Exploring Routes to Coexistence: Developing and Testing a Human–Elephant Conflict-Management Framework for African Elephant-Range Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Phase 1: Building the Theoretical Framework
2.2. Phase 2: Stakeholder Validation and Adaptation
2.2.1. Study Area 1: Niassa Special Reserve (NSR)
2.2.2. Study Area 2: Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve (VMWR) and Nyika National Park (NNP)
3. Results
3.1. Six Areas of HEC Management Operation
3.2. HEC Management Framework Adaptation and Validation
4. Discussion
4.1. Six HEC-Management Strategies
4.1.1. Legal Environment
4.1.2. Spatial Management for Human–Elephant Coexistence
4.1.3. Social Strategies for HEC Management
4.1.4. Technical Strategies for HEC Management
4.1.5. Financial Strategies for HEC Management
4.1.6. Monitoring of HEC and Its Management
4.2. Four Further HEC/HWC-Management Requirements
4.2.1. Multi-Species HWC Management
4.2.2. Structure and Fit of Institutions
4.2.3. Processes and Principles
4.2.4. Placing Social Strategies in the Centre
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Phase 1: Expert Interviews | |||
Country | Institution | ||
Benin | GIZ/RBT-WAP | ||
Botswana | EcoExist | ||
Burkina Faso | World Wide Fund for Nature | ||
Ghana | University of Science and Technology | ||
Kenya | African Wildlife Foundation | ||
Kenya | Save the Elephants | ||
Kenya | Mara Elephant Project | ||
Kenya | Save the elephants | ||
Kenya | World Wide Fund for Nature, Tanzania | ||
Malawi | Lilongwe Wildlife Trust | ||
Mozambique | Niassa Carnivore Project/TRT Conservation Foundation | ||
Mozambique | Niassa National Reserve/Wildlife Conservation Society | ||
Namibia | Elephant-Human Relation Aid | ||
Namibia | Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation | ||
Nigeria | Wildlife Conservation Society | ||
Tanzania | Pams Foundation | ||
Tanzania | Southern Tanzania Elephant Program | ||
Uganda | Kibale Forest School Program | ||
Zambia | Conservation South Luangwa | ||
Zambia | Elephant Connection Research Project | ||
Zambia | Frankfurt Zoological Society | ||
Zimbabwe | Connected Conservation | ||
Phase 2: Adaptation and validation | |||
Country (PA) | Methodology | No. of units | No. of participants |
Malawi (VMWR&NNP) | Focus group discussions | 9 | 92 |
Household surveys | 85 | 85 | |
Expert and key-informant interviews | 38 | 51 | |
Extension worker surveys | 79 | 79 | |
Validation meetings and workshops | 10 | 111 | |
Total Malawi (VMWRandNNP) | 418 | ||
Mozambique (NSR) | Focus group discussions: | 7 | 80 |
Household surveys | 196 | 196 | |
Expert and key-informant interviews | 15 | 20 | |
Validation meetings and workshops | 2 | 19 | |
Total Mozambique (NSR) | 315 |
HEC Management Strategy | HEC Management Tools | Example | Literature |
---|---|---|---|
Legal environment | “We need that enabling environment to be established, [so that] everyone can work towards the policies, all working together.” Statement by interviewee 00Q | ||
International frameworks | Convention on Biological Diversity; Convention on Migratory Species | [94,95] | |
Bi- and multi-lateral agreements | COMIFAC; SADAC | [96,97] | |
National HWC strategies and action plans | National Policy on HWC Management, 2018–2027 Namibia; National HWC Management Strategy 2020–2024; Stratégie Nationale et Plan d’Actions de Gestion des Conflits Homme-Faune au Gabon | [98,99,100,101] | |
Regional level guidelines | Problem Elephant Control guideline; Sustainable development guideline; Standard Operation Procedures (SOPs) | [102,103] | |
Regional/local level by-laws | By-laws and their enforcement in bear-smart community program, Canada | [104] | |
Spatial management | “Corridors and connectivity need to be secured, even if elephant populations are low.” Statement by interviewee 00E | ||
Spatial population planning | Corridor plans; Maintenance of contiguous populations; Consideration of infrastructure planning (roads, mining, fences, tourism, etc.) | [105,106] | |
Land-use planning on landscape level, zonation | Elephant zones, peoples areas, overlap areas (e.g., natural resource use areas) | [107,108,109] | |
Participatory land-use plans on micro (local) level | Participatory elephant corridors; Forestry frameworks | [110,111,112] | |
Definition of agricultural practices for specific zones | Block agriculture instead of spreading and shifting cultivation; Improvement of agriculture; Soil protection; Conservation farming to achieve more yields on smaller space and decrease shifting; Production and protection of value-added crops; Cultivation of crops unattractive to elephants | [113,114,115,116] | |
Definition of habitation areas | Development of permanent settlements; Improved and safe housing and storage | [117,118] | |
Strategic water supply | Separating water sources for people and elephants; Creating safe water access for people | [7,119,120] | |
Social strategies | “Only the community itself holds solutions for the future” Statement by interviewee 00O | ||
Systematic stakeholder analysis | Stakeholder identification and mapping; Comparative network analysis and stakeholders’ individual perception study | [121,122] | |
Strategic and meaningful stakeholder engagement | Regional and local stakeholder fora and platforms | [47,121,122] | |
Suitable institutional frameworks | Building strong community representation; Capacity building for community-based institutions | [123,124,125,126] | |
Communication strategies | Choosing appropriate communication tools and language | [37,127,128] | |
Community outreach | Mass awareness (drama plays, radio programs, sports events); Dialogue (information during community gathering, platforms); Training (for specific target groups); Exchange programs (for local leaders, decision makers, role models) | [129,130,131,132,133] | |
Formal and informal school programs | Education material for various subjects; Teachers training; School clubs | [134,135,136,137,138] | |
Technical strategies | “In many cases programs have trained elephants to become effective at avoiding or dealing with interventions. This is the worst thing we can do.” Statement by interviewee 00U | ||
Permanent exclusionary devices | Fences; Trenches; Barriers around/along protected areas, farms and/or habitations; Barriers along roads to avoid collisions with vehicles; Barriers to prevent disease transmission from wildlife to livestock | [34,139,140] | |
Mobile exclusionary devices | Mobile electric fences for farms and habitations | [34] | |
Deterrent devices | Acoustic (siren, sounds); Visual (torches, fire); Olfactory (chili smoke, organic smelly repellent) | [7,141,142] | |
Deterrent fences | Chili fence; Beehive fence; Electric fence | [143,144,145,146,147] | |
Combined deterrents | Chili bomber; Strategic community-based guarding; Unmanned aerial vehicles; HEC Rapid response | [148,149,150,151] | |
Decreasing attractiveness | Change in agriculture; Production of unattractive (HWC smart) crops; Decreasing availability of food in villages | [113,152,153] | |
Securing water points | Elephant-safe tanks and wells | [154] | |
Early warning systems | Satellite tracking and geofences; Infrasound detection; Hotlines and farmers alerts | [155,156,157,158] | |
Removal of problematic elephants | Translocation; Problem elephant control | [159,160] | |
Financial strategies | Creating sustainable income from living with elephants has softened the friction in several communities. [This] is our trump card.” Statement by interviewee 00T | ||
Compensation of losses | Governmental schemes; Private initiatives | [161,162,163] | |
Insurance schemes | Community-based insurance; Private insurance | [164,165] | |
Benefits through living with wildlife | Revenue sharing schemes; Conservation performance payments; Elephant-based business | [166,167,168,169] | |
Monitoring | “A standardized monitoring of HEC is key to informed decision making”, Statement by interviewee 00J | ||
Elephant movement/dispersal monitoring | GPS/satellite telemetry | [170,171,172,173] | |
HEC assessment | Community-based monitoring; Agency-based monitoring | [139,174,175,176] | |
HEC management monitoring | Community-based management action monitoring; Agency-based monitoring and evaluation; Data management and analysis | [69,177] |
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Gross, E.M.; Pereira, J.G.; Shaba, T.; Bilério, S.; Kumchedwa, B.; Lienenlüke, S. Exploring Routes to Coexistence: Developing and Testing a Human–Elephant Conflict-Management Framework for African Elephant-Range Countries. Diversity 2022, 14, 525. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14070525
Gross EM, Pereira JG, Shaba T, Bilério S, Kumchedwa B, Lienenlüke S. Exploring Routes to Coexistence: Developing and Testing a Human–Elephant Conflict-Management Framework for African Elephant-Range Countries. Diversity. 2022; 14(7):525. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14070525
Chicago/Turabian StyleGross, Eva M., Joana G. Pereira, Tadeyo Shaba, Samuel Bilério, Brighton Kumchedwa, and Stephanie Lienenlüke. 2022. "Exploring Routes to Coexistence: Developing and Testing a Human–Elephant Conflict-Management Framework for African Elephant-Range Countries" Diversity 14, no. 7: 525. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14070525