Dual nature of matter
• Louis de Broglie (analyzing the results of the dual nature of radiation) put forward the hypothesis that
matter (form of energy) when in motion can display wave characteristics and the wavelength
associated with the moving particle 𝝀 = 𝒉/𝒎𝒗 where mv is the momentum of the particle.
• The wavelength of the associated waves has to be in the measurable range of an interference or
diffraction experiment to prove the existence of matter waves.
• This concept was experimentally verified by Davisson and Germer who observed unusual scattering
characteristics for electrons scattered by a Ni crystal when the accelerating potential of the electrons
was 54V and angle of scattering 50o.
• The de Broglie wavelength of electrons accelerated by 54 V can be estimated to be 1.67 x 10-10m. If the
electron wave possess such a wavelength, it should be possible to diffract the waves with a known
crystal.
• If the scattering has to be explained as a diffraction phenomena (characteristics of waves) following
Bragg’s law, then 𝟐𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀 where d in the interplanar distance of the Ni crystal, 𝜃 the glancing
angle (angle between the incident ray and the surface of the crystal) and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the
“waves”.
• This yields a wavelength which is close to the value obtained using de Broglie’s hypothesis (matter
waves). Since diffraction is characteristic of waves, it was concluded that electrons undergo diffraction
under the set experimental conditions.
• Thus, it is concluded that matter display dual characteristics at appropriate conditions of interaction.
Double slit experiment with particles
• A double slit experiment with the particles incident on the slits at a
time reveal some interesting outcomes.
• Experiments show that electrons (or photons) as particles are
expected to arrive at some definite location on a screen, unlike a
wave. But if a second electron (or photons) is incident at the slit,
the second electron reaches a different location, often far outside
any experimental uncertainty.
• If many electrons (or photons) are incident on the slit but one at a
time then the measurements will display a statistical distribution
of locations that appears like an interference pattern.
• The building up of the diffraction pattern of electrons scattered
from a crystal surface. Each electron arrives at a definite location,
which cannot be precisely predicted.
• The overall distribution shown at the bottom can be predicted as
the diffraction of waves having the de Broglie wavelength of the
electrons.
• This experiment leads to concept of probabilities that are inherent
in quantum mechanical systems.
Uncertainty principle
Heisenberg’s analysis of the wave packet revealed the spread in the estimation of the position and the
spread in the propagation constant of the wave is intrinsically related. A Fourier transform of the wave
functions gives the distribution of the propagation constant. In summary he product of the standard
deviations in the estimates of the position and the propagation constant was shown to be greater than or
at the most equal to ħ/2 . 𝑖𝑒. , ∆𝑥. ∆𝑘 ≥ ħ/2
This then translates to the standard form of the uncertainty principle when the propagation constant is
transformed to the momentum through the relation 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘
The position and momentum of a particle cannot be determined simultaneously with unlimited
precision. If one of the parameter is determined with high precision then the other must necessarily be
imprecise, such that the product of the uncertainties is greater than or equal to ℏ/2 ie.,
∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 ≥ ℏ/2
where ∆𝑥 is the uncertainty in the position and ∆𝑝 is the uncertainty in the momentum determined
simultaneously.
The uncertainty relation for energy E and time t for a physical system can be written as
∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ ℏ/2
Where ∆𝐸 is the uncertainty in the energy E of a system and ∆𝑡 is the uncertainty in the time in which this
energy is estimated.
Non- existence electrons inside the nucleus
The uncertainty principle can be used to illustrate the impossibilities in physical systems or the
correctness of assumptions.
If we assume the electron to be an integral part of the nucleus then we may be able to estimate the
minimum energy of the electron using the uncertainty principle.
If the electron is part of the nuclei, then the position of the electron is uncertain to the extent of the
nuclear diameter. The uncertainty in the position of the electron ∆𝑥 = 510−15 m
∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 ≥ ℏ/2
The minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron then can be estimated as
h
∆𝑝 = = 1.05 × 10−20 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑠−1
4. ∆𝑥
Hence the minimum momentum of the electron p has to be at least the uncertainty ∆𝒑 and hence The
P2 ∆P2
kinetic energy of the electron E = = = 6.10 × 10−11 J
2m 2m
E = 381.3 MeV
This implies that the energy of the electron emitted by the radioactive nuclei should be quite high if
electron had to be integral member of the nuclei. Since the energies of the electron emitted by
radioactive nuclei (high energy around 4 MeV) are very less compared to the estimate, we conclude that
the electron cannot be a permanent part of the nuclei, thus illustrating the power of the uncertainty
principle.
Q1. Determine the minimum energy of electron inside the hydrogen atom
of radius 7x10−11 m using Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.
Hint: Answer for this question is similar to the non- existence of electron
inside nucleus.
Wave functions
A moving particle can be represented by a wave packet. The wave packet can be described by a
function 𝛙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧,𝑡). The function 𝛙 though contains information about the physical state of the
system, has no other physical interpretation. However, since the amplitude of the wave gives
information on the probable position of the particle, 𝛙 can be termed as the probability
amplitude.
The wave functions should have the following characteristics if it has to be representing a moving
particle.
1. The wave function must be finite, continuous and single valued in the regions of interest.
2. The derivatives of the wave function must be finite, continuous and single valued in the
regions of interest.
3. The wave function must be normalisable. i.e.
4. The wave function should be satisfying the boundary conditions
Physical significance of wave function is ability to provide information about the probabilities of finding a
particle in a particular state or location.
Schrodinger’s Wave equation
The moving particle is described by a wave function and there is a need to have a wave
equation which can describe this moving particle. Schrodinger’s wave equation governs
the behavior of particles at quantum scales, such as electrons in atoms or molecules.
Set up time-independent Schrodinger’s wave equation - one dimensional
h
The de Broglie hypothesis, = and plank postulate E= h can be expressed in terms of
p
p E
wavenumber K = and angular frequency = , respectively.
ħ ħ
The wave solution, (x,t) = Aei kx−wt
Substitute K and to above equation
px − Et
i
(x,t) = Ae ħ ħ
The above wavefunction can written as product of two function from separation of
variable method.
px i −
Et
i
(x)(t) = [Ae ħ ].[Ae ħ ]
The time-independent solution from above wavefunction is
i
px
(x) = Ae ħ
After double differentiation of above equation,
𝜕2
we get, − ħ 2
2 = P
2
𝜕𝑥
P2
Energy conservation, E = + V
2m
Multiply on both side
P2
E = + V
2m
Substitute P2 to above equation
ħ2 𝜕2
E = − 2 + V
2m 𝜕𝑥
ħ2 𝜕2
+ E − V = 0
2m 𝜕𝑥2
The above equation is Schrodinger’s time-independent wave equation
