Pseudorabies Virus: From Pathogenesis to Prevention Strategies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Virion Structure, Genome Structure and the Life Cycle
2.1. The Virion Structure
2.2. Genome, Gene Content and Role in Viral Replication
2.3. The Life Cycle of PRV
3. Occurrence and Development of PRV Infection
3.1. PRV Primary Replication in the Upper Respiratory Tract
3.2. PRV Replication in the Draining Lymph Nodes and Viremia
3.3. PRV Entry into the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Neurons and Spread to the Central Nervous System (CNS)
3.4. Secondary Replication in the Swine Pregnant Uterus
3.5. PRV Infection in Suckling and Weaned Piglets
3.6. PRV Infection in Humans
4. Genetic Evolution of PRV
5. Diagnostic Methods
5.1. Serological Approaches for the Detection of PRV Antibodies
5.2. Molecular Biology Approaches for the Detection of PRV Infection
5.3. Other Approaches for the Detection of PRV Infection
6. The Prevention of PR
6.1. Main Vaccines against PRV Infection
6.2. Chinese Herbal Medicines as Potential Anti-PRV Drugs
Source | Mechanism | 50% Effective Concentration | 50% Cytotoxic Concentration | PRV Strain | In Vitro | In Vivo | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Resveratrol (Res) | The inhibition of viral proliferation, IκB kinase activation | 17.17 ± 0.35 μM | Above 262.87 μM | Rong A strain | Yes | Yes | [142,209,211] |
Kaempferol | The inhibition of viral proliferation | 25.57 μM of 50% inhibited concentration | No mention | Ra strain | Yes | Yes | [213] |
Panax notoginseng polysaccharides | The inhibition of viral adsorption and replication | No mention | No mention | PRV XJ5 strain | Yes | No | [214] |
Germacrone | The inhibition of viral proliferation | 54.51 μM for Vero cells and 88.78 μM for LLC-PK-1 cells | 233.5 μM for Vero cells and 184.1 μM for LLC-PK-1 cells | Variant PRV and PRV vaccine strain Barth K61 | Yes | No | [206] |
Plantago | The inhibition of viral attachment and penetration; decreasing ROS (reactive oxygen species) production | No mention | No mention | PRV XJ5 | Yes | No | [215] |
Quercetin | The inhibition of viral adsorption | 2.618 ± 0.673 μM of 50% inhibited concentration | Above 599 μM | HNX strain | Yes | Yes | [216] |
Isatis indigotica | The inhibition of viral proliferation | 11 μg/mL | 299 μg/mL | TNL strain | Yes | No | [217] |
Radix isatidis | The inhibition of viral proliferation; killing virus directly | The inhibition rate of viral replication by 14.674–30.84% | No mention | Min A strain | Yes | No | [207] |
Marine Bacillus S-12–86 lysozyme | The inhibition of viral proliferation; killing virus directly | 0.46 mg/L | 100 mg/L | Min A strain | Yes | No | [218] |
Diammonium glycyrrhizin | Killing virus directly | No mention | Above 1250 μg/mL | Bartha K-61 | Yes | No | [219] |
Vanadium-substituted Heteropolytungstate | Killing virus directly | 3.5–5.0 mg/L | 400–420 mg/L | Bartha strain | Yes | No | [220] |
Graphene Oxide | Killing virus directly | No mention | No mention | HNX strain | Yes | No | [223] |
Ivermectin | The inhibition of viral DNA polymerase UL42 in entering the nucleus | No mention | No mention | No mention | Yes | Yes | [208] |
Phosphonoformate sodium | Inhibition of viral DNA polymerase | Nearly 60 μg/mL of 50% inhibited concentration | No mention | Kaplan | Yes | No | [221] |
6.3. Novel Small RNAs
7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Molecular | Serology | |
---|---|---|
Test type | Viral | Antibody |
Description | Nucleic acid amplification test to detect viral DNA | Detects the presence of IgA, IgM/IgG antibodies against PRV |
Platform technology | PCR, RT-PCR, LAMP, qPCR, ddPCR, FMCA | ELISA, SNT, IFA, IPMA, DFM |
Sample type | Brains, Hearts, livers, spleens, lungs, kidneys and lymph nodes | Plasma, serum, whole blood |
Result turnaround time | <5 h | 15–30 min |
Name of Diagnostic Assay | Sensitivity | Target Gene | Turnaround Time | Samples Used | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) | —— | gE gene | Result in <5 h | Various tissue | [119,121] |
Duplex droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) assary | 4.75 copies/µL | Both gE and gB genes | Result in <2 h | Lung, brain, liver and spleen | [124] |
SYBR green I-based duplex real-time PCR assay | 37.8 copies/μL | gE gene | Result within 50 min | Hearts, livers, spleens, lungs, kidneys, brains and lymph nodes | [118] |
Real-time recombinase-aided amplification assay (RAA) | Three 50% TCID50 | gE gene | Result in 75 min | Lung, lymph node, tonsil and spleen | [125] |
Triplex real-time PCR | 0.5 TCID50 for classical strains, 0.2 TCID50 for variant strains and 0.05 TCID50 for vaccine strains | gE and gI genes | Result within 1 h | PRV strains | [127] |
Probe-based fluorescence melting curve analysis (FMCA) | 1 × 100 copies per reaction | gC and gE genes | Result in <2 h | PRV strains | [120] |
Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay | 10 copies per sample | gE and gG genes | Result in <2 h | PRV strains and clinical tissue samples | [122] |
Duplex nanoparticle-assisted polymerase chain reaction (nanoPCR) | 6 copies/μL | gE gene | Result in 80 min | The recombinant plasmids pET30a-PRV-gE and pUC57-PBoVNS1 | [128] |
Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) | Oral fluid of 53% and nasal swab of 70% | gB gene | Result in <1 h | Oral fluid and nasal swab | [129] |
Metagenomic next-and third-generation sequencing (mNGS/TGS) | —— | Short- and long-read sequencing | —— | Brains | [137] |
Real-time fluorescent detection (real-time RPA assay) | 100 copies per reaction | gD gene | Result within 20 min | Tissue | [130] |
Lateral flow dipstick (RPA LFD assay) | 160 copies per reaction | gD gene | Result within 20 min | Tissue | [130] |
Magnetic beads-based chemiluminescent assay | 100 μmol/5 pM | —— | Result in 20 min | Serum samples | [131] |
Gene-Deleted Vaccines | Vaccine Strains | Progenitor Strains | Deleted Gene | Technology Used | Authorization | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Single gene-deleted vaccine | Omnivac | BUK | TK gene | Natural losses | Licensed | [27] |
2.4N3A | NIA-3 (field strain) | gE gene | HR | Licensed | [166] | |
PRV(LA-AB) | AH02LA (field strain) | gE gene | BCA | Not available | [167] | |
HN1201ΔgE (inactivated) | HN1201 (field strain) | gE gene | HR | Licensed | [154] | |
rPRVTJ-delgE | TJ (field strain) | gE gene | HR | Not available | [11] | |
Double gene-deleted vaccine | Omnimark | Omnivac (BUK) | TK and gIII genes | Natural losses | Licensed | [145] |
Begonia | 2.4N3A (NIA-3) | TK and gE genes | Natural losses | Licensed | [168] | |
NIA3-783 | 2.4N3A (NIA-3) | TK and gE genes | HR | Licensed | [146] | |
Tolvi | field strain | TK and gpX genes | HR | Licensed | [169] | |
D1200/D560 | NIA-3 | gD and gI genes | HR | Not available | [148] | |
AD-YS400 | Yangsan (field strain) | TK and gE genes | HR | Not available | [170] | |
JS-2012-ΔgE/gI | JS-2012 (field strain) | gE and gI genes | HR | Not available | [171] | |
gE-TK-PRV | TNL (field strain) | TK and gE genes | HR | Not available | [172] | |
vZJ01ΔgE/gI (inactivated) | ZJ01 (field strain) | gE and gI genes | BCA | Not available | [157] | |
PRV (PRVΔTK&gE-AH02) | AH02LA (field strain) | TK and gE genes | HR | Not available | [173] | |
Triple gene-deleted vaccine | 6C2 | Field strain | TK, gE and gI genes | HR | Not available | [174] |
SA215 | Fa (classical strain) | gE, gI and TK genes | HR | Licensed | [175] | |
rSMXΔgI/gEΔTK | Field strain | TK, gE and gI genes | HR | Not available | [176] | |
rPRVTJ-delgE/gI/TK- | rPRVTJ-delgE (TJ strain) | TK, gE and gI genes | HR | Not available | [29] | |
vPRV HN1201 | HN1201 (field strain) | TK, gE and gI genes | HR | Not available | [158] | |
gE-/gI-/TK- PRV | HeN1 (field strain) | TK, gE and gI genes | CRISPR/Cas9 | Not available | [177] | |
rPRV NY-gE−/gI−/TK− | NY (field strain) | TK, gE and gI genes | HR and CRISPR/Cas9 | Not available | [155] | |
201715 (field strain) | gE, gC and TK genes | CRISPR/Cas9 | Not available | [178] | ||
rPRV/XJ5-gE−/gI−/TK− | XJ5 (field strain) | gE, gI and TK genes | HR | Not available | [159] | |
rGXΔTK/gE/gI | GX (field strain) | TK, gE and gI genes | Not available | [165] | ||
Four gene-deleted vaccine | PrV (376) | PrV (376) | gD, gG, gI and gE genes | Not available | [147] | |
—— | C (field strain) | gI, gE, Us9 and Us2 genes | Natura losses | Licensed | [179] | |
PRV GDFS-delgI/gE/US9/US2 | GDFS (field strain) | gI, gE, Us9 and Us2 genes | CRISPR/Cas9 | Not available | [161] | |
rZJ01-ΔgI/gE/TK/UL13 | ZJ01 | gI, gE, TK and UL13 genes | CRISPR/Cas9 | Not available | [29] | |
Five gene-deleted vaccine | PRV rHN1201TK−/gE−/gI−/11k−/28k− | HN1201 (field strain)) | TK, gI, gE, 11k and 28k genes | BCA | Not available | [164] |
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Zheng, H.-H.; Fu, P.-F.; Chen, H.-Y.; Wang, Z.-Y. Pseudorabies Virus: From Pathogenesis to Prevention Strategies. Viruses 2022, 14, 1638. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081638
Zheng H-H, Fu P-F, Chen H-Y, Wang Z-Y. Pseudorabies Virus: From Pathogenesis to Prevention Strategies. Viruses. 2022; 14(8):1638. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081638
Chicago/Turabian StyleZheng, Hui-Hua, Peng-Fei Fu, Hong-Ying Chen, and Zhen-Ya Wang. 2022. "Pseudorabies Virus: From Pathogenesis to Prevention Strategies" Viruses 14, no. 8: 1638. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081638