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Description:
This is the eBook of the printed book and may not include any
media, website access codes, or print supplements that may
come packaged with the bound book. For a one-semester
JavaScript programming course for students who have
knowledge of HTML and CSS. This text also serves as a useful
reference for individuals interested in learning JavaScript
Programming with XML and PHP. ¿ Introduction to JavaScript
Programming with XML and PHP is a hands-on book that focuses
on the "how-to" aspects of JavaScript, with a focus on enhancing
and extending websites.¿¿

1. Introduction to JavaScript® Programming with XML and PHP Creating Dynamic and
Interactive Web Pages
2. Preface
3. Organization of the Text
4. Brief Chapter Overviews
5. Features of the Text
6. Supplements
7. Contents
8. Location of VideoNotes in the Text
9. Chapter 0: Computer Basics
10. Chapter Objectives
11. 0.1 A Brief History of Computers
12. What Is a Computer?
13. Personal Computers
14. Today’s Computers
15. 0.2 A Brief History of the Internet
16. Packet Switching
17. Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
18. Try It Yourself
19. What Is a URL?
20. The Protocol
21. The Web Server
22. The Domain
23. The Path
24. Is It All Necessary?
25. 0.3 Computer Basics
26. Input
27. Processing
28. Storage
29. Internal Memory
30. Mass Storage Devices
31. Output
32. 0.4 What Is Programming?
33. The History of Programming
34. A Brief Timeline
35. Types of Software
36. Application Software
37. System Software
38. Programming and Scripting Languages
39. Machine Language
40. Assembly Language
41. Machine Language Instruction:
42. Assembly Language Equivalent:
43. High-Level Languages
44. Writing Programs
45. Scripting Languages versus Programming Languages
46. 0.5 Browsers
47. What Is a Browser?
48. Overview of Major Browsers
49. How Does A Browser Work?
50. Is the World Wide Web the Same As the Internet?
51. What Does This Mean to You?
52. 0.6 JavaScript and the Acronyms: XHTML, DOM, PHP, XML
53. A Brief History of JavaScript
54. Web Pages and XHTML
55. Server-Side and Client-Side Technologies
56. JavaScript Overview
57. A Dynamic Language
58. First-Class Functions
59. A Multiparadigm Language
60. How JavaScript Is Used
61. Overview of DOM, PHP, and XML
62. The Document Object Model (DOM)
63. Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP) or Personal Home Page Tools
64. Extensible Markup Language (XML)
65. Chapter Review and Exercises
66. Key Terms
67. Review Exercises
68. Fill in the Blank
69. True or False
70. Short Answer
71. Chapter 1: JavaScript Programming Basics
72. Chapter Objectives
73. 1.1 What Is Programming?
74. A General Problem-Solving Strategy
75. The Program Development Cycle
76. Emphasis on Step 4: Test the Program Extensively!
77. 1.2 The Structure of a Program
78. Input-Processing-Output
79. Input
80. Processing
81. Output
82. The Control Structures
83. The Sequential Structure
84. The Decision (or Selection) Structure
85. The Loop (or Repetition) Structure
86. 1.3 Data Types and Operations on Data
87. Numerical Data
88. String Data
89. Boolean Data
90. Variables and Named Constants
91. Assignment Statements
92. Operations on Data
93. Arithmetic Operators
94. Assignment Operators
95. The Concatenation Operator (+) Used on Strings
96. 1.4 Problem Solving: The Importance of Logical Thinking
97. Pseudocode
98. Flowcharts
99. Flowchart Symbols
100. 1.5 JavaScript in the Web Page
101. The <script></script> Tag Pair
102. The <noscript></noscript> Tag Pair
103. JavaScript in a Web Page <body>
104. JavaScript in the document <head> section
105. The <body> onload Event
106. 1.6 Introduction to Objects
107. What is an Object?
108. Properties and Methods
109. Attributes and Functions
110. The Document Object
111. Dot Notation
112. The write() Method
113. The getElementById() Method and the innerHTML Property
114. getElementById()
115. innerHTML
116. The open() and close() Methods
117. 1.7 Introduction to JavaScript Functions and Events
118. Introduction to JavaScript Functions
119. Parameters
120. The prompt() Function
121. Introduction to JavaScript Events
122. Event Driven Programming
123. 1.8 Putting It to Work
124. Greg’s Gambits: Creating an About You Page
125. Developing the About You Page
126. Writing the Code
127. Prompting for the Player’s Name
128. Prompting for the Player’s Username
129. Selecting an Avatar
130. Finishing the Code
131. Carla’s Classroom: Creating an About You Page
132. Developing the About Me! Page
133. Writing the Code
134. Prompting for the Child’s Name, Age, and Favorite Subject
135. Prompting for the Child’s Favorite Teacher
136. Finishing the Code
137. Chapter Review and Exercises
138. Key Terms
139. Review Exercises
140. Fill in the Blank
141. True or False
142. Short Answer
143. Programming Challenges
144. On Your Own
145. Chapter 2: Building Blocks: Variables and Operators
146. Chapter Objectives
147. 2.1 What Is a Variable?
148. Memory Locations
149. Variable Names
150. Naming Tips
151. Declaring Variables
152. 2.2 Data Types
153. A Loosely Typed Language
154. Numbers
155. Strings and Characters
156. Named Constants
157. 2.3 Arithmetic Operators and Some Important Functions
158. The Modulus Operator
159. The Hierarchy of Operations
160. The Concatenation Operator
161. Parsing Integers and Floating Point Numbers
162. 2.4 Relational Operators
163. ASCII Code
164. Relational Operators
165. 2.5 Logical Operators and the Conditional Operator
166. Logical Operators
167. A Truth Table for the AND , OR , and NOT Operators
168. Boolean Logic and Boolean Operators
169. The Order of Operations for Logical Operators
170. Conditional Operator
171. 2.6 Putting It to Work
172. Greg's Gambits: Creating Your Own Story
173. Developing the Program
174. Writing the Code
175. The charAt() function
176. Finishing the Code
177. Carla's Classroom: A Spelling Lesson
178. Developing the Program
179. Functions
180. The showPrompt1() and showResult1() functions
181. Putting It Together
182. Finishing Up
183. Chapter Review and Exercises
184. Key Terms
185. Review Exercises
186. Fill in the Blank
187. True or False
188. Short Answer
189. Programming Challenges
190. On Your Own
191. Chapter 3: Making Decisions: The Selection Structure
192. Chapter Objectives
193. 3.1 What if? Types of Selection Structures
194. 3.2 The Single Alternative Structure: The if Statement
195. A Note about the Test Condition
196. A Note about the Curly Brackets
197. 3.3 The Dual Alternative Structure: if... else Statements
198. 3.4 Nested Selection Structures
199. 3.5 Compound Conditions
200. Combining Relational and Logical Operators
201. Logical Operators Revisited
202. A Note about Syntax
203. Using AND and OR
204. 3.6 Multiple-Alternative Selection Structures
205. The if... else if... Structure
206. Using if... else if for a Rating System
207. Error Checking: Just the Beginning
208. The Switch Statement
209. Using a switch Statement for Page Color
210. 3.7 Putting It to Work
211. Greg's Gambits: Madame Vadoma Knows All
212. The Math Object
213. The Math.random() and Math.floor() Methods
214. Developing the Program
215. Writing the Code
216. Putting It All Together
217. Finishing Up
218. Carla's Classroom: An Arithmetic Lesson
219. Developing the Program
220. The return Statement
221. The Counter
222. Writing the Code
223. 3.7.2.4.1 The Plan
224. The Code in Pieces
225. 3.7.2.5.1 Level One Code
226. 3.7.2.5.2 Level Two Code
227. 3.7.2.5.3 Level Three Code
228. 3.7.2.5.4 A Comment about Checking the Counter
229. Putting It All Together
230. Finishing Up
231. Chapter Review and Exercises
232. Key Terms
233. Review Exercises
234. Fill in the Blank
235. True or False
236. Short Answer
237. Programming Challenges
238. On Your Own
239. Chapter 4: Going Round and Round: The Repetition Structure
240. Chapter Objectives
241. 4.1 Computers Don’t Get Bored with Repetition
242. Loop Basics
243. Iterations
244. Writing Test Conditions
245. 4.1.1.2.1 Beware the Infinite Loop!
246. 4.1.1.2.2 Don’t Let the User Get Trapped in a Loop
247. 4.2 Types of Loops
248. Pre-Test and Post-Test Loops
249. The Pre-Test while Loop
250. Writing Test Conditions
251. The Post-Test do...while Loop
252. Why Use One and Not the Other?
253. Formatting the Output: The toFixed() Method
254. Sentinel-Controlled Loops
255. Formatting the Output: The toLowerCase() and toUpperCase() Methods
256. Counter-Controlled Loops
257. Using a Counter
258. Shortcut Operators
259. 4.3 The for Loop
260. The for Statement
261. The Initial Value
262. The Test Condition
263. The Increment/Decrement Statement
264. The Careful Bean Counter
265. Curly Braces: Do We Really Need Them?
266. 4.4 Data Validation
267. The isNaN() Method
268. Checking for Integers
269. Using Compound Conditions for Data Validation
270. The charAt() Method
271. The length Property
272. 4.5 Putting It to Work
273. Greg’s Gambits: Encoding Secret Messages
274. What Is Encryption?
275. The charCodeAt() and String.fromCharCode() Methods
276. 4.5.1.2.1 Unicode and ASCII Code
277. 4.5.1.2.2 The charCodeAt() Method
278. 4.5.1.2.3 The String.fromCharCode() Method
279. Developing the Program
280. Writing the Code
281. Putting It All Together
282. Finishing Up
283. Carla’s Classroom: Advanced Arithmetic Lessons
284. Developing the Program
285. Writing the Code
286. The Code in Pieces
287. 4.5.2.3.1 Level One Addition Code
288. 4.5.2.3.2 Level Two and Level Three Addition Code
289. 4.5.2.3.3 Subtraction
290. Putting It All Together
291. 4.5.2.4.1 A Note about Code
292. Finishing Up
293. Chapter Review and Exercises
294. Key Terms
295. Review Exercises
296. Fill in the Blank
297. True or False
298. Short Answer
299. Programming Challenges
300. On Your Own
301. Chapter 5: Advanced Decisions and Loops
302. Chapter Objectives
303. 5.1 Some Simple Schoolroom Statistics
304. It All Adds Up
305. Computing Averages
306. The Range
307. Odd and Even
308. Integer Accuracy: Math Methods
309. The Math.round() Method
310. The Math.floor() and Math.ceil() Methods
311. 5.2 To Continue or Not to Continue?
312. The break Statement
313. The continue Statement
314. 5.3 Nested for Loops
315. Desk Checking
316. Different Ways to Nest Loops
317. Which Way Should Loops Be Nested?
318. 5.4 Drawing Shapes and Patterns with Loops
319. Drawing Shapes
320. Using Loops to Create Patterns
321. The mouse Events
322. 5.5 Putting It to Work
323. Greg’s Gambits: The Battle between Wizard and Troll
324. Developing the Program
325. 5.5.1.1.1 The Button As a Link
326. 5.5.1.1.2 The Web Pages
327. Writing the Code
328. Putting It All Together
329. Finishing Up
330. Carla’s Classroom: A Grammar Lesson
331. Developing the Program
332. Writing the Code
333. The Code in Pieces
334. 5.5.2.3.1 The Function and the Outer Loop
335. 5.5.2.3.2 Check for Valid Selections
336. 5.5.2.3.3 Displaying the Story
337. Putting It All Together
338. Finishing Up
339. Chapter Review and Exercises
340. Key Terms
341. Review Exercises
342. Fill in the Blank
343. True or False
344. Short Answer
345. Programming Challenges
346. On Your Own
347. Chapter 6: Forms and Form Controls
348. Chapter Objectives
349. 6.1 What Is a Form?
350. The Most Basic Form
351. The <form> </form> Tag Pair
352. The submit and reset Buttons
353. Returning Form Submissions
354. The Common Gateway Interface (CGI)
355. Returning Form Data by Email
356. Returning Form Data to a Program
357. 6.2 Form Controls
358. Radio Buttons
359. Checkboxes
360. The checked Property
361. Textboxes
362. The Label, Fieldset, and Legend Elements
363. Textarea Boxes
364. The email action
365. 6.3 Hidden Fields and Passwords
366. The Hidden Form Element
367. The Password Form Element
368. The substr() Method
369. 6.4 Selection Lists and More
370. Selection Lists
371. The size Attribute
372. The multiple Attribute
373. Enhancements for Form Elements
374. The tabindex Attribute
375. The accesskey Attribute
376. The onfocus Event
377. An Introduction to the this Keyword
378. An Image As an OK Button
379. 6.5 Putting It to Work
380. Greg’s Gambits: Player Information and Inventory
381. Developing the Program
382. 6.5.1.1.1 The Web Page Design
383. Writing the Code
384. 6.5.1.2.1 The Textbox Functions
385. 6.5.1.2.2 The Radio Buttons Function
386. 6.5.1.2.3 The Checkbox Functions
387. Putting It All Together
388. Finishing Up
389. Carla’s Classroom: Carla’s Progress Report Form
390. Developing the Program
391. 6.5.2.1.1 Carla’s Categories
392. 6.5.2.1.2 The Page Design
393. Creating the Form
394. Writing the Code
395. 6.5.2.3.1 The Textbox Functions
396. 6.5.2.3.2 The Radio Buttons Functions
397. 6.5.2.3.3 The Textarea Function
398. 6.5.2.3.4 Generating the Email
399. Putting It All Together
400. Finishing Up
401. Chapter Review and Exercises
402. Key Terms
403. Review Exercises
404. Fill in the Blank
405. True or False
406. Short Answer
407. Programming Challenges
408. On Your Own
409. Chapter 7: Keeping it Neat: Functions and JavaScript Source Files
410. Chapter Objectives
411. 7.1 Functions
412. Built-In Functions
413. User-Defined Functions
414. 7.2 The Scope of a Variable
415. Global Variables
416. Local Variables
417. 7.3 Sending Information to a Function
418. Passing Arguments to Parameters
419. The return Statement
420. Passing Values: A Complex Issue
421. Passing by Value
422. 7.4 Objects and Object-Oriented Concepts
423. The Math Object
424. More JavaScript Objects
425. Passing by Reference
426. The Boolean Object
427. 7.4.2.2.1 The new Keyword
428. The Date Object
429. The setTimeout() Function
430. 7.5 JavaScript Source Files
431. Work Smarter, Not Harder
432. Creating and Accessing a JavaScript Source (.js) File
433. JavaScript Source Files Cascade
434. Creating a Library of Functions
435. 7.6 Putting It to Work
436. Greg’s Gambits: Hangman
437. Developing the Program
438. 7.6.1.1.1 The Man in the Noose
439. 7.6.1.1.2 The Secret Words
440. Writing the Code
441. 7.6.1.2.1 The startHangman() Function
442. 7.6.1.2.2 The setCharAt() Function
443. 7.6.1.2.3 The replace() Method and Regular Expressions
444. 7.6.1.2.4 The Revised checkWord() Function
445. Putting It All Together
446. Finishing Up
447. Carla's Classroom: Reading Comprehension
448. Developing the Program
449. Creating the First Page
450. Writing the Code
451. 7.6.2.3.1 Password Protection
452. 7.6.2.3.2 The First Web Page:
453. 7.6.2.3.3 Use the visibility Property to Create a Hidden Button
454. 7.6.2.3.4 Building the Page with Questions
455. 7.6.2.3.5 What the Student Sees
456. Putting It All Together
457. Finishing Up
458. Chapter Review and Exercises
459. Key Terms
460. Review Exercises
461. Fill in the blanks
462. True or False
463. Short Answer
464. Programming Challenges
465. On Your Own
466. Chapter 8: Arrays
467. Chapter Objectives
468. 8.1 One-dimensional Arrays
469. Creating an Array in JavaScript
470. The Array Object
471. A Note About Array Names
472. The length Property
473. Some Methods of the Array Object
474. 8.2 Populating Arrays
475. Loading Arrays Directly
476. Loading Arrays Interactively
477. Displaying Arrays
478. 8.3 Parallel Arrays
479. Why Use Arrays?
480. 8.4 Using Array Methods
481. The push() Method
482. The length Property Can Be Used to Find the Length of an Array
483. The unshift() Method
484. The splice() Method
485. 8.5 Multi-Dimensional Arrays
486. Introduction to Two-Dimensional Arrays
487. Declaring and Filling Two-Dimensional Arrays
488. 8.6 Putting It to Work
489. Greg’s Gambits: The Game of 15
490. Developing the Program
491. 8.6.1.1.1 Setting the Stage
492. 8.6.1.1.2 Creating the Array with the setup() Function
493. 8.6.1.1.3 Populating the Array with the Math.random() Function
494. 8.6.1.1.4 The Code to Exchange Cell Values
495. 8.6.1.1.5 The Code to Check for a Winner
496. Putting It All Together
497. Carla’s Classroom: Images and Imagination
498. Setting Things Up
499. Developing the Program
500. 8.6.2.2.1 Setting the Stage
501. 8.6.2.2.2 The Image Swap
502. 8.6.2.2.2.1 Practice the Image Swap
503. 8.6.2.2.3 The Slide Show
504. Putting It All Together
505. Chapter Review and Exercises
506. Key Terms
507. Review Exercises
508. Fill in the Blank
509. True or False
510. Short Answer
511. Programming Challenges
512. On Your Own
513. Chapter 9: Searching and Sorting
514. Chapter Objectives
515. 9.1 Sorting Arrays
516. The sort() Method
517. Sorting Numbers with the sort() Method
518. The reverse() Method
519. 9.2 The Bubble Sort
520. Swapping Values
521. Using the Bubble Sort Algorithm
522. Passing Arrays
523. 9.3 The Selection Sort
524. 9.4 Searching Arrays: The Serial Search
525. The Serial Search
526. Using the Serial Search with Parallel Arrays
527. 9.5 Searching Arrays: The Binary Search
528. The Binary Search
529. Making Life Easier: The indexOf() Method
530. The indexOf() Method
531. The lastIndexOf() Method
532. Time Out! Using the setInterval() and clearInterval() Methods
533. 9.6 Putting It to Work
534. Greg’s Gambits: Greg’s Boggle
535. Developing the Program
536. Setting the Stage
537. 9.6.1.2.1 Creating the boggle() Function
538. 9.6.1.2.2 The toString() Method
539. 9.6.1.2.3 The boggle() Function
540. Putting It All Together
541. Carla’s Classroom: A Factoring Lesson
542. Factoring Integers
543. Developing the Program
544. Setting the Stage
545. The Code in Pieces
546. 9.6.2.4.1 The External File
547. 9.6.2.4.2 The Beginning
548. 9.6.2.4.3 Selecting the Number and Some Housekeeping Tasks
549. 9.6.2.4.4 The splice() Method
550. 9.6.2.4.5 Getting Student Responses
551. Putting It All Together
552. Chapter Review and Exercises
553. Key Terms
554. Review Exercises
555. Fill in the Blank
556. True or False
557. Short Answer
558. Programming Challenges
559. On Your Own
560. Chapter 10: The Document Object Model and XML
561. Chapter Objectives
562. 10.1 The Document Object Model: DOM
563. A Brief History of DOM
564. DOM Nodes and Trees
565. The Family: The Parent-Child Model
566. Creating and Inserting Elements
567. The createTextNode() Method
568. Replacing and Removing Elements
569. The removeChild() Method
570. The replaceChild() Method
571. The childNodes Property
572. 10.2 Using DOM Methods with Timers and Styles
573. The setAttribute()and getAttribute() Methods
574. The setInterval() and clearInterval() Methods
575. 10.3 XML Basics
576. What Is XML?
577. Why Do We Need XML?
578. XML Components
579. The XML Declaration
580. XML Elements
581. Comments and File Names
582. XML Attributes
583. XML Entities
584. Whitespace
585. Well-Formed XML Documents
586. XML Parsers and DTDs
587. XML Internal DTDs
588. XML External and Public DTDs
589. 10.4 Adding Style and XSL Transformations
590. Using Cascading Style Sheets with XML Documents
591. The Extensible Style Sheet Language (XSL)
592. An Important Note
593. 10.5 XML Namespaces and Schemas
594. XML Namespaces
595. The Uniform Resource Identifier (URI)
596. Namespace Declarations
597. XML Schemas
598. Creating a Reference to a Schema in an XML Document
599. There’s More . . .
600. XML Schema Data Types
601. Creating an XML Schema
602. 10.6 Putting It to Work
603. Greg’s Gambits: Greg’s Avatars
604. Developing the Program
605. Setting the Stage
606. Creating the XML, XSL, and JavaScript Pages
607. 10.6.1.3.1 Creating the XML Page
608. 10.6.1.3.2 Creating the XSL Page
609. 10.6.1.3.3 Creating the JavaScript Page and the DOM Code
610. Putting It All Together
611. Carla’s Classroom: A Spelling Lesson
612. Developing the Program
613. Setting the Stage
614. The Code in Pieces
615. 10.6.2.3.1 The Functions to Extract Values from the Selected Image and
Spelling
616. 10.6.2.3.2 The Function to Compare the Values
617. 10.6.2.3.3 The Function to Check for Success
618. Putting It All Together
619. Chapter Review and Exercises
620. Key Terms
621. Review Exercises
622. Fill in the Blank
623. True or False
624. Short Answer
625. Programming Challenges
626. On Your Own
627. Chapter 11: PHP: An Overview
628. Chapter Objectives
629. 11.1 A Brief History of PHP
630. What Does a Server Do?
631. HTTP get and post Request Types
632. The Apache HTTP Server, MySQL, and PHP
633. The Apache HTTP Server
634. The MySQL Database
635. PHP and XAMPP
636. 11.2 XAMPP
637. Installing XAMPP
638. Security
639. The License
640. The Install
641. Try It
642. Let’s Get Started
643. Your First PHP Program
644. 11.3 PHP Basics
645. PHP File Names, the htdocs Folder, and Viewing Your PHP Pages
646. Variables and Methods
647. Converting Data Types with the settype() and gettype() Methods
648. Converting Data Types by Type Casting
649. PHP Keywords
650. Operators
651. Unary Operators
652. Binary Operators
653. 11.3.4.2.1 Operator Precedence
654. Ternary Operators
655. The Concatenation Operators
656. 11.4 Using Conditionals and Loops
657. Making Decisions: The if Structure
658. The echo Construct
659. The switch Statement
660. 11.4.2 Cycling Through: Repetitions and Loops
661. 11.5 Arrays and Strings
662. Arrays
663. 11.5.1.1 The reset() Method
664. The foreach Construct, the as keyword, and the ==> Operator
665. The key() Method
666. Why Are We Learning All This?
667. Working with Strings
668. Comparing Strings
669. 11.5.3.2 Searching for Expressions: The preg_match() and preg_replace()
methods
670. 11.6 Putting It to Work
671. Greg’s Gambits: PHP Welcome Messages
672. 11.6.1.1 Developing a New Format for Greg’s Pages: Organizing a Site
673. The Header and Footer Files
674. Setting the Stage
675. The ajax_post() Function
676. 11.6.1.4.1 What Is Ajax?
677. 11.6.1.4.2 The onclick = "javascript:ajax_post();" event
678. 11.6.1.4.3 Field-Value Pairs
679. 11.6.1.4.4 The ajaxDataPipe.php Page
680. Putting It All Together
681. 11.6.2 Carla’s Classroom: Using PHP for Hints
682. Developing the Program
683. 11.6.2.1.1 The Folders
684. 11.6.2.1.2 The header.php File
685. 11.6.2.1.3 The footer.php File
686. 11.6.2.1.4 The carla_phpDemo.php File
687. 11.6.2.1.5 The showHint() Function
688. 11.6.2.1.6 The gethint.php File
689. 11.6.2.1.7 The $_GET superglobal Variable
690. 11.6.2.1.8 The count() Method
691. 11.6.2.1.9 The strtolower() Method
692. Putting It All Together
693. Chapter Review and Exercises
694. Key Terms
695. Review Exercises
696. Fill in the Blank
697. True or False
698. Short Answer
699. Programming Challenges On Your Own
700. Chapter 12: Using PHP With Cookies and MySQL
701. Chapter Objectives
702. 12.1 Cookies
703. Types of Cookies
704. Writing Cookies
705. The time() Function
706. Writing Your First Cookie
707. The define() Method
708. The isset() Method
709. The $_SERVER() Method and PHP_SELF
710. 12.2 A Database Server: MySQL
711. An Overview of MySQL
712. The License
713. Setting Up a MySQL User Account
714. Create a New User
715. Assigning Privileges
716. The Database Structure
717. Building a Small Business Database
718. Jackie’s Tables
719. The Primary Key and the Foreign Key
720. Table Fields
721. Field Attributes
722. Creating the Database with phpMyAdmin
723. Create the jackiejewelry Database
724. 12.3 Populating a Database from the Web
725. The Web Page Form
726. The die() Method
727. The mysql_error() Method
728. The mysql_query() Method
729. The mysql_connect() Method
730. The mysql_select_db() Method
731. 12.4 Sending Emails from Database Information Using PHP
732. The Form
733. The mysql_fetch_array() Method
734. The mail() Method
735. 12.5 Putting It to Work
736. Greg’s Gambits: Create or Validate an Account and Log In
737. Creating the Database
738. Creating User Accounts and Login Pages
739. 12.5.1.2.1 The newUser.php File:
740. 12.5.1.2.2 The header.php File:
741. 12.5.1.2.3 The footer.php File:
742. 12.5.1.2.4 Connecting to the Database Using the connectDB.php File:
743. 12.5.1.2.5 Closing the Connection Using the closeDB.php File
744. 12.5.1.2.6 The addUser.php File:
745. Testing It
746. The New Beginning: The index.php Page
747. 12.5.1.4.1 The Session
748. 12.5.1.4.2 The index.php Page
749. 12.5.1.4.3 The logIn.php Page
750. 12.5.1.4.4 The session_start() Method and the $_SESSION Superglobal
751. 12.5.1.4.5 The validate_loginForm(thisform), validate_userName(), and
validate_passWord() JavaScript Functions
752. 12.5.1.4.6 The with() Reserved Word (Keyword)
753. Creating the User Information Page
754. Let’s Play a Game!
755. Putting It All together
756. Carla’s Classroom: Using PHP to Send Student Reports by Email
757. Creating the Database
758. 12.5.2.1.1 The Folders
759. Adding a Student to the Database
760. 12.5.2.2.1 The index.php File
761. 12.5.2.2.2 Inserting a New Record: Making the Connection
762. 12.5.2.2.3 The insert.php File
763. Creating and Sending the Email
764. 12.5.2.3.1 The sendEmail.php File
765. 12.5.2.3.2 The getStudent.php File
766. Putting It All Together
767. Chapter Review and Exercises
768. Key Terms
769. Review Exercises
770. Fill in the Blank
771. True or False
772. Short Answer
773. Programming Challenges
774. On Your Own
775. Appendix A: ASCII Characters The ASCII Character Set: Nonprintable and
Printable Characters
776. Appendix B: Operator Precedence Operators and Operator Precedence
777. Appendix C: HTML Characters and Entities HTML Entities
778. Reserved Characters in HTML
779. ISO 8859-1 Symbols
780. Appendix D: JavaScript Objects JavaScript Objects and Methods
781. Array Object
782. Properties
783. Methods
784. Boolean Object
785. Properties
786. Methods
787. Date Object
788. Properties
789. Methods
790. Math Object
791. Properties
792. Methods
793. Number Object
794. Properties
795. Methods
796. String Object
797. Properties
798. Methods
799. String HTML Wrapper Methods
800. RegExp Object
801. Modifiers
802. Brackets
803. Metacharacters
804. Quantifiers
805. Properties
806. Methods
807. JavaScript Global Properties and Functions
808. Global Properties
809. Global Functions
810. Appendix E: jQuery
811. jQuery
812. What Is jQuery?
813. Downloading jQuery
814. Sample jQuery Code
815. Appendix F: DOM Properties, Methods, and Events
816. DOM Properties, Methods, and Events
817. The Document Object Model: DOM
818. Some DOM Properties
819. Some DOM Methods
820. Some Events
821. Node Properties
822. The nodeName Property
823. The nodeValue Property
824. The nodeType Property
825. Appendix G: PHP Reserved Words
826. PHP Reserved Words and Predefined Constants
827. Keywords
828. Predefined Constants
829. Appendix H: PHP MySQL Functions
830. Common PHP MySQL Functions
831. Appendix I: Answers to Checkpoint Exercises
832. Answers to Checkpoint Exercises
833. Chapter 0
834. Checkpoint for Section 0.1
835. Checkpoint for Section 0.2
836. Checkpoint for Section 0.3
837. Checkpoint for Section 0.4
838. Checkpoint for Section 0.5
839. Checkpoint for Section 0.6
840. Chapter 1
841. Checkpoint for Section 1.1
842. Checkpoint for Section 1.2
843. Checkpoint for Section 1.3
844. Checkpoint for Section 1.4
845. Checkpoint for Section 1.5
846. Checkpoint for Section 1.6
847. Checkpoint for Section 1.7
848. Chapter 2
849. Checkpoint for Section 2.1
850. Checkpoint for Section 2.2
851. Checkpoint for Section 2.3
852. Checkpoint for Section 2.4
853. Checkpoint for Section 2.5
854. Chapter 3
855. Checkpoint for Section 3.1
856. Checkpoint for Section 3.2
857. Checkpoint for Section 3.3
858. Checkpoint for Section 3.4
859. Checkpoint for Section 3.5
860. Checkpoint for Section 3.6
861. Chapter 4
862. Checkpoint for Section 4.1
863. Checkpoint for Section 4.2
864. Checkpoint for Section 4.3
865. Checkpoint for Section 4.4
866. Chapter 5
867. Checkpoint for Section 5.1
868. Checkpoint for Section 5.2
869. Checkpoint for Section 5.3
870. Checkpoint for Section 5.4
871. Chapter 6
872. Checkpoint for Section 6.1
873. Checkpoint for Section 6.2
874. Checkpoint for Section 6.3
875. Checkpoint for Section 6.4
876. Chapter 7
877. Checkpoint for Section 7.1
878. Checkpoint for Section 7.2
879. Checkpoint for Section 7.3
880. Checkpoint for Section 7.4
881. Checkpoint for Section 7.5
882. Chapter 8
883. Checkpoint for Section 8.1
884. Checkpoint for Section 8.2
885. Checkpoint for Section 8.3
886. Checkpoint for Section 8.4
887. Checkpoint for Section 8.5
888. Chapter 9
889. Checkpoint for Section 9.1
890. Checkpoint for Section 9.2
891. Checkpoint for Section 9.3
892. Checkpoint for Section 9.4
893. Checkpoint for Section 9.5
894. Chapter 10
895. Checkpoint for Section 10.1
896. Checkpoint for Section 10.2
897. Checkpoint for Section 10.3
898. Checkpoint for Section 10.4
899. Checkpoint for Section 10.5
900. Chapter 11
901. Checkpoint for Section 11.1
902. Checkpoint for Section 11.2
903. Checkpoint for Section 11.3
904. Checkpoint for Section 11.4
905. Checkpoint for Section 11.5
906. Chapter 12
907. Checkpoint for Section 12.1
908. Checkpoint for Section 12.2
909. Checkpoint for Section 12.3
910. Checkpoint for Section 12.4
911. Index
912. C redits
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 IX. Of the toothach, 288
X. Of the diseases of the tonsils, 290
XI. Of ulcers of the mouth, 291
XII. Of ulcers of the tongue, 293
XIII. Of parulides and ulcers in the gums, 293
XIV. Of an inflammation of the uvula, 295
XV. Of a gangrene of the mouth, 295
XVI. Of parotid swellings, 297
XVII. Of a prominent navel, 297
XVIII. Of the diseases of the private parts, 298
Diseases of the anus, rhagadia, and
condylomata, 303
Of the hæmorrhoides, 304
Of a prolapsus of the anus or womb, &c. 305
XIX. Of ulcers in the fingers, 306

BOOK VII.

PREFACE, The province of surgery, &c. 306

CHAP. I. Of contusions 310
II. Of the operations necessary in suppurated
tumours 310
III. Of the good or bad symptoms of suppurations 313
IV. Of fistulas, in the ribs, belly, and anus 314
V. Of extracting weapons out of the body 317
VI. Of a ganglion, meliceris, atheroma, steatoma,
and other tubercles of the head 320
VII. Of the diseases of the eyes cured by manual
operations; of vesicles in the upper eye-lids 321
 Of a crithe, chalazium, and unguis 322
Of an encanthis 324
Of the ancyloblepharon, and the ægilops 324
Of hairs in the eye-lashes irritating the eye 326
Of the lagopthalmus 328
Of an ectropium, and the staphyloma 328
Description of the eye 329
Of a cataract 330
Of a flux of gum, and the requisite operations 331
VIII. Of the operations required in the ears 334
IX. The operation necessary in a want of
substance in the ears, lips, and nose 335
X. Of the extirpation of a polypus in the nose 337
XI. The chirurgical cure of an ozæna 337
XII. Of the operations in the mouth; of the teeth 338
Of indurated tonsils, of the uvula 339
Of the tongue, an abscess under it, and chopt
lips 340
XIII. Of the bronchocele 341
XIV. Of the operations performed at the navel 342
XV. The method of discharging the water in
hydropic people 344
XVI. Of wounds in the belly and intestines 345
XVII. Of a rupture of the peritonæum 346
XVIII. A description of the testicles, and their
diseases 347
XIX. General directions for operations in the
foregoing diseases about the testicles 351
XX. Of the cure of a rupture of the intestine into
the scrotum 354
 XXI. Of the cure of a rupture of the omentum into
the scrotum 356
XXII. Of the cure of a ramex of the scrotum 357
XXIII. Of the cure of a sarcocele 359
XXIV. Of the cure of a ramex in the groin 359
XXV. The operations requisite in the disorders of the
penis 360
XXVI. Of the operation necessary in a suppression of
urine; and lithotomy 362
XXVII. Of a gangrene after cutting for the stone 370
XXVIII. Of the operations required, when a membrane
or flesh obstructs the vagina in women 373
XXIX. The method of extracting a dead fœtus out of
the womb 373
XXX. The operations required in diseases of the anus 376
XXXI. Of varices in the legs 378
XXXII. Operations required in cohering and crooked
fingers 379
XXXIII. Of the operation required in a gangrene 380

BOOK VIII.

CHAP. I. Of the situation and figure of the bones of the

human body 381
II. General division of disorders in the bones. Of a
blackness and caries, and their treatment 388
III. Of the use of the modiolus, and perforator, and
other instruments, especially for the bones
of the head 390
IV. Of fractures of the skull 393
V. Of fractures of the nose 399
 VI. Of fractures of the ears 400
VII. Of a fractured maxilla, together with some
general observations relating to fractures 401
VIII. Of a fractured clavicle 402
IX. Of fractures of the ribs and spine 404
X. Of fractures of the humerus, fore-arm, thigh,
leg, fingers, and toes 406
XI. Of luxations 414
XII. Of a luxated maxilla 416
XIII. Of a luxation of the head 417
XIV. Of a luxation of the spine 418
XV. Of a luxation of the humerus 419
XVI. Of a luxation of the cubitus 420
XVII. Of a luxated hand 421
XVIII. Of luxations in the palm 422
XIX. Of luxations of the fingers 422
XX. Of a luxation of the femur 423
XXI. Of a luxation of the knee 424
XXII. Of a luxated ancle 425
XXIII. Of luxations in the soles of the feet 425
XXIV. Of luxated toes 426
XXV. Of luxations attended with a wound 426
 Roman measures of capacity for things liquid,
reduced to english wine measure, the wine pint
7
holding 28 solid inches.
8

No. I.
Pints Sol. in. dec.
1 5
Ligula 0, 48 0,117 12
1 2
4 Cyathus 0, 12 0,469 3
1 1
6 1 Acetabulum 0, 8 0,704 2
1
12 3 2 Quartarius 0, 4 1,409
1
24 6 4 2 Hemina 0, 2 2,818
48 12 8 4 2 Sextarius 1 5,636

Possibly No. I. may be better understood in the following form.

No. II.
Eng. wi. Solid
Ligulæ. Cyathi. Acetab. Quart. Hem. Sext. pint. inch.
48 or 12 or 8 or 4 or 2 == 1 == 1. and 5.636
1
24 or 6 or 4 or 2 == 1 — - == 0. 17.255 2
3
12 or 3 or 2 == 1 — - — - == 0. 8.627 4
1 7
6 or 1 2 == 1 — - — - — - == 0. 4.313 8
11
4 == 1 — - — - — - — - == 0. 2.875 12
47
1 — - — - — - — - — - == 0. 0.718 48
 Roman measures of capacity for things dry, reduced
to english corn measure, the english corn pint
3
holding 33 inches.
5

No. III.
Pints Sol. in. dec.
1
Ligula 0, 48 0,01
1
4 Cyathus 0, 12 0,04
1 1
6 1 2 Acetabulum 0, 8 0,06
1
24 6 4 Hemina 0, 2 0,24
48 12 8 2 Sextarius 1 0,48

The same table in another form.

No. IV.
Eng. corn Solid
Ligulæ. Cyathi. Acetab. Heminæ. Sextarius. pint. inches
48 or 12 or 8 or 2 == 1 == 1. and 0.48
24 or 6 or 4 == 1 — — == 0. 17.04
1
6 or 1 2 == 1 — — — — == 0. 4.26
4 == 1 — — — — — — == 0. 2.84
1 — — — — — — — — == 0. 0.71

Note, The tables, No. I. and No. III. are exactly copied from Dr
Arbuthnot, No. XII. and XIII. I have here gone no higher than the
sextarius, as that is the greatest measure mentioned by Celsus; it
has its name from making the sixth part of the Roman congius.
I would have taken the table of weights from Dr Arbuthnot also, if
he had given one accommodated to Celsus; but as he has not, I
have composed the following, No. VI. according to the division of
Celsus himself, who tells us [ U ], that he divides the uncia, or
ounce, into seven denarii, and the denarius into six sextantes.
Besides these, in several compositions our author uses semuncia
and sescuncia, that is half an ounce and ounce and half; and to
save the reader the trouble of reduction, I have given them also a
place in the table.
The accurate Mr Greaves [ V ], from repeated experiments,
concluded the Roman denarius to contain 62 grains English Troy
weight, from which the proportions of the other weights are
determined.

No. V.
Grains. Scruples. Drachms. Ounces. Pound Troy.
gr. ℈ Ʒ ℥ ℔
5760 or 288 or 96 or 12 == 1
480 or 24 or 8 == 1
60 or 3 == 1
20 == 1
1

Celsus’s weights compared with apothecaries’ weights.

No. VI.
 Grains of Sextan- Dena- Semun- Ses- Li- Apothecaries’.
Troy wt. tes. rii. ciæ. Unciæ. cun. bra. ℥ Ʒ ℈ gr.
5208 or 504 or 84 or 24 or 12 or 8 == 1 == 10 :6 : 2 : 8
1 1
651 or 63 or 10 2 or 3 or 1 2 == 1 — — == 1 :2 : 2 : 11
434 or 42 or 7 or 2 == 1 — — — — == 0 :7 : 0 : 14
1
217 or 21 or 3 2 == 1 — — — — — — == 0 :3 : 1 : 17
62 or 6 == 1 — — — — — — — — == 0 :1 : 0 : 2
1 1
10 3 == 1 — — — — — — — — — — == 0 :0 : 0 : 10 2
1 — — — — — — — — — — — — == 0 :0 : 0 : 1
Note 1st. The Romans divided all integers, as they did their as,
into twelve equal parts called unciæ. Thus the sextans was the
sixth part of the as, containing two of these unciæ, quadrans one
fourth, or three unciæ, triens the third part, or four unciæ, semis
one half, or six unciæ, bes or bessis two-thirds, or eight unciæ,
dodrans three-fourths being nine unciæ. The weight of these then
differs, as the integer is the libra, the uncia, or denarius, which
the attentive reader will easily reduce, if he is disposed to
calculate the quantities, observing that they are not to be taken
for aliquot parts of the denarius, but when they follow the mark
of the denarius. The integer preceding, and the nature of the
composition will be the best explication.

Note 2. The denarius mark was X or 𐆖, as containing originally

ten small asses. This by the copiers has been often confounded
with X, denoting the number of ten denarii; so that after all the
pains of critics and commentators, the proportions of the
ingredients in several compositions seem to be irrecoverably lost.
For this reason, I suppose the later editors have thought fit to
change it for the common asterisk.
Note 3. The characters for quantities are variously marked in
different authors, and the same note has several values. There is
one of this uncertainty in Celsus, that is Z, which we are told
expresses the libra, the sescuncia, the sextans of a pound, the
denarius and the sextans of a denarius [ W ]. Which of these
different values it bears in any particular place must be
 determined by the connection. When it follows the mark of the
denarius, it can mean no more than the sextans of a denarius.
Note 4. p. stands for pondo, which is an indeclinable word, and
when joined with numbers, signifies libra or a pound; when with
other weights, it stands for no more than pondus or weight in
general.
For an example of the reduction of Celsus’s weights to ours, the
following may serve.
Lib. v. cap. 19. no. 7. Philotas’s plaister contains,
Of Eretrian earth ℥ Ʒ ℈ gr.
1
: 0: 0: viz. Ʒi. gr. ii.
— chalcitis, each p. iv.*. == 8
2 multiplied by 4
— myrrh —and so all
— calcined copper, each p. x.*. == 1 : 2 : 1 : 0 the rest.
— isinglass p. vi. *. == 0 : 6 : 0 : 12
— rasile verdigrease
— round allum
— crude misy
— birthwort, of each p. viii.*. == 1 : 0 : 0 : 16
1
— copper scales p. xx.* == 2 2 : 0 : 2 : 0
— male frankincense, p. ii.*. == 0 : 2 : 0 : 4
— oil of roses
1 1
— Bitter oil, of each three cyathi, or 1 quartarius = between and of an English
4 3
pint.
— vinegar, a sufficient quantity.
 ERRATA,
in the text.

Page 110 line 9 for substances, read medicines.

—— 189 —— 26 for flour read flower.
—— 240 —— 22 for warm ingremedies read warming remedies.
—— 249 —— 14 for comes read come.
—— 257 —— 30 for verjuice read omphacium.
—— 271 —— 16 for wines read wine.
—— 323 —— 31 for straight read strait.
—— 350 —— 18 dele also.
A. CORNELIUS CELSUS
OF

MEDICINE.
 BOOK I.

P R E FA C E .
As agriculture promises food to the healthy, so medicine promises
health to the sick. There is no place in the world, where this art is
not found: for even the most barbarous nations are acquainted with
herbs, and other easy remedies for wounds and diseases. However it
has been more improved by the Greeks than any other people:
though not from the infancy of that nation, but only a few ages
before our own times; as appears by their celebrating Æsculapius as
its most ancient author; who, because he cultivated this science with
somewhat more accuracy, which, before him, was rude and of low
esteem, was received into the number of their gods. (1) After him his
two sons, Podalirius and Machaon, following Agamemnon to the
Trojan war, were not a little useful to their fellow soldiers. But even
these, according to Homer’s account, did not undertake the plague,
nor the other various kinds of diseases, but only cured wounds by
incisions, and medicines: from which it appears, that they entirely
confined themselves to the chirurgical part of medicine, and that this
was the most antient branch. From the same author we may also
learn, that diseases were then believed to arise from the anger of
the immortal gods, (2) and that relief used to be sought from them. It
is also probable, that though there were few remedies for
distempers known, men nevertheless generally enjoyed good health
from the sobriety of their lives, yet untainted by sloth and luxury. For
these two vices, first in Greece, and then among us, rendered men
liable to many diseases. And hence that variety of remedies now
used, which was neither necessary in ancient times, nor is yet in
other nations, scarcely protracts the lives of a few of us to the verge
of old age. For the same reason, after those, whom I have
mentioned, no men of eminence practised medicine, till learning
began to be pursued with greater application; which, as it is of all
things most necessary to the mind, so it is no less hurtful to the
body. And at first the science of healing was accounted a branch of
philosophy; so that the cure of diseases, and the study of nature,
owed their rise to the same persons: and for this very good reason,
because they, who had impaired their bodies by anxious thought,
and nightly watchings, stood most in need of its assistance. And
thus we find, that many amongst the philosophers were skilled in
this science; of whom the most celebrated were Pythagoras,
Empedocles, and Democritus. Hippocrates of Cos, who, according to
some authors, was the disciple of the last mentioned of these, and is
so justly admired both for his knowledge in this profession, and for
his eloquence, was the first worthy of notice, who separated
medicine from the study of philosophy. After him, Diocles the
Carystian, then Praxagoras and Chrysippus; after these, Herophilus
and Erasistratus applied themselves to this art, and differed widely
from each other in their methods of cure.
(1) For references 1, 2, 3, &c. see Notes at the end.

During this period, physick was divided into three parts: the first
cured by diet, the second by medicines, the third by manual
operations: the first they termed, in Greek, Diætetice, [ X ] the second
Pharmaceutice, [ Y ] and the third Chirurgice. [ Z ] The most illustrious
professors of that branch, which treats diseases by diet,
endeavoured to extend their views farther, and took in the
assistance of natural philosophy; being persuaded that, without it,
medicine would be a weak and imperfect science. After these came
Serapion, who first of all maintained, that the rational method of
study was foreign to the art of medicine, and confined it to practice
and experience. In his steps followed Appollonius and Glaucias, and
some time after Heraclides of Tarentum, and others of no small
note; who, from the doctrine they asserted, stiled themselves
Empiricks [ AA ]. And thus the Dietetick branch was also divided into
two parts, one set of physicians pursuing theory, the other following
experience alone. However, after these we have enumerated above,
no one attempted any thing new, till Asclepiades, who greatly
changed the art of medicine. And Themison, one of his successors,
has also lately, in his old age, departed from him in some things.
And these are the men, to whom we are chiefly indebted for the
improvements made in this salutary profession.
As that branch of medicine, which respects the cure of diseases, is
the noblest, as well as the most difficult of the three, we shall first
treat of that part. And because in this the chief dispute is, that some
alledge an acquaintance with experiments to be only requisite, while
others affirm experience alone to be insufficient, without a thorough
knowledge of the constitution of bodies, and what naturally happens
to them; it will be proper to recite the principal arguments on both
sides, that we may the more easily deliver our own opinion upon the
question.
Those then, who declare for a theory in medicine, look upon the
following things as necessary: the knowledge of the occult and
constituent causes of distempers; next, of the evident ones; then, of
the natural actions; and, lastly, of the internal parts. They call these
causes occult, in which we inquire of what principles our bodies are
composed, what constitutes health, and what sickness. For they hold
it impossible that any one should know how to cure diseases, if he
be ignorant of the causes, whence they proceed; and that it is not to
be doubted, but one method of cure is required, if the redundancy
or deficiency in any of the four principles (3) be the cause of diseases,
as some philosophers have affirmed; another, if the fault lie wholly in
the humours, as Herophilus thought; another, if in the inspired air, as
Hippocrates believed; another, if the blood be transfused into those
vessels (4), which are designed only for air, and occasion an
inflammation, which the Greeks call phlegmone [ AB ], and that
inflammation cause such a commotion as we observe in a fever,
which was the opinion of Erasistratus; another, if the corpuscles
passing through the invisible pores should stop, and obstruct the
passage, as Asclepiades maintained: that he will proceed in the
proper method of curing a disease, who is not deceived in its original
cause. Nor do they deny experience to be necessary, but affirm, it
cannot be obtained without some theory; for that the more ancient
practitioners did not prescribe any thing, at hazard, for the sick, but
considered what was most suitable, and examined that by
experience, to which they had before been led by some conjecture.
That it is of no moment in this argument, whether most remedies
were discovered by experiment, provided they were at first applied
with some rational view: and that this holds in many cases; but new
kinds of distempers often occur, in which practice has hitherto given
no light; so that it is necessary to observe whence they arose;
without which no mortal can find out, why he should make use of
one thing, rather than another. And for these reasons they
investigate the occult causes. They term those causes evident, in
which they inquire, whether the beginning of the distemper was
occasioned by heat or cold, fasting or surfeit, and the like. For they
say, he will be able to oppose the first appearances, who is not
ignorant of their rise. Those actions of the body which they call
natural, are inspiration and exspiration, the reception and concoction
of our meat and drink, as also the distribution (5) of the same into the
several parts of the body. They also inquire how it happens, that our
arteries rise and fall; from what causes proceed sleep and watching;
without the knowledge of which, they conceive it impossible for any
person either to oppose the beginnings of diseases, that depend on
these particulars, or cure them when formed. As of all these things
they look upon concoction to be of the greatest importance, they
insist chiefly upon it; and some of them following the opinion of
Erasistratus, affirm that the food is concocted in the stomach by
attrition; others, after Plistonicus, the disciple of Praxagoras, by
putrefaction; others, upon the credit of Hippocrates, believe
concoction is effected by heat. After them follow the disciples of
Asclepiades, who hold all these hypotheses to be vain and idle; for
that there is no concoction at all, but the matter, crude as it is
received, is distributed through the whole body. And in these things
they are by no means agreed: however, it is not disputed, that
according to the different hypotheses, a different regimen of diet is
to be observed by sick people. For if it be performed by attrition,
such food is to be chosen, as will most easily be broken to pieces; if
by putrefaction, such as most quickly undergoes that change; if heat
be the cause of concoction, then such as most effectually cherishes
heat. But if there be no concoction at all, then none of these kinds of
aliment are to be chosen: but such are to be taken, as are least
liable to change from the state in which they are received. And, by
the same way of reasoning, when there is a difficulty of breathing,
when sleep or watchings oppress, they are of opinion, that the man,
who has first learned in what manner these happen, will be capable
of curing them. Besides, as pains, and various other disorders,
attack the internal parts, they believe no person can apply proper
remedies to those parts, which he is ignorant of; and therefore, that
it is necessary to dissect dead bodies, and examine their viscera and
intestines; and that Herophilus and Erasistratus had taken far the
best method for attaining that knowledge, who procured criminals
out of prison, by royal permission, and dissecting them alive,
contemplated, while they were even breathing, the parts, which
nature had before concealed; considering their position, colour,
figure, size, order, hardness, softness, smoothness, and asperity (6);
also the processes and depressions of each, or what is inserted into,
or received by another part; for, say they, when there happens any
inward pain, a person cannot discover the seat of that pain, if he
have not learned where every viscus or intestine is situated; nor can
the part, which suffers, be cured by one, who does not know what
part it is; and that when the viscera happen to be exposed by a
wound, if one is ignorant of the natural colour of each part, he
cannot know what is sound and what corrupted; and for that reason
is not qualified to cure the corrupted parts; besides they maintain,
that external remedies are applied with much more judgment, when
we are acquainted with the situation, figure, and size of the internal
parts; and that the same reasoning holds in all the other instances
above mentioned. And that it is by no means cruel, as most people
represent it, by the tortures of a few guilty, to search after remedies
for the whole innocent race of mankind in all ages.
On the other hand, those, who from experience, stile themselves
empiricks, admit indeed the evident causes as necessary; but affirm
the inquiry after the occult causes and natural actions to be fruitless,
because nature is incomprehensible. And that these things cannot be
comprehended, appears from the controversies among those, who
have treated concerning them, there being no agreement found here
either amongst the philosophers or the physicians themselves: for,
why should one believe Hippocrates rather than Herophilus? or, why
him more than Asclepiades? that if a man inclines to determine his
judgment by reasons assigned, the reasons of each of them seem
not improbable; if by cures, all of them have restored the diseased
to health; and therefore we should not deny credit either to the
arguments or authority of any of them. That even the philosophers
must be allowed to be the greatest physicians, if reasoning could
make them so; whereas it appears, that they have abundance of
words, and very little skill in the art of healing. They say also that
the methods of practice differ according to the nature of places; thus
one method is necessary at Rome, another in Egypt, and another in
Gaul. That if the causes of distempers were the same in all places,
the same remedies ought also to be used every where. That often
too the causes are evident; as for instance in a lippitude (7), or a
wound, and nevertheless the method of cure does not appear from
them: that if the evident cause does not suggest this knowledge,
much less can the other, which is itself obscure. Seeing then this last
is uncertain and incomprehensible, it is much better to seek relief
from things certain and tried; that is, from such remedies as
experience in the method of curing has taught us, as is done in all
other arts; for that neither a husbandman nor a pilot is qualified for
his business by reasoning, but by practice: and that these
disquisitions have no connection with medicine, may be inferred
from this plain fact, that physicians, whose opinions in those matters
have been directly opposite to one another, have notwithstanding
equally restored their patients to health: that their success was to be
ascribed to their having derived their methods of cure, not from the
occult causes, or the natural actions, about which they were divided,
but from experiments, according as they had succeeded in the
course of their practice. That medicine, even in its infancy, was not
deduced from these inquiries, but from experiments: for of the sick,
who had no physicians, some from a keen appetite, had immediately
taken food in the first days of their illness, while others feeling a
nausea, had abstained from it; and that the disorder of those, who
had abstained, was more alleviated; also, some in the paroxysm of a
fever had taken food, others a little before it came on, and others
after its remission; and that it succeeded best with those who had
done it after the removal of the fever: in the same manner some
used a full diet in the beginning of a disease; others were
abstemious; and that those grew worse, who had eaten plentifully.
These and the like instances daily occurring, that diligent men
observed attentively, what method generally answered best, and
afterwards began to prescribe the same to the sick. That this was
the rise of the art of medicine, which by the frequent recovery of
some, and the death of others, distinguishes what is pernicious from
what is salutary; and that when the remedies were found, men
began to discourse about the reasons of them: that medicine was
not invented in consequence of their reasoning, but the theory was
sought for after the discovery of medicine. They ask too, whether
reason prescribes the same as experience, or something different; if
the same, they infer it to be needless, if different, mischievous. That
at first, however, there was a necessity for examining remedies with
the greatest accuracy, but now they are sufficiently ascertained; and
that we neither meet with any new kind of disease, nor want any
new method of cure. That if some unknown distemper should occur,
the physician would not therefore be obliged to have recourse to the
occult things; but he would presently see to what distemper it is
most nearly allied, and make trial of remedies like to those, which
have often been successful in a similar malady, and by the
resemblance between them would find some proper cure. For they
do not affirm, that judgment is not necessary to a physician, and
that an irrational animal is capable of practising this art; but that
those conjectures, which relate to the occult things, are of no use;
because it is no matter what causes, but what removes a distemper:
nor is it of any importance in what manner the distribution is
performed, but what is most easily distributed; whether concoction
fails from this cause or that; or whether it be properly a concoction,
or only a distribution: nor are we to inquire how we breathe, but
what relieves a difficult and slow breathing; nor what is the cause of
motion in the arteries, but what each kind of motion indicates. That
these things are known by experience: that in all disputes of this
kind, a good deal may be said on both sides; and therefore genius
and eloquence obtain the victory in the dispute; but diseases are
cured not by eloquence, but by remedies; so that if a person,
without any eloquence, be well acquainted with those remedies, that
have been discovered by practice, he will be a much greater
physician than one who has cultivated his talent in speaking without
experience. That these things, however, which have been
mentioned, are only idle: but what remains is also cruel, to cut open
the abdomen and præcordia of living men, and make that art, which
presides over the health of mankind, the instrument, not only of
inflicting death, but of doing it in the most horrid manner; especially
if it be considered, that some of those things, which are sought after
with so much barbarity, cannot be known at all, and others may be
known without any cruelty; for that the colour, smoothness,
softness, hardness, and such like, are not the same in a wounded
body, as they were in a sound; and further, because these qualities,
even in bodies that have suffered no external violence, are often
changed by fear, grief, hunger, indigestion, fatigue, and a thousand
other inconsiderable disorders; which makes it much more probable,
that the internal parts, which are far more tender, and never
exposed to the light itself, are changed by the severest wounds and
mangling. And that nothing can be more ridiculous than to imagine
any thing to be the same in a dying man, nay one already dead, as
it is in a living person: for that the abdomen (8) indeed may be
opened (9), while a man breathes; but as soon as the knife has
reached the præcordia (10), and the transverse septum is cut, which
by a kind of membrane divides the upper from the lower parts, (and
by the Greeks is called the Diaphragm [ AC ]) the man immediately
expires; and thus the præcordia, and all the viscera never come into
the view of the butchering physician, till the man is dead; and they
must necessarily appear as those of a dead person, and not as they
were while he lived; and thus the physician gains only the
opportunity of murdering a man cruelly, and not of observing, what
are the appearances of the viscera in a living person: if, however,
there be any thing which can be observed in a person, that yet
breathes, chance often throws it in the way of such as practise the
healing art; for that sometimes a gladiator on the stage, a soldier in
the field, or a traveller beset by robbers, is so wounded, that some
internal part, different in different people, may be exposed to view;
and thus a prudent physician finds their situation, position, order,
figure, and the other particulars he wants to know, not perpetrating
murder, but attempting to give health; and learns that, by
compassion, which others had discovered by horrid cruelty. That for
these reasons it is not necessary to lacerate even dead bodies;
which, though not cruel, yet may be shocking to the sight, since
most things are different in dead bodies; and even the dressing of
wounds shows all that can be discovered in the living.
Since these points have often been, and still continue to be disputed
with great warmth by physicians in large volumes, ’tis proper to add
some reflections, that may seem to come the nearest to the truth,
and which neither slavishly follow either of these opinions, nor are
too remote from both, but lie, as it were, in the middle, betwixt
these opposite extremes; which those, that inquire after truth
without partiality, may find to be the surest method for directing the
judgment in most warm controversies, as well as in this now before
us. For, with regard to the causes of health or diseases, in what
manner the air, or food, is either conveyed or distributed, the
philosophers themselves do not attain to an absolute certainty; they
only make probable conjectures. Now, when there is no certain
knowledge of a thing, a mere opinion about it cannot discover a sure
remedy. And it must be owned, that nothing is of greater use, even
to the rational method of curing, than experience. Altho’ then many
things are taken into the study of arts, which do not, properly
speaking, belong to the arts themselves, yet they may greatly
improve them by quickening the genius of the artist; wherefore the
contemplation of nature, though it cannot make a man a physician,
yet may render him fitter for the practice of medicine. Indeed, it is
very probable, that both Hippocrates and Erasistratus, and all the
others, who were not content with treating fevers and ulcers, but
examined in some measure into the nature of things, tho’ they did
not by such study become physicians, yet became more able
physicians by that means. And medicine itself requires the help of
reason, if not always amongst the occult causes, or the natural
actions, yet often; for it is a conjectural art; and not only conjecture
in many cases, but even experience is found not consistent with its
rules. And sometimes neither fever, nor appetite, nor sleep, follow
their usual antecedents in the regular course. A new distemper
sometimes, though very seldom, appears; that such a case never
happens is manifestly false; for, in our own time, a certain lady, from
a quantity of flesh (11) falling down from her private parts, and
growing dry, expired in a few hours; so that the most celebrated
physicians neither found out the genus of the distemper, nor any
remedy for it. I suppose the reason they forbore to attempt any
thing was, that none of them was willing to run a risk upon his own
conjecture only in a person of her quality, for fear he should be
thought to have killed, if he did not save her; yet it is probable that
some one, without that regard to the opinion of the world, might
have contrived something, which upon trial would have succeeded.
Nor is a similitude always serviceable in this kind of practice; and
where it is, this properly belongs to the rational part, to consider
amidst a number of similar kinds, both of diseases and remedies,
what particular medicine ought to be preferred. When such an
incident occurs, the physician ought to invent something, which
though perhaps it does not always answer, yet most commonly may:
and he shall draw his new method, not from the occult things (for
they are dubious and uncertain) but from those, that can be fully
known, that is, from the evident causes. For it makes a considerable
difference, whether the distemper was occasioned by fatigue, or
thirst, or cold, or heat, or watching, or hunger; or whether it arose
from too much food and wine, or excess of venery. And he ought not
to be ignorant of the constitution of his patient, whether his body be
too moist, or too dry: whether his nerves (12) be strong or weak;
whether he be frequently or seldom ailing; and whether his illnesses
are severe or slight, of long continuance or short; what way of life
he has pursued, laborious or sedentary, luxurious or frugal; for from
these, and such like circumstances, he must often draw a new
method of cure.
Nevertheless even these things ought not to be so passed over, as if
they were uncontroverted; for Erasistratus has affirmed, that
distempers were not occasioned by them, because other people, and
even the same person at different times, would not fall into a fever
upon them. And some of the Methodists of our own age, from the
authority of Themison (as they would have it thought) assert, that
the knowledge of no cause whatever bears the least relation to the
method of cure; and that it is sufficient to observe some general
symptoms of distempers; and that there are three kinds of diseases,
one bound, another loose (13), and the third a mixture of these. For
that sometimes the excretions of sick people are too small,
sometimes too large; and sometimes one particular excretion is
deficient, while another is excessive. That these kinds of distempers
are sometimes acute, and sometimes chronic; sometimes increasing,
sometimes at a stand (14), and sometimes abating. As soon then as it
is known, to which of these classes a distemper belongs if the body
be bound, it must be opened; if it labours under a flux, it must be
restrained; if the distemper be complicated, then the most urgent
malady must be first opposed. And that one kind of treatment is
required in acute, another in inveterate distempers; another, when
diseases are increasing; another, when at a stand; and another,
when inclining to health. That the observation of these things
constitutes the art of medicine, which they define as a certain way of
proceeding, which the Greeks call Method [ AD ], and affirm it to be
employed in considering those things, that are in common to the
same distempers: nor are they willing to have themselves classed
either with the rationalists, or with those, who regard only
experiments; for they dissent from the first sect, in that they will not
allow medicine to consist in forming conjectures about the occult
things; and also from the other in this, that they hold the
observation of experiments to be a very small part of the art.
As to what Erasistratus maintains; in the first place, plain fact
contradicts his opinion; because a distemper very seldom happens,
unless after some of these occurrences, that have been mentioned.
And then it does not follow, that what does not affect one person,
may not hurt another; nor what does not affect the same person at
one time, may not hurt him at another; for there may be some
latent circumstances in a body, either in respect of weakness, or
some disorder, which either are not in another, nor were in the same
body at a different time; and these, though of themselves not
considerable enough to cause a distemper, yet may render a body
more liable to other injuries: but if he had been sufficiently skilled in
the contemplation of the works of nature (which the physicians with
very good reason endeavour to attain) he must have known this
also, that nothing happens from one single cause; but that is to be
taken for the cause, which seems to have contributed most to the
effect. Now it is possible, that what does not move at all while alone,
may in conjunction with other things excite a great commotion.
Besides, Erasistratus himself, who says, that a fever arises from a
transfusion of the blood into the arteries, and that this happens in a
plethoric body, can assign no reason, why of two persons equally
plethoric, the one should fall into a distemper, and the other be free
from all danger, which manifestly happens every day. From hence it
appears, that supposing this transfusion to be real, nevertheless,
when there is a plethora, it does not happen of itself, but when
some one of the conditions above-mentioned goes along with it.
But the followers of Themison, if they assert their maxims to hold
universally, are still more rationalists than those, that pass under
that name; for though one rationalist does not maintain all that
another approves, there is no necessity to invent a new appellation
for him; provided, which is the principal thing, he does not proceed
upon memory alone, but takes in reason too. But if, which is nearer
to the truth, the art of medicine hardly admits of any universal
precepts, then they are in the same class with those, who depend
upon experiments alone: and the more so, because any unskilful
person can discover, whether a distemper has bound up a man, or
rendered him lax. Now if what relaxes a constringed body, or
restrains a loose, be drawn from reason, such a practitioner is a
rational physician: but if from experience, as he must confess, who
will not allow himself to be a rationalist, then he is an empirick. And
so, according to him, the knowledge of the distemper is foreign to
the art, but the remedy lies within the bounds of experience. Nor is
any improvement made by them upon the profession of the
empiricks, but on the contrary, something is taken from it; the
empiricks attending with great circumspection to many
circumstances; whereas these regard only the easiest, and no more
than the common things. For in like manner those, who are
employed in curing cattle, since it is impossible for them to be
informed by the dumb animals, what is peculiar in the case of each,
regard only what is common to them all: and foreign nations, as
they are not acquainted with any subtile theory of medicine, take
notice only of the common symptoms: those also, who take under
their care a great number of patients, because they are not able to
consult the distinct necessities of each with the utmost attention,
have respect only to those generals. Nor indeed were the ancient
physicians ignorant of this method, but they were not content with
it; for even the most ancient writer Hippocrates said, that in practice
it is necessary to regard both the general and peculiar
circumstances. Nor is it possible even for them to confine themselves
within the narrow limits of their own profession; for there are
different kinds both of the bound, and lax disorders; which is more
easily observed in the lax, for it is one thing to vomit blood, another
to vomit bile, and another to vomit the food: and there is also a
difference betwixt labouring under a simple purging, and a
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