Why Python?

Python is one of the most popular programming languages today. Its popularity comes from a set of
powerful features that make it easy to learn, flexible, and widely applicable.

1. Dynamic Typing

Python uses dynamic typing, which means you do not need to declare the type of a variable before using
it. The interpreter assigns the type automatically at runtime.

x = 10 # integer

x = "Hello" # now x is a string

This makes coding faster, but you need to be careful because type errors may appear during execution.

2. Interpreter

Python is an interpreted language, not a compiled one. The code runs line by line directly through the
Python interpreter.

 Advantage: Easy to test and debug quickly.

 Disadvantage: Slightly slower compared to compiled languages like C++ or Java.

3. Open Source

Python is free and open source.

 Anyone can download and use it without cost.

 Developers around the world contribute to its growth by building new libraries, frameworks, and
tools.

4. Extensible

Python is extensible:

 You can write performance-critical parts of your program in C or C++ and then connect them with
Python.

 This makes Python suitable for small scripts as well as large, high-performance applications.

5. Database Support

Python provides strong support for databases.

 Built-in libraries and third-party modules allow connection to:

o MySQL
 o PostgreSQL

o SQLite

o MongoDB

 This makes it an excellent choice for web development and enterprise applications.

6. Simple Syntax

Python has a clear and simple syntax that is easy to read and write.

 The code looks like plain English.

 Example:

for i in range(3):

print("Welcome to Python")

This code prints the sentence three times, using minimal and clean syntax.

📌 Summary:
Python is dynamic, interpreted, open source, extensible, database-friendly, and very simple to use. That’s
why it is loved by beginners and professionals alike.

🔹 Variables in Python

A variable is simply a name that refers to a value stored in memory. In Python, variables are very easy to
use because you do not need to declare their type explicitly.

1. Declaring Variables

x = 10 # integer

name = "Ali" # string

pi = 3.14 # float

is_active = True # boolean

2. Dynamic Typing

x=5

print(x) # Output: 5
x = "Hello"

print(x) # Output: Hello

3. Variable Naming Rules

✅ Allowed:

 Letters (a-z, A-Z), digits (0-9), underscore _.

❌ Not Allowed:

 Starting with digits, using spaces, or reserved keywords.

age = 20 # valid

user_name = "Ali" # valid

2name = "Sara" # ❌ invalid

for = 5 # ❌ invalid

4. Multiple Assignments

a, b, c = 1, 2, 3

x=y=z=0

5. Constants

PI = 3.14159

MAX_USERS = 100

6. Deleting Variables

x = 100

del x

📌 Summary:

 Variables are used to store data.

 Python uses dynamic typing.

 Follow naming rules.

 Multiple assignment is supported.

 Use uppercase names for constants.

🔹 Strings in Python

A string is a sequence of characters enclosed in either single quotes ' ' or double quotes " ". Strings are one
of the most commonly used data types in Python.

1. Creating Strings

s1 = 'Hello'

s2 = "World"

s3 = '''This is

a multi-line

string'''

2. String Indexing and Slicing

word = "Python"

print(word[0]) # P

print(word[-1]) # n

print(word[0:4]) # Pyth

print(word[2:]) # thon

3. String Operations

# Concatenation

print("Hello" + " " + "World")

# Repetition

print("Hi! " * 3)

# Length

print(len("Python"))

4. String Methods

txt = " hello world "

print(txt.upper())

print(txt.lower())

print(txt.strip())

print(txt.replace("world", "Python"))

print(txt.split())

5. String Formatting

name = "Ali"

age = 20

print(f"My name is {name} and I am {age} years old.")

6. Escape Characters

print("Hello\nWorld")

print("She said: \"Hi\"")

🔹 Numbers in Python

Numbers are one of the fundamental data types in Python. They are used to represent numeric values.
Python provides three main numeric types:

1. Types of Numbers

🔸 Integers (int)

 Whole numbers (positive, negative, or zero).

x = 10

y = -5

z=0

🔸 Floating Point Numbers (float)

 Decimal numbers or real numbers with fractions.

pi = 3.14
temperature = -7.5

🔸 Complex Numbers (complex)

 Numbers in the form a + bj, where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.

c = 3 + 4j

print(c.real) # 3.0

print(c.imag) # 4.0

2. Arithmetic Operations

Python supports all common arithmetic operations:

a = 10

b=3

print(a + b) # 13 (Addition)

print(a - b) # 7 (Subtraction)

print(a * b) # 30 (Multiplication)

print(a / b) # 3.333... (Division)

print(a // b) # 3 (Floor division)

print(a % b) # 1 (Modulus)

print(a ** b) # 1000 (Exponentiation: 10^3)

3. Type Conversion

You can convert between numeric types and even from strings:

x=5

print(float(x)) # 5.0 (int → float)

y = 3.14

print(int(y)) # 3 (float → int)

z = "100"

print(int(z)) # 100 (string → int)

4. Math Functions

Python provides the math module with many useful functions:

import math

print(math.sqrt(16)) # 4.0 (Square root)

print(math.pow(2, 3)) # 8.0 (Power)

print(math.pi) # 3.141592653589793

print(math.factorial(5)) # 120

5. Random Numbers

The random module is used for generating random values:

import random

print(random.randint(1, 10)) # Random integer between 1 and 10

print(random.random()) # Random float between 0 and 1

6. Mixing Numbers and Strings

In Python, you cannot directly add an integer (int) to a string (str). Doing so will raise a TypeError because
Python does not automatically convert between numbers and text.

age = 20

msg = "I am " + age # ❌ Error: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str

✅ The solution is to use type conversion with str():

age = 20

msg = "I am " + str(age)

print(msg) # Output: I am 20

Or, use f-strings (simpler and cleaner):

age = 20

print(f"I am {age}") # Output: I am 20

🔹 Input in Python

In Python, you can take input from the user using the built-in input() function.

 The function always returns the user’s input as a string.

 You can then convert it to other types if needed (int, float, etc.).

1. Basic Input

name = input("Enter your name: ")

print("Hello, " + name)

📌 Whatever the user types will be stored as a string.

2. Numeric Input

Since input() returns a string, you need to convert it when expecting numbers:

age = int(input("Enter your age: ")) # convert to integer

height = float(input("Enter your height: ")) # convert to float

print(f"You are {age} years old and {height} meters tall.")

3. Example: Simple Calculator

a = int(input("Enter first number: "))

b = int(input("Enter second number: "))

print("Sum =", a + b)

✅ This program asks the user for two numbers, adds them, and prints the result.

4. Important Notes

 Always remember: input() returns a string by default.

 If you want to do math, use type conversion (int(), float()).

 If the user enters invalid data (like typing letters instead of numbers), Python will raise an error.
📘 Lists in Python

🔹 Introduction

A list in Python is an ordered collection that can store multiple items in a single variable.

 Lists are dynamic (you can add or remove elements anytime).

 Lists can contain different data types (numbers, strings, booleans, or even other lists).

my_list = [1, "hello", 3.14, True]

print(my_list)

# [1, 'hello', 3.14, True]

🔹 Creating a List

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

words = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mixed = [1, "hello", 3.5, False]

🔹 Accessing Elements

 Using index (starts from 0):

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(fruits[0]) # apple

print(fruits[2]) # cherry

 Negative index (from the end):

print(fruits[-1]) # cherry

🔹 Modifying a List

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

fruits[1] = "orange"

print(fruits)

# ['apple', 'orange', 'cherry']

🔹 List Methods

1. append() → Add item at the end

fruits.append("mango")

2. insert(index, value) → Insert item at specific position

fruits.insert(1, "kiwi")

3. remove(value) → Remove item

fruits.remove("apple")

4. pop(index) → Remove by index

fruits.pop(0) # removes first item

5. sort() → Sort the list

numbers = [4, 1, 3, 2]

numbers.sort()

print(numbers) # [1, 2, 3, 4]

6. reverse() → Reverse order

numbers.reverse()

🔹 Looping through a List

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for f in fruits:

print(f)

🔹 Concatenation (joining two lists)

list1 = [1, 2, 3]

list2 = [4, 5, 6]

new_list = list1 + list2

print(new_list) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

 Repetition:

nums = [1, 2]

print(nums * 3) # [1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2]

🔹 Copying a List
⚠️ Using = does not copy, it only references the same list.

 copy()

list1 = [1, 2, 3]

list2 = list1.copy()

list2.append(4)

print(list1) # [1, 2, 3]

print(list2) # [1, 2, 3, 4]

 Slicing

list1 = [10, 20, 30]

list2 = list1[:]

🔹 Difference between List and Array

 Array (in other languages): must store same data type.

 List (in Python): can store different data types and is dynamic.

import array

my_array = array.array('i', [1, 2, 3]) # integers only

🔹 List Comprehension

A shorter way to create lists using loops in one line.

numbers = [x**2 for x in range(5)]

print(numbers)

# [0, 1, 4, 9, 16]

✅ Summary

 Lists are ordered, dynamic, and flexible.

 Can store different types of data.

 Support many built-in methods (append, remove, sort, …).

 Can be concatenated and repeated.

 Copy using copy() or slicing ([:]).

 More flexible than arrays.

📘 Tuples in Python

🔹 Introduction

 A tuple is a collection in Python used to store multiple items in a single variable.

 Tuples are similar to lists, but they are immutable (cannot be changed after creation).

 Tuples are defined using parentheses ( ).

🔹 Creating a Tuple

# Empty tuple

empty_tuple = ()

# Tuple with values

numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

# Tuple with mixed data types

mixed = (1, "Hello", 3.5, True)

# Single element tuple (note the comma!)

single = (5,)

🔹 Accessing Tuple Elements

my_tuple = (10, 20, 30, 40)

print(my_tuple[0]) # 10

print(my_tuple[-1]) # 40

print(my_tuple[1:3]) # (20, 30)

🔹 Tuple is Immutable

Unlike lists, you cannot change, add, or remove elements in a tuple.

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

# my_tuple[0] = 10 # ❌ Error
🔹 Tuple Methods

Tuples have only two methods:

my_tuple = (1, 2, 2, 3)

print(my_tuple.count(2)) # 2

print(my_tuple.index(3)) # 3

📘 Comparison: List vs Tuple

🔹 1. Creation

# List

my_list = [1, 2, 3]

# Tuple

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

print(type(my_list)) # <class 'list'>

print(type(my_tuple)) # <class 'tuple'>

🔹 2. Mutability

 List: Mutable (can be changed).

 Tuple: Immutable (cannot be changed).

# List

my_list = [1, 2, 3]

my_list[0] = 10

print(my_list) # [10, 2, 3]

# Tuple

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

# my_tuple[0] = 10 # ❌ Error
🔹 3. Adding & Removing Elements

# List

my_list = [1, 2, 3]

my_list.append(4)

print(my_list) # [1, 2, 3, 4]

my_list.remove(2)

print(my_list) # [1, 3, 4]

# Tuple

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

# my_tuple.append(4) # ❌ Error

# my_tuple.remove(2) # ❌ Error

🔹 4. Methods

# List

my_list = [1, 2, 2, 3]

print(my_list.count(2)) # 2

my_list.sort()

print(my_list) # [1, 2, 2, 3]

# Tuple

my_tuple = (1, 2, 2, 3)

print(my_tuple.count(2)) # 2

print(my_tuple.index(3)) # 3

🔹 5. Performance

 Tuples are faster than lists when iterating.

import time
list_test = [i for i in range(1000000)]

start = time.time()

for item in list_test:

pass

print("List Time:", time.time() - start)

tuple_test = tuple(list_test)

start = time.time()

for item in tuple_test:

pass

print("Tuple Time:", time.time() - start)

🔹 6. Use in Dictionary Keys

 Lists: ❌ cannot be used as dictionary keys.

 Tuples: ✅ can be used as dictionary keys.

# Tuple as key ✅

my_dict = {(1, 2): "value"}

print(my_dict[(1, 2)]) # value

# List as key ❌

# my_dict = {[1, 2]: "value"} # Error

🟦 1. Dictionary in Python (‫)القواميس‬

✅ ‫التعريف‬

 ‫( القاموس‬dict) ‫في بايثون هو‬mapping type ‫ بيخزن البيانات في شكل‬،key-value pairs.

 ‫ الـ‬key ‫الزم يكون‬immutable (‫زي‬: str, int, tuple) ‫ بينما الـ‬value ‫( ممكن تكون أي نوع‬list, dict, object…).

✅ ‫ إنشاء‬Dictionary

# Empty dictionary

d1 = {}
# Dictionary with data

d2 = {"name": "Youssef", "age": 20, "skills": ["Python", "C++"]}

✅ ‫الوصول وتعديل البيانات‬

print(d2["name"]) # Youssef

d2["age"] = 21 # Update value

d2["country"] = "Egypt" # Add new key-value pair

⚠️ ‫ لو طلبت‬key ‫ → مش موجود‬KeyError.
‫حلها باستخدام‬:

print(d2.get("salary", "Not Found"))

✅ ‫العمليات األساسية‬

# ‫حذف‬

d2.pop("age") # ‫ بحذف بالـ‬key

del d2["country"] # ‫ زي‬pop

d2.clear() # ‫يمسح كل العناصر‬

# ‫طول القاموس‬

len(d2)

# ‫ فحص وجود‬key

"skills" in d2

✅ ‫( التكرار‬Iteration)

for key in d2: # ‫بترجع المفاتيح‬

print(key)

for key, value in d2.items(): # ‫ بترجع‬key + value

print(key, value)
for value in d2.values(): # ‫بترجع القيم‬

print(value)

✅ Methods ‫متقدمة ومفيدة‬

# ‫دمج قواميس‬

d1 = {"a": 1, "b": 2}

d2 = {"b": 3, "c": 4}

d1.update(d2) # {'a':1, 'b':3, 'c':4}

# ‫نسخ‬

copy_d = d1.copy()

# ‫ تعيين‬default value ‫لو المفتاح مش موجود‬

d = {}

d.setdefault("name", "Unknown") # {'name': 'Unknown'}

# Dictionary Comprehension

squares = {x: x**2 for x in range(5)}

# {0:0, 1:1, 2:4, 3:9, 4:16}

✅ ‫مالحظات احترافية‬

1. ‫استخدام‬get() ‫أو‬defaultdict ‫بدل ما يحصل‬KeyError.

2. ‫استخدام‬dict comprehension ‫ بدل‬for loop ‫عادي لو الهدف تحويل أو فلترة‬.

3. ‫مفاتيح القاموس الزم تكون‬hashable → ‫ يعني ما ينفعش تستخدم‬list ‫كمفتاح‬.

4. ‫ ترتيب اإلدخال‬3.7 ‫( من بايثون‬insertion order) ‫بيتم االحتفاظ بيه‬.

🟦 2. Loops in Python

✅ ‫النوعين الرئيسيين‬

1. for loop → ‫ للتكرار على‬sequence (list, dict, string…).

2. while loop → ‫ للتكرار طالما الشرط‬True.

✅ For Loop

for i in range(5):

print(i)

 range(start, stop, step)

 ‫ يشتغل على أي‬iterable:

for ch in "Python":

print(ch)

✅ While Loop

x=0

while x < 5:

print(x)

x += 1

⚠️ ‫ → لو نسيت تعدل الشرط‬infinite loop.

✅ ‫التحكم في التدفق‬

for i in range(10):

if i == 5:

continue # 5 ‫يتخطى‬

if i == 8:

break # 8 ‫يوقف عند‬

else:

print("Loop finished without break")

‫الـ‬else ‫ في الـ‬loop ‫بيتنفذ لو اللوب خلص بدون ما يحصل‬break.

✅ Nested Loops

for i in range(3):

for j in range(2):

print(i, j)
✅ Loop + else ‫مع البحث‬

nums = [1, 3, 5, 7]

target = 4

for n in nums:

if n == target:

print("Found!")

break

else:

print("Not Found")

✅ Comprehensions (‫ بديل للـ‬loop ‫)التقليدي‬

 List comprehension:

squares = [x**2 for x in range(5)]

 Dictionary comprehension:

d = {x: x**2 for x in range(5) if x % 2 == 0}

 Set comprehension:

unique = {ch for ch in "programming"}

✅ ‫مالحظات احترافية‬

1. ‫استخدام‬comprehensions ‫ أفضل من‬loops ‫فلترة البيانات‬/‫ أسرع وأكثر( التقليدية لو الهدف تحويل‬Pythonic).

2. ‫ ما تكثرش‬nested loops‫ األفضل تستخدم‬، itertools ( ‫زي‬product, combinations).

3. ‫ لو عايز‬performance ‫ استخدم‬،‫عالي جدًا‬generator expressions ‫ بدل‬comprehensions ‫العادية‬.

‫في بايثون بشكل احترافي ومتقدم يناسب كتابك‪ ،‬مع أمثلة عملية ‪ (Conditional Statements) +‬خلينا نعمل شرح الحاالت الشرطية‬
‫‪.‬مالحظات للمستوى المحترف‬

‫‪🟦 Conditional Statements in Python‬‬

‫الفكرة العامة ✅‬

‫‪Boolean (True/False).‬الحاالت الشرطية بتسمحلك تنفّذ كود معين بنا ًء على تحقق شرط‬
‫‪:‬بايثون بتو ّفر‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪if‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪if ... else‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪if ... elif ... else‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫)‪ (Ternary Operator‬تعبير شرطي‬

‫‪1. if statement‬‬

‫‪x = 10‬‬

‫‪if x > 5:‬‬

‫)"‪print("x is greater than 5‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪.‬ينفّذ البلوك ‪ True‬الشرط بيتقيّم → لو‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪).‬المسافة البادئة( ‪indentation‬البلوك بيعتمد على‬

‫‪2. if ... else‬‬

‫‪x=3‬‬

‫‪if x % 2 == 0:‬‬

‫)"‪print("Even‬‬

‫‪else:‬‬

‫)"‪print("Odd‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪.‬بينفّذ أحد البلوكين فقط‬

‫‪3. if ... elif ... else‬‬

‫‪score = 85‬‬

‫‪if score >= 90:‬‬

 grade = "A"

elif score >= 80:

grade = "B"

elif score >= 70:

grade = "C"

else:

grade = "F"

print("Grade:", grade)

 elif = else + if.

 ‫ أول شرط‬،‫ بيتحقق بالترتيب من فوق لتحت‬True ‫يقفل الباقي‬.

4. Ternary Operator (One-liner if)

age = 18

status = "Adult" if age >= 18 else "Minor"

print(status)

 ‫صيغة مختصرة‬: value_if_true if condition else value_if_false

 ‫مفيد في التعبيرات القصيرة‬.

5. Nested Conditions (‫)متداخلة‬

x = 10

if x > 0:

if x % 2 == 0:

print("Positive Even")

else:

print("Positive Odd")

else:

print("Non-positive")

⚠️ ‫ األفضل تجنّب التداخل الكتير → استبداله بـ‬logical operators (and, or).

6. ‫استخدام المقارنات المركبة‬

‫‪:‬بايثون بتميزها عن لغات تانية‬

‫‪x = 15‬‬

‫‪if 10 < x < 20:‬‬

‫)"‪print("x is between 10 and 20‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫)‪: (x > 10) and (x < 20‬دي زي‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪.‬أوضح وأقرب للرياضيات‬

‫)‪ (Logical Operators‬المنطق الشرطي ‪7.‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪ True‬كل الشروط الزم تكون → ‪and‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫يكفي شرط واحد → ‪or‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫عكس القيمة → ‪not‬‬

‫‪x, y = 5, 10‬‬

‫‪if x > 0 and y > 0:‬‬

‫)"‪print("Both positive‬‬

‫‪if x == 5 or y == 0:‬‬

‫)"‪print("Condition met‬‬

‫‪if not (x > 10):‬‬

‫)"‪print("x is not greater than 10‬‬

‫==و ‪is‬الفروق بين ‪8.‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪.‬يقارن القيم → ==‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪.‬يقارن الهوية (نفس الكائن في الذاكرة) → ‪is‬‬

‫]‪a = [1,2‬‬

‫]‪b = [1,2‬‬

‫)القيم متساوية( ‪print(a == b) # True‬‬

‫)مراجع مختلفة( ‪print(a is b) # False‬‬

‫مالحظات احترافية ✅‬
 ‫‪ (performance + readability).‬احرص على ترتيب الشروط من األعم → لألخص ‪1.‬‬

‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪&&/||.‬أوضح وأفضل من )‪(chained comparisons‬استخدام المقارنات المتسلسلة‬

‫‪.‬بتركيب منطقي واحد ‪ nested if‬لتقليل التعقيد‪ ،‬حاول تستبدل ‪3.‬‬

‫‪4.‬‬ ‫‪if-elif.‬بدل كثرة ‪ pattern matching‬للـ )‪ Python 3.10‬ابتدا ًء من( ‪match-case‬استخدم‬

‫)‪9. Pattern Matching (Python 3.10+‬‬

‫‪if-elif:‬بديل متطور للـ‬

‫"‪command = "start‬‬

‫‪match command:‬‬

‫‪case "start":‬‬

‫)"‪print("System starting...‬‬

‫‪case "stop":‬‬

‫)"‪print("System stopping...‬‬

‫‪case _:‬‬

‫)"‪print("Unknown command‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪ else).‬زي( ‪ default‬معناها _‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪ if-elif.‬أقوى بكتير من → ‪ tuples, dicts, classes‬ينفع كمان تشتغل على‬

‫؟‪ dictionaries‬والـ ‪ loops‬تحب أجهزلك كمان تمارين ‪ +‬حلول على الحاالت الشرطية زي ما عملنا مع الـ‬

‫‪You said:‬‬

‫اشرح الدوال‬

‫‪ChatGPT said:‬‬

‫✨ تمام يا يوسف‬
‫التعريف‪ ،‬األنواع‪ ،‬البرامترز ( في بايثون بأسلوب احترافي لشخص متقدم‪ ،‬مع التفاصيل الكاملة )‪ (Functions‬خلينا نشرح الدوال‬
‫‪).‬إلخ … ‪ ، decorators‬الـ‪ scope‬المختلفة‪ ،‬الـ‬

‫‪🟦 Functions in Python‬‬

‫تعريف ✅‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪.‬هي كتلة كود قابلة إلعادة االستخدام بتنُفّذ مهمة معينة )‪ (function‬الدالة‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪.‬وتخلي الكود منظم أكتر )‪ (DRY – Don’t Repeat Yourself‬بتساعدك تقلل التكرار‬
1. ‫إنشاء دالة أساسية‬

def greet():

print("Hello, Python!")

 ‫التعريف يبدأ بالكلمة المفتاحية‬def.

 ‫ اسم الدالة → الزم يتبع قواعد الـ‬identifiers.

 ‫الكود داخلها يتحدد بالـ‬indentation.

2. ‫استدعاء الدالة‬

greet()

3. ‫ الدوال مع البرامترز‬Parameters

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

greet("Youssef")

 ‫البرامتر هو متغير يستقبل قيمة عند استدعاء الدالة‬.

4. ‫( القيم االفتراضية‬Default Parameters)

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

greet() # Hello, Guest

greet("Ali") # Hello, Ali

5. ‫( إرجاع القيم‬Return)

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 3)

print(result)
  return ‫بيرجع قيمة → تقدر تخزنها أو تستخدمها‬.

 ‫لو ما فيش‬return → ‫الدالة بترجع‬None.

6. ‫األنواع المختلفة للبرامترز‬

‫بايثون بيدعم‬5 ‫أنواع أساسية‬:

1⃣ Positional Arguments

def divide(a, b):

return a / b

print(divide(10, 2)) # 5.0

2⃣ Keyword Arguments

print(divide(b=2, a=10)) # 5.0

3⃣ Default Arguments

(‫)زي ما شفنا قبل شوية‬.

4⃣ Variable-length Arguments

 *args → ‫يقبل أي عدد من القيم‬.

 **kwargs → ‫ يقبل أي عدد من‬key-value pairs.

def show(*args, **kwargs):

print("Args:", args)

print("Kwargs:", kwargs)

show(1, 2, 3, name="Youssef", age=20)

5⃣ Positional-only & Keyword-only (Python 3.8+)

def func(a, /, b, *, c):

print(a, b, c)

func(1, 2, c=3) # ‫صحيح‬

# func(a=1, b=2, c=3) ❌ (a ‫ الزم‬positional ‫)فقط‬

7. ‫( نطاق المتغيرات‬Scope)
  ‫ → المتغيرات اللي بتتحدد داخل دالة‬local scope.

 ‫ → اللي براها‬global scope.

x = 10 # global

def test():

x = 5 # local

print("Inside:", x)

test()

print("Outside:", x)

 ‫استخدام‬global ‫أو‬nonlocal ‫لتعديل القيم‬:

count = 0

def increment():

global count

count += 1

8. ‫( الدوال المجهولة‬Lambda Functions)

 ‫دوال قصيرة بدون‬def.

square = lambda x: x**2

print(square(5)) # 25

 ‫غالبًا مع‬map, filter, sorted:

nums = [1, 2, 3, 4]

evens = list(filter(lambda n: n % 2 == 0, nums))

print(evens) # [2, 4]

9. Higher-Order Functions

 ‫الدوال في بايثون‬first-class citizens: ‫ تتبعت كـ‬،‫ ممكن تتحط في متغير‬parameter‫ أو ترجع من دالة‬،.

def apply(func, x):

return func(x)
print(apply(lambda x: x**3, 2)) # 8

10. Closures

 ‫ دالة داخلية تحتفظ بالـ‬variables ‫حتى بعد انتهاء الدالة الخارجية‬.

def outer(x):

def inner(y):

return x + y

return inner

add5 = outer(5)

print(add5(10)) # 15

11. Decorators

 ‫دوال بتعدّل أو تزود وظيفة لدوال أخرى بدون تغيير الكود األصلي‬.

def decorator(func):

def wrapper():

print("Before function")

func()

print("After function")

return wrapper

@decorator

def say_hello():

print("Hello!")

say_hello()

✅ ‫مالحظات احترافية‬

1. ‫(األفضل تخلي الدالة تعمل حاجة واحدة فقط‬Single Responsibility Principle).

2. ‫( سمي الدوال بأسماء واضحة ومعبرة‬snake_case).

3. ‫لو الدالة طويلة → قسمها لدوال أصغر‬.

 4. ‫استخدم‬docstrings ‫للتوثيق‬.

12. ‫( التوثيق‬Docstrings)

def add(a: int, b: int) -> int:

"""

Add two numbers.

Args:

a (int): First number.

b (int): Second number.

Returns:

int: The sum of a and b.

"""

return a + b

 ‫باستخدام‬help(add) ‫هتظهر المعلومات‬.

 ‫تقدر تضيف‬type hints ‫زي‬a: int ‫لزيادة الوضوح‬.