原始南島語:修订间差异
內容擴充 |
Zhuyuting0220(留言 | 贡献) |
||
(未显示16个用户的29个中间版本) | |||
第1行: | 第1行: | ||
'''原始南島語''' |
'''原始南島語'''(Proto-Austronesian language (PAN/PAn)、'''古南島語''')是經由重建的[[南島語系]]之[[祖語]]。[[南島語系]]為全世界最大的[[语言系属分类|語系]]之一,其下之語系的祖語諸如[[原始馬來-波利尼西亞語]]、[[原始大洋洲語]],及[[原始波利尼西亞語]]也經由如此的方法重建。 |
||
==語音系統== |
==語音系統== |
||
第44行: | 第44行: | ||
| colspan="2" | |
| colspan="2" | |
||
|- align="center" |
|- align="center" |
||
! [[鼻音]] |
! [[鼻音 (辅音)|鼻音]] |
||
| colspan="2" | m {{IPA|/m/}} |
| colspan="2" | m {{IPA|/m/}} |
||
| colspan="2" | n {{IPA|/n/}} |
| colspan="2" | n {{IPA|/n/}} |
||
第76行: | 第76行: | ||
| colspan="2" | |
| colspan="2" | |
||
|- align="center" |
|- align="center" |
||
! [[閃音]]或[[顫音]] |
! [[閃音]]或[[颤音 (语音学)|顫音]] |
||
| colspan="2" | |
| colspan="2" | |
||
| colspan="2" | r {{IPA|/ɾ/}}; R {{IPA|/r/}} or {{IPA|/ʀ/}}<ref>{{IPA|/ʀ/}} is uvular.</ref> |
| colspan="2" | r {{IPA|/ɾ/}}; R {{IPA|/r/}} or {{IPA|/ʀ/}}<ref>{{IPA|/ʀ/}} is uvular.</ref> |
||
第149行: | 第149行: | ||
| colspan="2" | ɣ {{IPA|/ɣ/}} |
| colspan="2" | ɣ {{IPA|/ɣ/}} |
||
|- align="center" |
|- align="center" |
||
! [[鼻音]] |
! [[鼻音 (辅音)|鼻音]] |
||
| colspan="2" | m {{IPA|/m/}} |
| colspan="2" | m {{IPA|/m/}} |
||
| colspan="2" | n {{IPA|/n/}} |
| colspan="2" | n {{IPA|/n/}} |
||
第166行: | 第166行: | ||
| colspan="2" | |
| colspan="2" | |
||
| colspan="2" | l {{IPA|/l/}} |
| colspan="2" | l {{IPA|/l/}} |
||
| colspan="2" | ɬ {{IPA|/ |
| colspan="2" | ɬ {{IPA|/ʎ/}} |
||
| colspan="2" | |
| colspan="2" | |
||
| colspan="2" | |
| colspan="2" | |
||
第255行: | 第255行: | ||
|c=02| y |
|c=02| y |
||
|} |
|} |
||
==音变== |
|||
原始南岛语变为原始马玻语、[[原始大洋洲语]]和[[原始波利尼西亚语]]时,音系发生简化。到原始马玻语有3处简化,原始大洋洲语到原始波利尼西亚语又有9处简化。因此,原始南岛语的音系最复杂,原始波利尼西亚语最简单。例如,[[夏威夷语]]因只有8个辅音音位而著称,[[毛利语]]也只有10个辅音。它们都自原始南岛语的25辅音经历剧烈简化而来。 |
|||
白樂思还观察到原始南岛语到原始马玻语下列合流和音变。<ref name="Blust09"/> |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+原始南岛语到原始马玻语音变 |
|||
!c=02| 原始南岛语 |
|||
!c=03| 原始马玻语 |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *C/t |
|||
|c=03| *t |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *N/n |
|||
|c=03| *n |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *S/h |
|||
|c=03| *h |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *eS<ref>技术上讲这还属于*S > *h。区别是前边的元音也变化。</ref> |
|||
|c=03| *ah |
|||
|} |
|||
据Wolff (2010:241),原始南岛语到原始马玻语则只经历如下音变。 |
|||
* PAn *ɬ > PMP *ñ, l, n |
|||
* PAn *s > PMP *h |
|||
* PAn *h > PMP *Ø |
|||
原始大洋洲语简化得更厉害,这就是为什么今日[[波利尼西亚语支]]语言的音系极为简单。<ref name="Blust09"/> |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+原始马玻语到原始大洋洲语的音变 |
|||
!c=02| 原始马玻语 |
|||
!c=03| 原始大洋洲语 |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *b/p |
|||
|c=03| *p |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *mb/mp |
|||
|c=03| *b |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *c/s/z/j |
|||
|c=03| *s |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *nc/nd/nz/nj |
|||
|c=03| *j |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *g/k |
|||
|c=03| *k |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *ŋg/ŋk |
|||
|c=03| *g |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *d/r |
|||
|c=03| *r |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *e/-aw |
|||
|c=03| *o |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=02| *-i/uy/iw |
|||
|c=03| *i |
|||
|} |
|||
南岛语系内不寻常的音变有:<ref name="Blust09"/> |
|||
* 原始马玻语*w或*b > [[巽他语]] c-或-nc- |
|||
* 原始大洋洲语*w或*y > [[凯赫克语]]p |
|||
* 原始大洋洲语*r或*R > [[希乌语]]g͡ʟ<ref>{{citation |
|||
|last=François |
|||
|first=Alexandre |
|||
|author-link=Alexandre François (linguist) |
|||
|year=2010 |
|||
|title=Phonotactics and the prestopped velar lateral of Hiw: Resolving the ambiguity of a complex segment |
|||
|journal=Phonology |
|||
|volume=27 |
|||
|issue=3 |
|||
|doi=10.1017/s0952675710000205 |
|||
|url=https://www.academia.edu/848679/ |
|||
|accessdate=2021-08-24 |
|||
|archive-date=2021-12-09 |
|||
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209221743/https://www.academia.edu/848679 |
|||
|dead-url=no |
|||
}}</ref>{{rp|393–434}} |
|||
* 原始波利尼西亚语*l或*r > ŋg (经过*ɣ或*ʁ)于[[拉纳尔语]] |
|||
* 原始波利尼西亚语*t > k于夏威夷语、[[萨摩亚语]]和[[翁通爪哇语]](*k > ʔ后)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blust|first1=R. A.|title=*t to k: An Austronesian Sound Change Revisited|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|date=2004|volume=43|issue=2|doi=10.1353/ol.2005.0001}}</ref>{{rp|365–410}} |
|||
==句法== |
|||
===语序=== |
|||
原始南岛语是动词前置语言(包括[[动主宾语序|VSO]]和[[动宾主语序|VOS]]),目前所有[[台湾南岛语言]]、[[菲律宾语群]]、部分[[大北婆罗洲语群]]语言、[[马达加斯加]]所有南岛语、所有[[波利尼西亚语支]]都还是动词前置语言。<ref name="Blust09"/> 大部分[[印度尼西亚]]、[[新几内亚]]、[[新喀里多尼亚]]、[[瓦努阿图]]、[[所罗门群岛]]和[[密克罗尼西亚岛群|密克罗尼西亚]]的[[大洋洲语群]]语言,以及[[台灣]]的[[賽夏語]]、[[道卡斯語]]、[[巴宰語]]、[[噶哈巫語]]、[[邵語]]是[[主动宾语序|SVO]]。[[主宾动语序|SOV]]语序对南岛语来说很罕见,只有[[新几内亚]]和[[所罗门群岛]]几种南岛语属于该语序。这是因为SOV语序在非南岛的[[新几内亚诸语言]]中常见。 |
|||
===语态系统=== |
|||
[[台湾]]、[[婆罗洲]]、[[马达加斯加]]和[[菲律宾]]的南岛语一般以其独特的[[配列]]著称,也被称为南岛[[焦点系统]]。原始南岛语也有这样的焦点系统。不同于原始南岛语,原始大洋洲语句法不使用焦点形态。在[[波利尼西亚语支]]内,动词形态极为简单,而句子中的主要成分更多是短语而不是词汇。 |
|||
下面是John Wolff的原始南岛语语态系统表,引自Blust (2009:433)。Wolff的“四语态”系统来自台湾和菲律宾南岛语。 |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+原始南岛语语态系统 |
|||
! |
|||
!c=01| 独立<br />(非过去) |
|||
!c=02| 独立<br />(过去) |
|||
!c=03| 将来<br /> |
|||
!c=04| 从属 |
|||
!c=05| 虚拟 |
|||
|- |
|||
! 施动语态 |
|||
|c=01| -um- |
|||
|c=02| -inum- |
|||
|c=03| ? |
|||
|c=04| ø |
|||
|c=05| -a |
|||
|- |
|||
! 直接被动 |
|||
|c=01| -en |
|||
|c=02| -in- |
|||
|c=03| r- -en |
|||
|c=04| -a |
|||
|c=05| ? |
|||
|- |
|||
! 当地被动 |
|||
|c=01| -an |
|||
|c=02| -in-an |
|||
|c=03| r- -an |
|||
|c=04| -i |
|||
|c=05| -ay |
|||
|- |
|||
! 工具被动 |
|||
|c=01| i- |
|||
|c=02| i- -in- (?) |
|||
|c=03| ? |
|||
|c=04| -an (?) |
|||
|c=05| ? |
|||
|} |
|||
不过,Ross (2009)<ref name="Ross2009">Ross, Malcolm. 2009. "Proto Austronesian verbal morphology: A reappraisal." In Alexander Adelaar and Andrew Pawley (eds.). ''Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: a festschrift for Robert Blust''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</ref>注意到[[邹语]]、[[鲁凯语]]和[[卑南语]]不能用这套构拟解释,因此祖语没有这套配列。他称这套构拟可以应用于所谓'''核心南岛语'''。 |
|||
===疑问代词和格标记=== |
|||
下表比较了原始南岛语和原始马玻语的疑问词。 |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+原始南岛语和原始马玻语的疑问词 |
|||
!c=01| 英语 |
|||
!c=02| 原始南岛语 |
|||
!c=03| 原始马玻语 |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 什么 |
|||
|c=02| *(n)-anu |
|||
|c=03| *apa |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 谁 |
|||
|c=02| *(si)-ima |
|||
|c=03| *i-sai |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 哪里 |
|||
|c=02| *i-nu |
|||
|c=03| *i nu |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 何时 |
|||
|c=02| *ija-n |
|||
|c=03| *p-ijan |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 如何 |
|||
|c=02| *(n)-anu |
|||
|c=03| *ku(j)a |
|||
|} |
|||
目前原始南岛语[[格]]系统最完善的构拟是Malcolm Ross:<ref name="Blust09"/> |
|||
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto:" align="center" |
|||
|+原始南岛语格标记 |
|||
! |
|||
!c=01| 普通名词 |
|||
!c=02| 单数<br />人称名词 |
|||
!c=03| 复数<br />人称名词 |
|||
|- |
|||
! 通格 |
|||
|c=01| *[y]a, *u |
|||
|c=02| *i |
|||
|c=03| – |
|||
|- |
|||
! 主格 |
|||
|c=01| *k-a |
|||
|c=02| *k-u |
|||
|c=03| – |
|||
|- |
|||
! 属格 |
|||
|c=01| *n-a, *n-u |
|||
|c=02| *n-i |
|||
|c=03| *n-i-a |
|||
|- |
|||
! 宾格 |
|||
|c=01| *C-a, *C-u |
|||
|c=02| *C-i |
|||
|c=03| – |
|||
|- |
|||
! 斜格 |
|||
|c=01| *s-a, *s-u |
|||
|c=02| – |
|||
|c=03| – |
|||
|- |
|||
! 方位格 |
|||
|c=01| *d-a |
|||
|c=02| – |
|||
|c=03| – |
|||
|} |
|||
重要的原始南岛语语法词有连词*na和方位词*i。<ref name="Blust09"/> |
|||
==词汇== |
|||
===代词=== |
|||
原始南岛语和原始马玻语[[人称代词]]据Robert Blust。<ref name="Blust09"/> |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+原始南岛语和原始马玻语代词 |
|||
!c=01| 代词种类 |
|||
!c=02| 汉语 |
|||
!c=03| 原始南岛语 |
|||
!c=04| 原始马玻语 |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 第一人称单数 |
|||
|c=02| 我 |
|||
|c=03| *i-aku |
|||
|c=04| *i-aku |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 第二人称单数 |
|||
|c=02| 你 |
|||
|c=03| *i-(ka)Su |
|||
|c=04| *i-kahu |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 第三人称单数 |
|||
|c=02| 他/她/它 |
|||
|c=03| *si-ia |
|||
|c=04| *si-ia |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 第一人称复数(包含式) |
|||
|c=02| 我们(与你) |
|||
|c=03| *i-(k)ita |
|||
|c=04| *i-(k)ita |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 第一人称复数(排除式) |
|||
|c=02| 我们(没有你) |
|||
|c=03| *i-(k)ami |
|||
|c=04| *i-(k)ami |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 第二人称复数 |
|||
|c=02| 你们 |
|||
|c=03| *i-kamu |
|||
|c=04| *i-kamu, ihu |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 第三人称复数 |
|||
|c=02| 他们 |
|||
|c=03| *si-ida |
|||
|c=04| *si-ida |
|||
|} |
|||
===动词=== |
|||
下面是原始南岛语、原始马玻语、原始大洋洲语和原始波利尼西亚语动词,来自[https://web.archive.org/web/20170503020518/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/ 南岛基础词数据库]。 |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+动词 |
|||
!c=01| 动词 |
|||
!c=02| 原始南岛语 |
|||
!c=03| 原始马玻语 |
|||
!c=04| 原始大洋洲语 |
|||
!c=05| 原始波利尼西亚语 |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 走 |
|||
|c=02| *Nakaw |
|||
|c=03| *lakaw, paNaw |
|||
|c=04| *lako, pano |
|||
|c=05| *fano |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 游泳 |
|||
|c=02| *Naŋuy |
|||
|c=03| *naŋuy |
|||
|c=04| *kakaRu |
|||
|c=05| *kaukau |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 知道 |
|||
|c=02| *bajaq |
|||
|c=03| *taqu |
|||
|c=04| *taqu |
|||
|c=05| *qiloa |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 想 |
|||
|c=02| *nemnem |
|||
|c=03| *demdem |
|||
|c=04| *rodrom |
|||
|c=05| *manatu |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 睡觉 |
|||
|c=02| *tuduR |
|||
|c=03| *tuduR |
|||
|c=04| *turuR |
|||
|c=05| *mohe |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 站 |
|||
|c=02| *diRi |
|||
|c=03| *diRi, *tuqud |
|||
|c=04| *tuqur |
|||
|c=05| *tuqu |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 缝 |
|||
|c=02| *taSiq |
|||
|c=03| *tahiq, *zaqit |
|||
|c=04| *saqit, *turi |
|||
|c=05| *tui |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 死 |
|||
|c=02| *m-aCay |
|||
|c=03| *m-atay |
|||
|c=04| *mate |
|||
|c=05| *mate |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 选 |
|||
|c=02| *piliq |
|||
|c=03| *piliq |
|||
|c=04| *piliq |
|||
|c=05| *fili |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 飞 |
|||
|c=02| *layap |
|||
|c=03| *layap, Rebek |
|||
|c=04| *Ropok |
|||
|c=05| *lele |
|||
|} |
|||
===数词=== |
|||
下面是原始南岛语、原始马玻语、原始大洋洲语和原始波利尼西亚语的数词,来自南岛基础词汇数据库。<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/ |title=Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database |access-date=2008-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503020518/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/ |archive-date=2017-05-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
|||
在一些[[台灣南島語言]]中,如巴宰语、虎尾垄语、赛夏语和道卡斯语,有*RaCep“5”這樣的反映形式,看上去这是將*lima給替换掉了,但[[沙加爾]]則持相反意見,其提出原始马玻语的7、8、9 是從複合詞形式轉變為雙音節詞的猜想,其中一證據是一些台湾西部南岛语,特别是巴宰语还有保留複合詞形式:巴宰语xaseb-uza“6”(字面上:5—1);xaseb-i-dusa“7”(5和2),,bidu与原始马玻语*pitu同源;xaseb-a-turu“8”(5和3),baturu与原始马玻语*walu同源;xaseb-i-supat“9”(5和4),supa(<原始南岛语*Sepat“4”)与原始马玻语*Siwa同源。<ref>Laurent Sagart (2004) The Higher Phylogeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadai</ref> |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+数词 |
|||
!c=01| 数字 |
|||
!c=02| 原始南岛语 |
|||
!c=03| 原始马玻语 |
|||
!c=04| 原始大洋洲语 |
|||
!c=05| 原始波利尼西亚语 |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 1 |
|||
|c=02| *esa, *isa |
|||
|c=03| *esa, *isa |
|||
|c=04| *sa-kai, *ta-sa, *tai, *kai |
|||
|c=05| *taha |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 2 |
|||
|c=02| *duSa |
|||
|c=03| *duha |
|||
|c=04| *rua |
|||
|c=05| *rua |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 3 |
|||
|c=02| *telu |
|||
|c=03| *telu |
|||
|c=04| *tolu |
|||
|c=05| *tolu |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 4 |
|||
|c=02| *Sepat |
|||
|c=03| *epat |
|||
|c=04| *pat, *pati, *pani |
|||
|c=05| *faa |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 5 |
|||
|c=02| *RaCep, *lima |
|||
|c=03| *lima |
|||
|c=04| *lima |
|||
|c=05| *lima |
|||
|} |
|||
原始南岛语称非人类(“甲类”)和人类(“乙类”)用两套不同数词(Blust 2009:279)。乙类通过Ca-重复分化自甲类。这样的二分数词系统在不少语言中都存在(排湾语用ma-和manə-}}派生乙类数词)。在他加禄语等菲律宾语群语言中,两套数词相混(Blust 2009:280-281)。 |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+基础数词vs.人类数词 |
|||
!c=01| 数字 |
|||
!c=02| 甲类 |
|||
!c=03| 乙类 |
|||
!c=04| 他加禄语 |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 1 |
|||
|c=02| *isa |
|||
|c=03| *? |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|isa}} (甲) |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 2 |
|||
|c=02| *duSa |
|||
|c=03| *da-duSa |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|dalawa}} (乙) |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 3 |
|||
|c=02| *telu |
|||
|c=03| *ta-telu |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|tatlo}} (乙) |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 4 |
|||
|c=02| *Sepat |
|||
|c=03| *Sa-Sepat |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|apat}} (乙) |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 5 |
|||
|c=02| *lima |
|||
|c=03| *la-lima |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|lima}} (甲) |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 6 |
|||
|c=02| *enem |
|||
|c=03| *a-enem |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|anim}} (乙) |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 7 |
|||
|c=02| *pitu |
|||
|c=03| *pa-pitu |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|pito}} (甲) |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 8 |
|||
|c=02| *walu |
|||
|c=03| *wa-walu |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|walo}} (甲动词) |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 9 |
|||
|c=02| *Siwa |
|||
|c=03| *Sa-Siwa |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|(siyam)}} |
|||
|- |
|||
|c=01| 10 |
|||
|c=02| *sa-puluq |
|||
|c=03| *? |
|||
|c=04| {{lang|tl|sampu}} |
|||
|} |
|||
原始南岛语也用*Sika-派生[[序数]](Blust 2009:281)。 |
|||
==单音节词根== |
|||
下面给出有大量证据、确凿的单音节原始南岛语词根,据John Wolff (Wolff 1999)。<ref>Wolff, John. 1999. "The monosyllabic roots of Proto-Austronesian." In Elizabeth Zeitoun and Paul Jen-kuei Li, eds. 1999. 《第8届南岛语言学国际会议论文集》. 台北:中央研究院.</ref>{{rp|139-194}} |
|||
{{refbegin|2}} |
|||
* *baw “上” |
|||
* *bay “女” |
|||
* *beg “盘旋,缠绕” |
|||
* *bit “用手指拿” |
|||
* *buñ “囟门” |
|||
* *but “拔出” |
|||
* *dem “思念” |
|||
* *gem “拳” |
|||
* *ɣiq “白茅” |
|||
* *kan “吃” |
|||
** *si-kan “鱼(配菜)” |
|||
** *pa-kan “喂养” |
|||
** *paN-kan “食、喂养” |
|||
* *kub |
|||
** *kubkub “覆盖” |
|||
** *takub “以杯状物覆盖”(此处*ta-是定格前缀) |
|||
* *lid |
|||
** *belit “风” |
|||
** *bilid “风、缠绕、叠” |
|||
** *pulid “转过圈” |
|||
* *luk “内凹” |
|||
* *lum “熟” |
|||
* *nem “6” |
|||
* *ñam “味道” |
|||
* *ñeŋ “瞧” |
|||
* *ŋa “张(嘴)” |
|||
** *kaŋa “张(嘴)” |
|||
** *baŋa “空隙,开着” |
|||
** *binaŋa (< -in- + baŋa) / *minaŋa “河口” |
|||
** *beŋa “惊呆” |
|||
** *búŋa “花” |
|||
** *paŋa “分叉” |
|||
** *ʃaŋa “树枝” |
|||
* *pan “饵” |
|||
* *pat “4” |
|||
* *peʃ “挤压、放气” |
|||
* *pit |
|||
** *kepit “捏在一起” |
|||
* *pu “孙” |
|||
* *put “吹” |
|||
* *ʃaw “洗、浸” |
|||
* *ʃay “谁?” |
|||
* *ʃek 'stuff, fill chock full' |
|||
* *ʃeŋ “熬夜” |
|||
* *ʃep “吮吸” |
|||
* *ʃuk “走进、经过” |
|||
* *taw “人” |
|||
* *tay “桥” |
|||
** *matay “死” |
|||
** *patay “杀” |
|||
* *tuk “喙、尖端” |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
==語法== |
==語法== |
||
在原始南島語的觀點上、目前的[[台灣南島語 |
在原始南島語的觀點上、目前的[[台灣南島語]]及[[菲律賓語族|菲律賓南島語]]之間存在著有關[[詞綴]]及[[焦點系統]]諸多類同的架構。 |
||
== 另见 == |
|||
*[[小舌塞音]] |
|||
* [[原始马玻语]] |
|||
* [[原始菲律宾语]] |
|||
* [[原始大洋洲语]] |
|||
* [[原始波利尼西亚语]] |
|||
* [[原始南亚语]] |
|||
* [[原始苗瑶语]] |
|||
* [[原始藏缅语]] |
|||
* [[Wiktionary:Appendix:Cognate sets for Austronesian languages|南岛语系同源词]] |
|||
==註釋== |
|||
*[[小舌塞音]]([[:en:Uvular stop|Uvular stop]]) |
|||
==註釋== |
==註釋== |
||
第267行: | 第766行: | ||
==參考文獻== |
==參考文獻== |
||
{{refbegin|2}} |
{{refbegin|2}} |
||
*Alexandre Bouchard-Côtéa,1, David Hallb, Thomas L. Griffithsc, and Dan Kleinb. 2012."Automated reconstruction of ancient languages using probabilistic models of sound change"[http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/02/05/1204678110.abstract],PNAS,December 22, 2012. |
*Alexandre Bouchard-Côtéa,1, David Hallb, Thomas L. Griffithsc, and Dan Kleinb. 2012."Automated reconstruction of ancient languages using probabilistic models of sound change"[http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/02/05/1204678110.abstract] {{Wayback|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/02/05/1204678110.abstract |date=20210212145051 }},PNAS,December 22, 2012. |
||
* Blust, R. (1999). Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: Some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics. In Zeitoun, E., & Li, P. J-K., Selected Papers From the 8th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Taipei, Taiwan: Academica Sinica. http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=280 |
* Blust, R. (1999). Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: Some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics. In Zeitoun, E., & Li, P. J-K., Selected Papers From the 8th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Taipei, Taiwan: Academica Sinica. https://web.archive.org/web/20170409095340/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=280 |
||
* Blust, Robert A. 2009. ''The Austronesian Languages''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-602-5, ISBN 978-0-85883-602-0. |
* Blust, Robert A. 2009. ''The Austronesian Languages''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-602-5, ISBN 978-0-85883-602-0. |
||
* Cohen, E. M. Kempler. 1999. ''Fundaments of Austronesian roots and etymology''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. |
* Cohen, E. M. Kempler. 1999. ''Fundaments of Austronesian roots and etymology''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. |
||
* Greenhill, S.J., Blust. R, & Gray, R.D. (2008). The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics. Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4:271-283. http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/ |
* Greenhill, S.J., Blust. R, & Gray, R.D. (2008). The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics. Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4:271-283. https://web.archive.org/web/20170503020518/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/ |
||
* Wolff, John U. 2010. ''Proto-Austronesian phonology with glossary''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications. |
* Wolff, John U. 2010. ''Proto-Austronesian phonology with glossary''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications. |
||
{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
||
第277行: | 第776行: | ||
==外部連結== |
==外部連結== |
||
{{refbegin}} |
{{refbegin}} |
||
* [http://www.trussel2.com/ACD/ Austronesian Comparative Dictionary (ACD)] |
* [http://www.trussel2.com/ACD/ Austronesian Comparative Dictionary (ACD)]{{Wayback|url=http://www.trussel2.com/ACD/ |date=20140202172831 }} |
||
* [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=280 ABVD: Proto-Austronesian (Blust)] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170409095340/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=280 ABVD: Proto-Austronesian (Blust)] |
||
* [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=718 ABVD: Proto-Austronesian (Zorc)] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130426170317/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=718 ABVD: Proto-Austronesian (Zorc)] |
||
** [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=269 ABVD: Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Blust)] |
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20130426145530/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=269 ABVD: Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Blust)] |
||
** [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=721 ABVD: Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Zorc)] |
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110520125430/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=721 ABVD: Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Zorc)] |
||
*** [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=267 ABVD: Proto-Central Eastern Malayo Polynesian (Blust)] |
*** [https://web.archive.org/web/20130426170342/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=267 ABVD: Proto-Central Eastern Malayo Polynesian (Blust)] |
||
**** [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=268 ABVD: Proto-Central Malayo Polynesian (Blust)] |
**** [https://web.archive.org/web/20130426170348/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=268 ABVD: Proto-Central Malayo Polynesian (Blust)] |
||
***** [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=270 ABVD: Proto-Oceanic (Blust)] |
***** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110520041915/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=270 ABVD: Proto-Oceanic (Blust)] |
||
***** [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=665 ABVD: Proto-Oceanic (Pawley)] |
***** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110520213227/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=665 ABVD: Proto-Oceanic (Pawley)] |
||
****** [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=340 ABVD: Proto-Micronesian (Bender)] |
****** [https://web.archive.org/web/20130426145600/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=340 ABVD: Proto-Micronesian (Bender)] |
||
****** [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=658 ABVD: Proto-Polynesian (Pawley)] |
****** [https://web.archive.org/web/20170413021014/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=658 ABVD: Proto-Polynesian (Pawley)] |
||
*[ |
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091018200327/http://geocities.com/Tokyo/8908/firemount/austroframes.html Fire Mountain Presents-A Comparison of Austronesian Languages-Foreword] |
||
{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
||
{{南島語系}} |
|||
[[Category:南島語系]] |
[[Category:南島語系]] |
2024年12月10日 (二) 11:05的最新版本
原始南島語(Proto-Austronesian language (PAN/PAn)、古南島語)是經由重建的南島語系之祖語。南島語系為全世界最大的語系之一,其下之語系的祖語諸如原始馬來-波利尼西亞語、原始大洋洲語,及原始波利尼西亞語也經由如此的方法重建。
語音系統
[编辑]白樂思重建之語音系統
[编辑]底下為白樂思重建之原始南島語之語音系統常用符號:
- *C: 清齒齦塞擦音
- *c: 清硬顎擦音
- *q: 小舌塞音或聲門塞音
- *z: 濁硬顎擦音
- *D: 濁軟顎塞音
- *j: 顎音化濁軟顎塞音
- *S: 清齒齦擦音
- *N: 顎音化齒齦邊音
- *r: 齒齦閃音
- *R: 齿龈颤音或小舌顫音
雙唇音 | 齿龈音 | 硬顎音 | 捲舌音 | 軟顎音 | 聲門音 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
清塞音 | p /p/ | t /t/ | k /k/ | q /q/[1] or /ʔ/ | ||||||||
濁塞音 | b /b/ | d /d/ | D /ɖ/ | g /ɡ/; j /ɡʲ/ | ||||||||
鼻音 | m /m/ | n /n/ | ñ /ɲ/ | ŋ /ŋ/ | ||||||||
擦音 | S /s/ | s /ç/ | h /h/ | |||||||||
擦音 | C /t͡s/ | c /c͡ç/,[2] z /ɟ͡ʝ/[3] | ||||||||||
邊音 | l /l/ | N /lʲ/ | ||||||||||
閃音或顫音 | r /ɾ/; R /r/ or /ʀ/[4] | |||||||||||
近音 | w /w/ | y /j/ |
原始南島語之元音為:/a/, /i/, /u/,及/ə/。
音高 | 前元音 | 央元音 | 後元音 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
閉元音 | i /i/ | u /u/ | |||||
中元音 | ə /ə/ | ||||||
開元音 | a /a/ |
双元音其個別元音之歷時來源(diachronic sources)分別為:
- *-ay
- *-aw
- *-uy
- *-iw
沃爾夫重建之語音系統
[编辑]雙唇音 | 齿龈音 | 硬顎音 | 軟顎音 | 聲門音 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
清塞音 | p /p/ | t /t/ | c /c/ | k /k/ | q /q/[1] | |||||
濁塞音 | b /b/ | d /d/ | j /ɟ/ | g /ɡ/ | ɣ /ɣ/ | |||||
鼻音 | m /m/ | n /n/ | ŋ /ŋ/ | |||||||
擦音 | s /s/ | h /h/ | ||||||||
邊音 | l /l/ | ɬ /ʎ/ | ||||||||
近音 | w /w/ | y /j/ |
沃爾夫 | 白樂思 |
---|---|
p | p |
t | C, t |
k | k |
無 | T, c |
q | q |
b | b |
無 | d |
d | D |
j | z |
無 | Z |
g | j |
無 | g |
ɣ | ʀ |
m | m |
n | n |
ɬ | ñ, N, L |
ŋ | ŋ |
l | l |
無 | r |
c | s |
s | S |
h | H1 (H2) |
w | w |
y | y |
音变
[编辑]原始南岛语变为原始马玻语、原始大洋洲语和原始波利尼西亚语时,音系发生简化。到原始马玻语有3处简化,原始大洋洲语到原始波利尼西亚语又有9处简化。因此,原始南岛语的音系最复杂,原始波利尼西亚语最简单。例如,夏威夷语因只有8个辅音音位而著称,毛利语也只有10个辅音。它们都自原始南岛语的25辅音经历剧烈简化而来。
白樂思还观察到原始南岛语到原始马玻语下列合流和音变。[5]
原始南岛语 | 原始马玻语 |
---|---|
*C/t | *t |
*N/n | *n |
*S/h | *h |
*eS[6] | *ah |
据Wolff (2010:241),原始南岛语到原始马玻语则只经历如下音变。
- PAn *ɬ > PMP *ñ, l, n
- PAn *s > PMP *h
- PAn *h > PMP *Ø
原始大洋洲语简化得更厉害,这就是为什么今日波利尼西亚语支语言的音系极为简单。[5]
原始马玻语 | 原始大洋洲语 |
---|---|
*b/p | *p |
*mb/mp | *b |
*c/s/z/j | *s |
*nc/nd/nz/nj | *j |
*g/k | *k |
*ŋg/ŋk | *g |
*d/r | *r |
*e/-aw | *o |
*-i/uy/iw | *i |
南岛语系内不寻常的音变有:[5]
- 原始马玻语*w或*b > 巽他语 c-或-nc-
- 原始大洋洲语*w或*y > 凯赫克语p
- 原始大洋洲语*r或*R > 希乌语g͡ʟ[7]:393–434
- 原始波利尼西亚语*l或*r > ŋg (经过*ɣ或*ʁ)于拉纳尔语
- 原始波利尼西亚语*t > k于夏威夷语、萨摩亚语和翁通爪哇语(*k > ʔ后)[8]:365–410
句法
[编辑]语序
[编辑]原始南岛语是动词前置语言(包括VSO和VOS),目前所有台湾南岛语言、菲律宾语群、部分大北婆罗洲语群语言、马达加斯加所有南岛语、所有波利尼西亚语支都还是动词前置语言。[5] 大部分印度尼西亚、新几内亚、新喀里多尼亚、瓦努阿图、所罗门群岛和密克罗尼西亚的大洋洲语群语言,以及台灣的賽夏語、道卡斯語、巴宰語、噶哈巫語、邵語是SVO。SOV语序对南岛语来说很罕见,只有新几内亚和所罗门群岛几种南岛语属于该语序。这是因为SOV语序在非南岛的新几内亚诸语言中常见。
语态系统
[编辑]台湾、婆罗洲、马达加斯加和菲律宾的南岛语一般以其独特的配列著称,也被称为南岛焦点系统。原始南岛语也有这样的焦点系统。不同于原始南岛语,原始大洋洲语句法不使用焦点形态。在波利尼西亚语支内,动词形态极为简单,而句子中的主要成分更多是短语而不是词汇。
下面是John Wolff的原始南岛语语态系统表,引自Blust (2009:433)。Wolff的“四语态”系统来自台湾和菲律宾南岛语。
独立 (非过去) |
独立 (过去) |
将来 |
从属 | 虚拟 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
施动语态 | -um- | -inum- | ? | ø | -a |
直接被动 | -en | -in- | r- -en | -a | ? |
当地被动 | -an | -in-an | r- -an | -i | -ay |
工具被动 | i- | i- -in- (?) | ? | -an (?) | ? |
不过,Ross (2009)[9]注意到邹语、鲁凯语和卑南语不能用这套构拟解释,因此祖语没有这套配列。他称这套构拟可以应用于所谓核心南岛语。
疑问代词和格标记
[编辑]下表比较了原始南岛语和原始马玻语的疑问词。
英语 | 原始南岛语 | 原始马玻语 |
---|---|---|
什么 | *(n)-anu | *apa |
谁 | *(si)-ima | *i-sai |
哪里 | *i-nu | *i nu |
何时 | *ija-n | *p-ijan |
如何 | *(n)-anu | *ku(j)a |
目前原始南岛语格系统最完善的构拟是Malcolm Ross:[5]
普通名词 | 单数 人称名词 |
复数 人称名词 | |
---|---|---|---|
通格 | *[y]a, *u | *i | – |
主格 | *k-a | *k-u | – |
属格 | *n-a, *n-u | *n-i | *n-i-a |
宾格 | *C-a, *C-u | *C-i | – |
斜格 | *s-a, *s-u | – | – |
方位格 | *d-a | – | – |
重要的原始南岛语语法词有连词*na和方位词*i。[5]
词汇
[编辑]代词
[编辑]原始南岛语和原始马玻语人称代词据Robert Blust。[5]
代词种类 | 汉语 | 原始南岛语 | 原始马玻语 |
---|---|---|---|
第一人称单数 | 我 | *i-aku | *i-aku |
第二人称单数 | 你 | *i-(ka)Su | *i-kahu |
第三人称单数 | 他/她/它 | *si-ia | *si-ia |
第一人称复数(包含式) | 我们(与你) | *i-(k)ita | *i-(k)ita |
第一人称复数(排除式) | 我们(没有你) | *i-(k)ami | *i-(k)ami |
第二人称复数 | 你们 | *i-kamu | *i-kamu, ihu |
第三人称复数 | 他们 | *si-ida | *si-ida |
动词
[编辑]下面是原始南岛语、原始马玻语、原始大洋洲语和原始波利尼西亚语动词,来自南岛基础词数据库。
动词 | 原始南岛语 | 原始马玻语 | 原始大洋洲语 | 原始波利尼西亚语 |
---|---|---|---|---|
走 | *Nakaw | *lakaw, paNaw | *lako, pano | *fano |
游泳 | *Naŋuy | *naŋuy | *kakaRu | *kaukau |
知道 | *bajaq | *taqu | *taqu | *qiloa |
想 | *nemnem | *demdem | *rodrom | *manatu |
睡觉 | *tuduR | *tuduR | *turuR | *mohe |
站 | *diRi | *diRi, *tuqud | *tuqur | *tuqu |
缝 | *taSiq | *tahiq, *zaqit | *saqit, *turi | *tui |
死 | *m-aCay | *m-atay | *mate | *mate |
选 | *piliq | *piliq | *piliq | *fili |
飞 | *layap | *layap, Rebek | *Ropok | *lele |
数词
[编辑]下面是原始南岛语、原始马玻语、原始大洋洲语和原始波利尼西亚语的数词,来自南岛基础词汇数据库。[10]
在一些台灣南島語言中,如巴宰语、虎尾垄语、赛夏语和道卡斯语,有*RaCep“5”這樣的反映形式,看上去这是將*lima給替换掉了,但沙加爾則持相反意見,其提出原始马玻语的7、8、9 是從複合詞形式轉變為雙音節詞的猜想,其中一證據是一些台湾西部南岛语,特别是巴宰语还有保留複合詞形式:巴宰语xaseb-uza“6”(字面上:5—1);xaseb-i-dusa“7”(5和2),,bidu与原始马玻语*pitu同源;xaseb-a-turu“8”(5和3),baturu与原始马玻语*walu同源;xaseb-i-supat“9”(5和4),supa(<原始南岛语*Sepat“4”)与原始马玻语*Siwa同源。[11]
数字 | 原始南岛语 | 原始马玻语 | 原始大洋洲语 | 原始波利尼西亚语 |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | *esa, *isa | *esa, *isa | *sa-kai, *ta-sa, *tai, *kai | *taha |
2 | *duSa | *duha | *rua | *rua |
3 | *telu | *telu | *tolu | *tolu |
4 | *Sepat | *epat | *pat, *pati, *pani | *faa |
5 | *RaCep, *lima | *lima | *lima | *lima |
原始南岛语称非人类(“甲类”)和人类(“乙类”)用两套不同数词(Blust 2009:279)。乙类通过Ca-重复分化自甲类。这样的二分数词系统在不少语言中都存在(排湾语用ma-和manə-}}派生乙类数词)。在他加禄语等菲律宾语群语言中,两套数词相混(Blust 2009:280-281)。
数字 | 甲类 | 乙类 | 他加禄语 |
---|---|---|---|
1 | *isa | *? | isa (甲) |
2 | *duSa | *da-duSa | dalawa (乙) |
3 | *telu | *ta-telu | tatlo (乙) |
4 | *Sepat | *Sa-Sepat | apat (乙) |
5 | *lima | *la-lima | lima (甲) |
6 | *enem | *a-enem | anim (乙) |
7 | *pitu | *pa-pitu | pito (甲) |
8 | *walu | *wa-walu | walo (甲动词) |
9 | *Siwa | *Sa-Siwa | (siyam) |
10 | *sa-puluq | *? | sampu |
原始南岛语也用*Sika-派生序数(Blust 2009:281)。
单音节词根
[编辑]下面给出有大量证据、确凿的单音节原始南岛语词根,据John Wolff (Wolff 1999)。[12]:139-194
- *baw “上”
- *bay “女”
- *beg “盘旋,缠绕”
- *bit “用手指拿”
- *buñ “囟门”
- *but “拔出”
- *dem “思念”
- *gem “拳”
- *ɣiq “白茅”
- *kan “吃”
- *si-kan “鱼(配菜)”
- *pa-kan “喂养”
- *paN-kan “食、喂养”
- *kub
- *kubkub “覆盖”
- *takub “以杯状物覆盖”(此处*ta-是定格前缀)
- *lid
- *belit “风”
- *bilid “风、缠绕、叠”
- *pulid “转过圈”
- *luk “内凹”
- *lum “熟”
- *nem “6”
- *ñam “味道”
- *ñeŋ “瞧”
- *ŋa “张(嘴)”
- *kaŋa “张(嘴)”
- *baŋa “空隙,开着”
- *binaŋa (< -in- + baŋa) / *minaŋa “河口”
- *beŋa “惊呆”
- *búŋa “花”
- *paŋa “分叉”
- *ʃaŋa “树枝”
- *pan “饵”
- *pat “4”
- *peʃ “挤压、放气”
- *pit
- *kepit “捏在一起”
- *pu “孙”
- *put “吹”
- *ʃaw “洗、浸”
- *ʃay “谁?”
- *ʃek 'stuff, fill chock full'
- *ʃeŋ “熬夜”
- *ʃep “吮吸”
- *ʃuk “走进、经过”
- *taw “人”
- *tay “桥”
- *matay “死”
- *patay “杀”
- *tuk “喙、尖端”
語法
[编辑]在原始南島語的觀點上、目前的台灣南島語及菲律賓南島語之間存在著有關詞綴及焦點系統諸多類同的架構。
另见
[编辑]
註釋
[编辑]- ^ 1.0 1.1 q /q/ is uvular
- ^ c /c͡ç/ is unvoiced.
- ^ z /ɟ͡ʝ/ is voiced.
- ^ /ʀ/ is uvular.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 引用错误:没有为名为
Blust09
的参考文献提供内容 - ^ 技术上讲这还属于*S > *h。区别是前边的元音也变化。
- ^ François, Alexandre, Phonotactics and the prestopped velar lateral of Hiw: Resolving the ambiguity of a complex segment, Phonology, 2010, 27 (3) [2021-08-24], doi:10.1017/s0952675710000205, (原始内容存档于2021-12-09)
- ^ Blust, R. A. *t to k: An Austronesian Sound Change Revisited. Oceanic Linguistics. 2004, 43 (2). doi:10.1353/ol.2005.0001.
- ^ Ross, Malcolm. 2009. "Proto Austronesian verbal morphology: A reappraisal." In Alexander Adelaar and Andrew Pawley (eds.). Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: a festschrift for Robert Blust. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
- ^ Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database. [2008-03-01]. (原始内容存档于2017-05-03).
- ^ Laurent Sagart (2004) The Higher Phylogeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadai
- ^ Wolff, John. 1999. "The monosyllabic roots of Proto-Austronesian." In Elizabeth Zeitoun and Paul Jen-kuei Li, eds. 1999. 《第8届南岛语言学国际会议论文集》. 台北:中央研究院.
參考文獻
[编辑]- Alexandre Bouchard-Côtéa,1, David Hallb, Thomas L. Griffithsc, and Dan Kleinb. 2012."Automated reconstruction of ancient languages using probabilistic models of sound change"[1] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆),PNAS,December 22, 2012.
- Blust, R. (1999). Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: Some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics. In Zeitoun, E., & Li, P. J-K., Selected Papers From the 8th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Taipei, Taiwan: Academica Sinica. https://web.archive.org/web/20170409095340/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=280
- Blust, Robert A. 2009. The Austronesian Languages. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-602-5, ISBN 978-0-85883-602-0.
- Cohen, E. M. Kempler. 1999. Fundaments of Austronesian roots and etymology. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
- Greenhill, S.J., Blust. R, & Gray, R.D. (2008). The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics. Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4:271-283. https://web.archive.org/web/20170503020518/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/
- Wolff, John U. 2010. Proto-Austronesian phonology with glossary. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.