonio M. Scavenger Activity and Anti-Predator Behaviour in an Apennine Wolf Area. Sustainability. 2023; 15(14):11056. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411056
Chicago/Turabian StyleStåhlberg, Sophie, and Marco Apollonio. 2023. "Scavenger Activity and Anti-Predator Behaviour in an Apennine Wolf Area" Sustainability 15, no. 14: 11056. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411056