CHAPTER TWO

POLICY MAKING PROCESS

 Policy Cycle
The study of how policies are made generally
considers a series of activities or process that
occur within the political system. Policy
making process occurs in the following
identifiable stages.
 Stage1: Problem Identification
 A problem is a situation that produces a human
need, deprivation, or dissatisfaction for which
relief is sought, such as pollution, inflation,
crime, poverty, etc.
However, only those needs and wants that are
articulated by people demanding action
become problems eligible for public policy
solutions.
 Stage1: Problem Identification
 Government must perceive that a problem
exists. Public problems are different from
private problems in either the numbers of
people affected, the numbers of people
directly or indirectly involved, and the amount
of resources and type of required for the
solution.
Stage 2: Agenda Setting
An agenda is a collection of problems, understandings of
causes, symbols, solutions, and other elements of public
problems that come to the attention of members of the
public and their governmental officials.
An agenda may be as concrete as a list of bills that are before
a legislature, but also includes a series of beliefs about the
existence and magnitude of problems and how they should
be addressed by government, the private sector, nonprofit
organizations, or through joint action by some or all of
these institutions.
Stage 2: Agenda Setting
Agendas exist at all levels of government. 
Policy Agenda Building is the process by which
demands of various groups in the population
are translated into items vying for serious
attention of public officials.
Stage 2: Agenda Setting
Issues must get on the agenda so that
consideration can be made whether
formulating a policy is the solution or other
means. It should be noted that not all
problems in society are solved through policy
intervention. Before policy is formulated it
must command the attention of the policy
makers.
Types of Agenda
1. Systematic Agenda:
The systematic/ discussion agenda consists of all issues
that are commonly perceived by members of political
community as meriting public attention and as
involving matter within legitimate jurisdiction of
existing governmental authority.
Agenda may figure in the news papers or academic
studies highlighting the concerns of the people. Action
on perceived problem requires that it be brought to the
notice of governmental institution with authority to
take a suitable action.
Types of Agenda
2. Systematic Agenda:
The systematic/ discussion agenda consists of all issues
that are commonly perceived by members of political
community as meriting public attention and as
involving matter within legitimate jurisdiction of
existing governmental authority.
Agenda may figure in the news papers or academic
studies highlighting the concerns of the people. Action
on perceived problem requires that it be brought to the
notice of governmental institution with authority to
take a suitable action.
Models of Agenda Building
Agenda setting models describe the variation of
origin of the issues; whether they originate
from the inside or outside government.
The models also show the degree and direction
of the efforts to expand issues beyond the
initiating group.
Models of Agenda Building
a) Outside Initiating Model
Outside Initiating Model explains the process through
which issues arise outside government and are then
expanded sufficiently to reach first, the Public Agenda,
and then finally the Formal Agenda.
Characteristics of Outside Initiating Model
Initiation: This is the first stage of Outside Initiating
Model .It is the expressing of grievance or a problem in
very general terms by the individuals or a group outside
government. This paves way for the next stage which is
specification.
a) Outside Initiating Model
Specification: This is translating general demands into
specific demands. Because public who have grievances or
problems in general terms may not be unified in their
expression of these issues, it is important that attempt is
made to unify the different views and clearly define and
articulate the issues.
Expansion: In order to be successful in getting the attention
of decision makers and subsequently getting the issues on
the formal agenda, sources outside government need to
generate pressure. This is done by expanding the issue to
new groups, coalitions, and linking the issue to previous
issue to give it more weight.
a) Outside Initiating Model
Entrance: This represents the movement of an
issue from the public agenda to the formal
agenda where serious consideration of the
issue by decision makers can take place.
Some issues get stuck between two agendas
and never make it to the formal agenda. This
especially so when there is a high possibility
that such issues will arouse public attention.
b) Mobilization Model
This Model describes the process whereby policy
makers move issues from the formal agenda to
the public agenda.
The issues have being placed on the formal agenda
either by policy makers themselves or people
who have direct access to them, but there have
not being preliminary expansion of these issues
to the public. The expansion is necessary after the
decision to implement the policy has been made.
b) Mobilization Model
Policy makers try to generate support because
cooperation of public is needed to successfully
implement the policies made.
Mobilization is necessary when policy
implementation requires widespread voluntary
compliance .Policy makers may lack the resources
to implement the policy without mobilization of
the public .On other hand, using coercion or force
to implement the policy may inappropriate ,or too
expensive ,or just not practical.
b) Mobilization Model
Characteristics of Mobilization Model
Initiation Stage: When policy is pronounced by a
prominent political leader usually a President or
Minster, it is automatically on the formal agenda.
In some political systems, this marks the end of the
policy making process since the announcement
is also government policy. There may be debate
before the announcement but the public is
unaware or little interested.
b) Mobilization Model
Characteristics of Mobilization Model
Specification: The announcement of new policy
usually provides few concrete details .After
announcement, effort is made to explain to the
public the details or specifics of what is
expected of them in terms of cooperation and
support, material resources, work, or changes
in behavior patterns.
b) Mobilization Model
Characteristics of Mobilization Model
Expansion: Even though the new policy may become
government policy as soon as it is announced,
implementation is often contingent upon public
acceptance and changes in the behavior. Political
leaders who initiated the policy try to expand the issue
to the new groups in the population.
The purpose is to attempt to draw additional participants
into the effort to implement the policy, as particular
group is how the policy is relevant to them.
b) Mobilization Model
Characteristics of Mobilization Model
Entrance: the problem entrance is moving the
issue from the formal agenda to the public
agenda, as a significant portion of public come
to recognize that the policy of government is
dealing with an important problem, even if
they disagree the specific ways in which
government proposes to deal with the problem.
C. Inside Access Model:
In this model policy originates within government, or from a
group that has easy and frequent access to decision makers.
The policy issue easily reaches the formal agenda because
the position of those who have raised the issue or the
initiating group.
The groups articulating the policy does not seek to place the
issue on the public agenda.
It does not try to force decision makers to place it on the
formal agenda, or to build support for its implementation.
Instead expansion is aimed at particular influential groups
which can be important in the passing and the
implementation of the policy. At same time initiators try to
limit issue expansion on the public agenda.
C. Inside Access Model:
Characteristics of Inside Access Model
Initiation and Specification: An inside group or
agency with close ties with government initiate
the policy issue. The initiating group then
makes concrete proposals. In order to give
their issue high priority, its initial advocates
seek limited issue expansion.
C. Inside Access Model:
Expansion: Limited issue expansion means that the
policy initiators may seek to use an identification
group and selection of attention groups both of
which may help create a sense of agency necessary
to attain a quick and favorable response from the
policy makers.
The supporters feel that selective pressure from
groups close to decision makers is preferable to
public pressure which may create a situation in
which they lose control over the issue or take
longer to achieve the purpose.
C. Inside Access Model:
Entrance: This means attaining formal agenda
status. It does not mean the issue on the
agenda .In general entrance is not spectacular
and public. The preferred strategies for access
are through brokers or direct access.
Institutional sanctions may be used against
individuals resist the policy though favours are
more likely used to induce cooperation.
Moving issues to the agenda
For an issue to be actively considered for
government action it must first be recognized
as a problem. It must then move from being
seen as a problem to being seen as an issue
where public action is needed, and finally
must move to the stage where policy
alternatives are being actively considered.
An issue will most likely get on agenda if any of
the following apply:
Moving issues to the agenda
 An issue has reached crisis proportion and can no longer be
ignored.
 The issue has an emotive aspect or human interest angle,
for example pursuing “Peace talks” as an end to insurgency
that has a toll on the population or the issue of hit famine
areas.
Issue seems to have wide impact, for example the issue of
opening up political space, or adopting IMF and World Bank
restructuring policies.
Issue raises questions about power and legitimacy in society,
for example, what type of political system to adopt the
frequency of national elections, the type of governance
system; federal government or unitary government?
Stage 3: Formulation.
Policy formulation is the development of
effective and acceptable courses of action for
addressing what has been placed on the policy
agenda. There are two parts to this definition of
policy formulation:
1. Effective Formulation means that the policy
proposed is regarded as valid, efficient, and
implementable solution to the issue at hand. If
the policy is seen as ineffective or unworkable
there is no legitimate reason to propose it.
Stage 3: Formulation
Policy analysts try to identify effective alternatives.
This is the analytical phase of policy formulation.
2. Acceptance Formulation means that the proposed
course of action is likely to be authorized by the
legitimate decision makers, usually through
majority-building in the bargaining process. That
is, it must be politically feasible .If the policy is
likely to be rejected by the decision making body,
it may be impractical to suggest it. This is the
political phase of policy formulation
Stage 4: legitimization:
When the executive sits to consider policy
proposals, when parliament debates the
proposed policies in plenary or its
committees, when the president consider and
gives assent to the policy, this whole process is
considered as policy legitimization .
It comprises of the process of approving a
policy.
Stage 5: implementation:
Policy is implemented through organized bureaucrats,
public expenditures, and activities of the executive
agencies.
It involves all activities designed to carry out the
policy that has been passed. This may include
creation of new organizations or government
agencies, or creation of departments or units, or
assignment of new responsibilities to already
existing policy implementing agencies. The organs
formulate operational rules and regulations to
ensure the policies are implemented.
Stage 6: Evaluation: Policy evaluation is the
assessment of the overall effectiveness of the
policy in meeting the stated objectives, and
the consequences of public of public policy,
that is, policy impact.
Stage7:Policy termination: is the flip side of
innovation in termination a policy or program
is abandoned, wound down”, and public
expenditure on the policy is cut, it is a dead
policy, a policy that has ceased to be an ex
policy.