2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

Module-01
Quantum Mechanics:

de Broglie Hypothesis and Matter Waves, de Broglie wavelength and derivation of expression
by analogy, Phase Velocity and Group Velocity, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and its
application (Nonexistence of electron inside the nucleus-Non Relativistic), Principle of
Complementarity, Wave Function, Time independent Schrodinger wave equation, Physical
Significance of a wave function and Born Interpretation, Expectation value, Eigen functions
and Eigen Values, Motion of a particle in a one dimensional potential well of infinite depth ,
Waveforms and Probabilities. Numerical Problem.

08 Hours

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 1

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

Quantum mechanics or Quantum physics is the science of very small. It explains the behavior
of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.

Wave-particle duality and de-Broglie hypothesis

The phenomenon of interference, diffraction and polarization requires the presence of
two or more waves at the same time and at the same place. It is very clear that two or more
particles cannot simultaneously occupy the same position. So, one has to conclude that
radiation behaves like a wave.

Black body radiation spectrum, photoelectric effect, Compton effect could not be
explained on wave nature. These phenomena established that radiant energy has the particle
nature. Thus, radiation sometimes behaves as a wave and at some other times as a particle. This
is wave–particle duality of radiation.

In the year 1924 Luis de-Broglie extended the idea of dual nature of radiation to the
matter and proposed that material particles possess wave characteristics. According to de-
Broglie in the universe, whole of energy is in the form of radiation and mass. Since nature loves
symmetry if radiation which normally behaves as wave can behave as a particle. Then one can
even expect that, entities like electrons, protons etc, which ordinarily behave as particle exhibits
properties of waves under appropriate circumstances and be termed as matter waves.

Matter waves:
The wave associated with the moving particle is called matter wave or de-Broglie wave (or
pilot wave). The wavelength associated with particles with mass m and moving with certain
velocity v and momentum p is given by,
h h
= =
p mv
Consider a photon with frequency ν and wavelength λ. Its energy according to Plank’s theory
is E = h

hc
E = h =

where, h - Plank’s constant
If a photon is considered as a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘c’, then Energy of
the photon

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 2

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

E = mc 2
h = mc 2
hc
= mc 2

h
momentum = mc = p =

h h
 = =
p mv

This relation is called as de – Broglie wave equation.

de – Broglie wavelength of an electron

Consider an electron of mass ‘m’ which is at rest is subjected to a potential difference
of V. the electrical work done (e×V) will appear as kinetic energy of the electron.
i.e. E = eV
1
and E = mv 2
2
 m v = 2mE
2 2

 mv = p = 2mE
h h
wavelength of electron wave = =
p mv
h
 =
2mE
But E = eV
h
 =
2meV
Instead of an electron, if a particle of charge ‘q’ is accelerated through a potential difference
V, then
h
=
2mqV

Characteristic properties of matter waves

• Matter waves are the waves that are associated with moving particles.
• Matter waves are neither electromagnetic nor acoustic waves in nature.
• They can travel through vacuum and do not require any material medium for their
propagation.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 3

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

• The wavelength associated with matter waves decreases with increase in the mass of
the particles.
• The velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the material particle and is not
constant quantity.
• The phase velocity (wave velocity) of matter wave is inversely proportional to its
wavelength.

Phase velocity and Group velocity

Phase velocity: The velocity with which a definite phase of each individual wave travels is
called a phase velocity or wave velocity.

Consider a non-relativistic free particle of mass m having phase velocity vp. The phase velocity
is given by

vp =
k

Group velocity: The velocity with which the resultant envelop of the group of waves travels
is called group velocity, denoted by vg and is equal to the particle velocity, v. The velocity of
the individual waves forming the wave packet is the phase velocity vp.
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 4

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

State and explain Heisenberg Uncertainty principle. Show that the electron
emitted during β-decaydoes not pre-exist inside the nucleus using uncertainty
principle. 6M (MQP-2 2018-19, July 2019, Jan 2019, Jan 2020, Sep 2020)
OR
Show that the electron cannot exist inside the nucleus of an atom. 8M (Jan /Feb
2021)

Heisenberg's Uncertainty principle

Statement: In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of a particle, the
product of the corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is equal to
 h 
 .
 4 
OR
The product of uncertainties in the simultaneous determination of the position and momentum
 h 
of a particle is equal to or greater than  
 4 
If Δx and Δp are the uncertainties inherently present in the measurement of position and
momentum, then
h
x.p 
4
Other forms of Uncertainties are,
h
E.t 
4

h
L. 
4
Where, ΔE, Δt are the uncertainties in the measurement of energy and time, and ΔL, Δθ are the
uncertainties in the measurement of angular momentum and angular position.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 5

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

Application of Uncertainty Principle

Non-existence of electron inside the nucleus (Non-Relativistic case)

p2
The K.E. of electron is EK = (1)
2m
where m is mass of electron = 9.11×10-31 kg and p is the momentum of electron.

We have from Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

h
x.p 
4
h
p  (2)
4 .x
We know that the typical value of diameter of the nucleus is of the order of 10-14 m, thus if an
electron is to exist inside the nucleus, then the uncertainty in its position Δx must not be greater
than this value.
x  10−14 m
Substitute this in equation (2)
6.634 10−34
p 
4  3.142 10−14
p  5.27 10−21 Ns

Which is the uncertainty in the momentum of the electron. Since the momentum of the electron
must at least be equal to the uncertainty in the momentum. i.e.
p  5.27 10−21 Ns
From equation (1)
p2
EK =
2m

E
( 5.27 10 ) −21 2

2  9.1110−31

E  1.524 10−11 J
expressing it in eV
E  95.13MeV

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 6

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

This indicates that suppose if an electron is to be exist inside the nucleus, its energy must be
greater than or equal to 95.13 MeV. However, the experimental results on β-decay emission
reveal that the KE of the electrons is of the order of 3 to 4 MeV. This value being very low
compared to that of calculated value of 95.13 MeV, confirms that the electrons do not exist
inside the nucleus.

Physical significance of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

The physical significance of this principle is, one should not think of the exact position, or an
accurate value for momentum of a particle. Instead, think of the probability of finding the
particle at a certain position, or of the probable value for the momentum of the particle. The
estimation of these probabilities is expressed in quantum mechanics by means of mathematical
functions called probability density function.

Complementarity Principle
In 1927, Niels Bohr realized that our models, or pictures, of matter and light are based upon
their behaviour in various experiments in our laboratories. In some experiments, such as the
photoelectric effect or the Compton effect, light behaves as if it consists of particles; in other
experiments, such as the double-slit experiment, light behaves as if it consists of waves.
Similarly, in experiments such as J.J. Thomson’s cathode-ray studies, electrons behave as if
they are particles; in other experiments, such as George Paget Thomson diffraction studies,
electrons behave as if they are waves. But light and electrons never behave simultaneously as
if they consist of both particles and waves. In each specific experiment they behave either as
particles or as waves, but never as both.

This suggested to Bohr that the particle and wave descriptions of light and of matter are both
necessary even though they are logically incompatible with each other. They must be regarded
as being “complementary” to each other—that is, like two different sides of the same coin. This
led Bohr to formulate what is called the Principle of Complementarity:

“The wave and particle models are both required for a complete description of matter and of
electromagnetic radiation. Since these two models are mutually exclusive, they cannot be used
simultaneously”.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 7

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

Bohr showed that this principle is a fundamental consequence of quantum mechanics. He

handled the wave–particle duality, not by resolving it in favour of either waves or particles, but
by absorbing it into the foundations of quantum physics.

Wave function
• The variable quantity that characterizes the de–Broglie wave or matter wave is called the
wave function.
• Mathematically it describes the motion of a particle and is usually denoted as  = (r, t )

or  = (x, y, z, t ).

• It gives complete information about the state of a physical system at a particular time. It
is also called the state function and represents the probability amplitude. If Ψ is large the
probability of finding the particle is also large and if Ψ is small, then the probability of
finding the particle is small.
• The wave function gives the likelihood of finding the particle at a given instant and at a
given position.
Give the qualitative explanation of Max Born’s interpretationof wave function. 6M
(MQP-2 2018-19)

Max Born interpretation (Probability density)

• A Probability interpretation of the wave function was given by Max Born in 1926.

He suggested that "the square of the magnitude of wave function i.e.,  evaluated in
2
•

a particular region represents the probability of finding the particle in that region.
• If P be the probability of finding the particle in an infinitesimal small volume
dv = (dx, dy, dz) then

P =  dv P =  ( x, y, z ) dx.dy.dz
2 2
or

Where  is probability density and  is the probability amplitude.

2

• Probability of occurrence of an event is real and positive quantity but wave functions

are complex. So, in order to get a positive and real value while evaluating  the wave
2

function  is multiplied by its complex conjugate * .

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 8

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

• The product of * is always a positive real quantity and corresponds meaningfully to
the definition of probability.

Thus, probability density is  = 

* 2

• If the particle exists, it must be present somewhere in the space. Then as per statistical
rule the sum of the probabilities over all values of x, y, z must be unity.
Hence  must satisfies the relation,
+ 

  dv = 1 or   ( x, y, z ) dx.dy.dz = 1
2 2

− −

  dx.dy.dz = 1
*

−

This is known as Normalization of wave function.

What are the properties of a wave function?. 4M (MQP-2 2018-19)

Properties of wave function

1) The wave function  is single valued everywhere.

• From the figure it can be seen that a function f(x) is not single valued over certain
interval.
• Here f(x) has 3 values f1, f2 and f3 for the same value of P at x = P. Since f1≠f2≠ f3.
• The probability of finding the particle has 3 different values at the same location,
which is impossible, hence it is not considered as wave function.

2) The wave function  must be finite everywhere.

• A function f(x) is not finite at x = R as shown in figure. At x = R f(x) = ∞.
• It indicates a large probability of finding the particle at a single location, violating the
uncertainty principle Thus f(x) is not acceptable as wave function.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 9

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

3) The wave function  and its first order derivatives are continuous everywhere.
• A function f(x) is discontinuous at Q as shown in figure.
• At x = Q, f(x) is truncated at A and restarts at B, between A & B it is not defined.
Thus, the state of the system at x = Q cannot be ascertained. Hence f(x) is not
considered as wave function.

4) For bound states, wave function Ψ must vanish at infinity. If Ψ is a complex function, then
* must vanish at infinity.

Physical significance of wave function:

• The wave function Ψ has no direct physical significance as it is not an observable
quantity. Its physical significance could be realized through its probabilistic nature.
• It gives a statistical relationship between the particle and wave nature.
• It is a complex quantity and hence it may be positive or negative.
• It is a function of wave and time coordinate.
• It describes the behaviour of a single particle or photon and wave nature and not for
number of particles.
• It is of probabilistic nature and can be expressed in terms of probability density.

Expectation value
The expectation value in quantum mechanics is the probabilistic expected value of the result
or measurement of an experiment. It can be thought of as an average of all the possible
outcomes of a measurement as weighted by their likelihood, and as such it is not

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 10

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

the most probable value of a measurement; indeed, the expectation value may have zero
probability of occurring. It is a fundamental concept in all areas of quantum physics.

Let us consider a particle moving along the x-axis. The result of the measurement of the
position x is a continuous random variable. Consider a wave function Ψ (x, t) the |𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡)|2
value is a probability density for the position observable and |𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥 is the probability of
finding the particle between x and x+dx at a time t. Thus, if a measurement of position is
repeated many times in an identical way on an identical particle in identical circumstances,
many possible outcomes are possible and the expectation value of these outcomes is as per the
following equation,
+ꝏ
〈𝑥〉 = ∫ 𝑥 |𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥
−ꝏ

Schrodinger's wave equation

• The wave function in quantum mechanics account for the wave like properties of a
particle and it is obtained by solving a fundamental equation called Schrodinger
equation.
• Erwin Schrodinger in 1926 developed a wave equation that describes the quantum
mechanical behaviour of matter waves under different physical situations.

Setup 1-dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation. Explain Born’s

approximation. 8M (MQP-1 2018-19, Jan 2019, 8M (Jan /Feb 2021)

Time independent Schrodinger wave equation

The wave function describing the de-Broglie wave can be written in complex notation as,
 = Aei ( kx −t ) (1)
where,
 Total wave function (function of 'x' and ‘t')
 The angular frequency of the wave
A The constant representing the wave amplitude

The time independent in equation (1) can be represented by another wave function,
 = Aeikx (2)

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 11

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

 equation (1) can be written as  = e−it (3)

Differentiate equation (3) with respect to 'x' twice we get

d 2 − it d 
2
= e (4)
dx 2 dx 2
Differentiate equation (3) with respect to 't' twice we get

d 2
2
= − 2e−it  (5)
dt
we know that the equation for a travelling wave is given by

d2y 1 d2y
=
dx 2 v 2 dt 2
By analogy we can write the wave equation for de-Broglie wave for the motion of a free particle
as,

d 2 1 d 2
= (6)
dx 2 v 2 dt 2
This represents the de-Broglie wave propagating along x-direction with a velocity ‘v’ and Ψ is
the displacement.
Substituting equations (4) and (5) in (6),

d 2 1
e−it 2
= 2 ( − 2e−it  )
dx v
d 2  − 2
= 2 
dx 2 v
If  and  are the wavelength and frequency of the wave, then  = 2 and v =  . Substitute
this in above equation
d 2 (2 ) 2
=− 
dx 2 ( )2

d 2 4 2
=− 2 
dx 2 
1 1 d 2
= − (7)
2 4 2  dx 2
The kinetic energy of a particle of mass 'm' moving with velocity 'v' is given by

p2
EK = (8)
2m

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 12

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

h h
The de-Broglie wavelength is given by  = or p = substitute in equation (8)
p 
1 h2
EK =
2m  2
h2 1
EK =
2m  2
1
Substitute for from equation (7)
2
h2  1 d 2 
EK =  − 
2m  4 2  dx 2 

h2 1 d 2 
EK = − 2 (9)
8 m  dx 2
Let there be field where the particle is present. Depending on its position in the field, the
particle will possess a certain potential energy (V), then

Total Energy (E) = Kinetic Energy (EK) + Potential Energy (V)

h2 1 d 2 
 E=− +V
8 2 m  dx 2
h2 1 d 2 
E −V = − 2
8 m  dx 2
8 2 m d 2
− 2 ( E −V )  = 2
h dx
d 2  8 2 m
+ 2 ( E −V )  = 0
dx 2 h
The above equation is the time independent Schrodinger's wave equation
Note:
Time independent Schrodinger's wave equation can also be written as

d 2  2m
+ 2 ( E −V )  = 0
dx 2
In three dimensions it is given by
d 2  d 2  d 2  8 2 m
+ 2 + 2 + 2 ( E −V )  = 0
dx 2 dy dz h

8 2 m
2 + ( E −V )  = 0
h2

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 13

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

Eigen functions and Eigen values

Eigen functions

Eigen functions are those wave functions of quantum mechanics which possess the properties
of wave function.

They are single valued & finite everywhere, and also their first derivatives with respect to their
variables are continuous everywhere.

Eigen values

Eigen values are the possible values of a physical quantity like momentum, energy, etc., of a
system that are observed when eigen functions are operated by quantum mechanical
operators.
i.e., If an operator  operating on the well – behaved function Ψ produces back the same
wave function multiplied by a constant λ.
 i.e., ÂΨ = λΨ

Assuming the time independent Schrodinger equation discuss the solution for a particle in
one dimensionalpotential well of infinite height. Obtain the normalized wave function &
EnergyEigen value. 10M (MQP- 1 2018-19, July 2019, Jan 2020)
OR
Assuming the time independent Schrodinger equation discuss the solution for a particle in
one dimensionalpotential well of infinite height. 6M (Sep 2020)

Application of Schrödinger’s wave equation

Particle in 1-dimensional potential well of infinite height. (Particle in a box)

∞ ∞

V=∞ V=0
x=0 x x=a

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 14

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ is freely moving in x-direction in the region from x=0 to x=a
(As shown in figure). Outside this region potential energy 'V' is infinity and within this region
V = 0.
The time independent Schrodinger's wave equation is given by

d 2  8 2 m
+ 2 ( E −V )  = 0
dx 2 h (1)
Outside the well i.e., V=∞ the Schrodinger's equation is

d 2  8 2 m
+ 2 ( E − )  = 0 (2)
dx 2 h
This equation holds good only if  = 0 for all points outside the box i.e.,  = 0 , which
2

means that the particle cannot be found at all outside the box.
Inside the box, i.e., V=0 the Schrödinger’s equation is given by,

d 2  8 2 m
+ 2 E = 0 (3)
dx 2 h
d 2 2
+k  =0 (4)
dx 2
8m 2 E
where, k =
2
(5)
h2

Discussion of solution:
The general solution equation (4) is given by
 = A cos kx + B sin kx (6)
Where A & B are constants depending on the boundary conditions. Let us apply boundary
conditions,
Condition I:
At x = 0 then  = 0
Equation (6)  0 = A cos0 + B sin 0

i.e. A=0 (7)

Condition II:
At x = a then  = 0
Equation (6)  0 = A cos ka + B sin ka

0 = B sin ka

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 15

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

Here B ≠ 0
 sin ka = 0
or ka = n ( sin n = 0)
n
k= (8)
a

n2 2
k = 2
2

a
Where, n = 1,2, 3.........
Substitute the values of A and k in equation (6) we get,
 n 
 = B sin  x (9)
 a 
Substituting the value of k in equation (5)

8m 2 E n 2 2
= 2
h2 a
n2 h2
E= (10)
8ma 2

This is the energy Eigen equation for the particle in 1-D potential well. Here n can take only
integer values, the corresponding values that E takes are the "energy Eigen values".
When n = 0,  = 0 which means to say that the electron is not present inside the box, which is
not true. Hence the lowest value of ‘n’ is 1.
 The lowest allowed energy corresponds to n =1 is called the zero-point energy or ground
state energy and all the states n 1 is called excited states.

h2
Ezero − po int =
8ma 2

To evaluate B in equation (9) we have to perform normalization of wave function.

 n 
Consider,  = B sin  x
 a 
The integral of the wave function over the entire space in the well must be equal to unity
because there is only one particle within the well, the probability of finding the particle is 1.
a

 dx = 1
2

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 16

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

 n 
a

B x dx = 1
2
sin 2 
0  a 
1
We know that sin 2  = (1 − cos 2 )
2
B2  2n x 
a


2 0
1 − cos
a 
dx = 1

B2  2n x 
a a

  dx −  cos dx  = 1
2 0 0
a 
a
B2  a  2n x  
 x − 2n sin  a   = 1
2   0

B2  a 
2  2n sin 2n − 0  = 1
a −

B2a
 =1
2
B= 2
a
Thus, the normalized wave function of a particle in a one-dimensional box is given by,

2  n 
n = sin  x
a  a 
Where n=1,2,3……………

Since the particle in a box is a quantum mechanical problem, we need to evaluate the most
probable location of the particle in a box and its energies at different permitted state.

What is wave function, Probability density and normalisation of wave function 10M (2022
MQP-2)
Let us consider first three cases
Case 1: n =1

This is the ground state, and the particle is normally found in this state. For n =1, the Eigen
 
function is 1 = B sin   x
a
In the above equation  = 0 for both x = 0 & x = a. but 1 has maximum value for x = a/2. and
1 = 0 at x = 0 and x = a, and 1
2 2
is maximum at x = (a/2).

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 17

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

A plot of 1 and 1 , the probability density versus ‘x’ is as shown in the figure.
2

From the figure, it is clear that at ground state the probability of finding the particle is max at
the centre and the particle cannot be found at the walls of the potential well.

h2
Energy of the particle in the ground state is given by, E0 =
8ma 2

Case 2: n = 2
This is the first excited state. The Eigen function for this state is given by
 2 
 2 = B sin  x
 a 
a a 3a
Now, 2 = 0 for the values x = 0, , a and 2 reaches maximum at x = ,
2 4 4

From the figure it can be seen that  2 = 0 at x = 0, a 2 , a . It means that in the first excited
2

state the particle cannot be observed either at the walls or at the centre.

 h2 
The energy obtained for n = 2, E2 = 4  2 
 8ma 

E 2 = 4 E0
Thus, the energy in the first excited state is 4 times the zero point energy.

Case 3: n = 3
This is the second excited state and the Eigen function for this state is given by

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 18

2022 scheme - Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-1 Quantum Mechanics BPHYE102/202

 3 
 3 = B sin   x
 a 
a 2a a a 5a
Now, 3 =0 for the values x = 0, , , a and 3 reaches maximum at x = , ,
3 3 6 2 6

The plot of 3 versus ‘x’ has maxima at x = a 6 , a 2 , 5a 6 at which the particle is most likely
2

to be found.
 h2 
The energy obtained for n = 3, E3 = 9  2 
 8ma 

E3 = 9 E0

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 19