Course: CE 401 (Water Resources Engineering)

Hydrological Processes
- Precipitation

Instructor:
Prof. M. J. Reddy
[email protected]

Meteorology
(Meteorology is the science dealing with the atmosphere and its phenomena,
including both weather and climate)

Weather Climate
Variable condition Variable condition averaged
over a smaller time over a period of time

Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time;
climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively longer period of time

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Important Meteorological Variables
• Temperature -Thermometer
-Thermometers
• Atmospheric pressure -Barometer
-Barometer
• Humidity -Hygrometer
-Hygrometer
• Wind speed -Anemometer
-Anemometer
• Sunshine hours -Parheliometer
-Parheliometer
• Radiation -Pyranometer
-Pyranometer
Automatic Weather Station
• Evaporation -Evaporimeter
-Evaporimeter
• Rainfall -Raingauge
-Raingauge

Measurement of Meteorological Variables

Thermometer Raingauge
Barometer Pan evaporimeter
Atm. pressure Rainfall Evaporation
Temperature

Parheliometer
Hygrometer Anemometer
Pyranometers Sunshine hours
humidity

Radiation Wind speed

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 Precipitation

Precipitation is the link between atmosphere and earth

Precipitation
Water vapor
 Fraction of water vapor in atmosphere is very small as
compared to the other gases, but very important for life Equal volume

 Precipitation is derived form of this atmospheric water Dry air

Moist
air
Water content
 Principle sources are evaporation from ocean, sea and increases
water bodies No
evaporation evaporation
 Commonly measured as atmospheric humidity
Pressure increases if all air space are
filled with water vapor
Other measures of atmospheric moisture
- saturated
 absolute humidity, relative humidity, specific humidity,
mixing ratio, dew point temperature - conducive environment for rainfall

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 Amount of precipitable water
• Amount of water contained in a column of atmosphere (h) extending
from earth surface

Let P = precipitable water (normally measured in cm or mm or inches)

where, ρw = absolute humidity,

P = ρw dh h= thickness of column or atmospheric height

If column of atmosphere has varying humidity

P= ρw1dh1 + ρw2dh2 + ……………

Formation of precipitation
Two key processes of precipitation: Coalescence, & Ice crystal process

Coalescence process
 In this process, molecules of water vapour condense on aerosols
suspended in the atmosphere to form water droplets.
 These droplets collide and coalesce into bigger droplets
 As these droplets descend, coalescence continues, the droplets
become sufficiently heavy to overcome the resistance imposed by
upwardly rising air and fall as rain.

This process is crucial in tropical regions

(Tropics: regions of the Earth surrounding the Equator)

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 Formation of precipitation
 Ice Crystal Process (Bergeron process)
 Occurs in cold clouds that form at altitudes
where the air temperature is below the freezing
point of water. In these clouds, water exists in
super-cooled state (i.e., in liquid form)
 Due to the water vapour gradient, water from
the super-cooled droplets evaporates and
deposits on the ice crystals. As a result, the
super-cooled droplets reduce in size whereas
ice crystals grow.
 When the ice crystals gain enough mass, they
begin to fall, to reach the surface either as
snow or rain, depending on temperature
conditions during the fall

Forms of Precipitation
(all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere)

 Rainfall: in the form of water drops of sizes larger

than 0.5 mm (max. 6mm)
• Light rain: trace to 2.5 mm/hr
• Moderate rain: 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/hr
• Heavy rain: > 7.5 mm/hr

 Drizzle: fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of

size < 0.5 mm; & intensity< 1mm/hr

 Snowfall:
• In high hilly areas when atmosphere becomes very
cold, water vapours freeze before condensing into
water and become snow.
Ice crystals combine to form flakes (initial density varies
from 0.06-0.15 g/cm3)

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 Forms of Precipitation contd.,
• Glaze: water drops freeze to form an ice coating

• Sleet: frozen raindrops of transparent grains

(when rain falls through air at subfreezing temp.)

• Hail: showery precipitation in the form of irregular

pellets or lumps of ice of size >8mm.

Other forms: Mist, Fog, Dew.

Weather Systems for Precipitation

• Front: interface between warm and cold air masses

warm air mass

cold air masses

Closer view of Warm and Cold masses

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 Frontal Precipitation
Mechanism
 It mainly results when a mass of warm air
meets a mass of cooler air as in warm front
(or) when a mass of cooler air meets a mass
of warm air as in cold front.
 When these two opposing masses of air meet,
warm air gets lifted up over the cooler air.
 The warm air subsequently cools down, and
results in the formation of clouds, and causes
rain

Types of Precipitation
Based on mechanism of production :

• Convective precipitation
– Rise in packet of warm air (lesser density)
due to localized heating, undergoes cooling
and results in Precipitation

• Orographic precipitation
– Moist air masses lifted up to higher altitudes
due to presence of mountains, undergo
cooling, condensation and precipitation

• Cyclonic precipitation
– It results from lifting of air masses converging
into low-pressure area of cyclone

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Convective Precipitation

Mechanism
- Rise in packet of warm air (lesser density) due to localized heating, undergoes
cooling, condensation and results in Precipitation

Characteristics
− Characterised by high intensity-short duration rain that covers a small area
− The maximum velocity that falling rain can attain is about 30 km/h.
− When large drops falling at this rate, break up into smaller drops, electrical
energy is released as lightning.

Orographic Precipitation
• It is also referred as relief precipitation

Mechanism
– Movement of warm moist air onto a
mountainous land surface
– Causes the air to be mechanically
lifted up the mountain slope, where
it is adiabatically cooled
– Subsequently, it condenses, results in
the formation of cloud and causes rain

Characteristics
• Characterised by medium to high-intensity
rainfall, is stationary, and medium to long
duration
• The precipitation is typically heavier on
the windward side than on the leeward side

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 Thunder storms
• Different from other types of
precipitation due to its electrical nature.
• Thunderstorms occur in association with
a type of cloud known as cumulonimbus
• Develops from vertical air movement
associated with tense surface heating or
orographic effects

Characteristics
• Characterized by the presence of lightning
and its acoustic effect on the Earth's
atmosphere
• Local in nature, but very much productive &
results in intense rainfall
• Significant in local & urban drainage works

Cyclone Precipitation
Cyclone: large low pressure region with
circular wind motion

 Tropical cyclone:
characterized by wind system with intensively
strong depression with MSL pressures ~915mbars
– Called as cyclone in India
– Hurricane in USA
– Typhoon in South-East Asia
INSAT-1D image of a Cyclone in
Orissa coast on Oct 29th 1999
 Extra tropical cyclone:
– outside the tropical zone
– associated with frontal system
– strong counter-clockwise wind circulation in
the northern hemisphere

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 Representation of rainfall, pressure and wind
speed distribution in a cyclone

Characteristics of Precipitation on India

1. South-west monsoon (June-Sept’)
2. Post-monsoon (Oct-Nov)
3. Winter season (Dec-Feb)
4. Pre-monsoon, (March-May)

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1. South-west monsoon (June-September)
‒ The south-west monsoon (monsoon) is the principal rainy season of India
(Over 75% of the annual rainfall occurs in India)

Fig. South-West monsoon

rainfall (cm) over India

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 Characteristics of Precipitation on India
• Transition-I, Post-monsoon (October-November)
‒ Due to formation of low-pressure areas in the Bay of Bengal, a north-easterly
flow of air mass picks up moisture in the Bay of Bengal and strikes at coast of
peninsula (Tamil Nadu) and causes rainfall

• Winter season (December-February)

‒ Western disturbances cause moderate to heavy rain and/or snow (about 25cm)
in the Himalayas, and Jammu & Kashmir
‒ Low pressure areas in the Bay of Bengal cause 10-12 cm of rainfall in
Tamilnadu/Kerala

• Transition-II, Pre-monsoon, (March-May)

‒ There is less rainfall in India in this season
‒ Convective cells cause some thunderstorms mainly in Kerala, West Bengal
and Assam.
‒ Some cyclone activity also occurs dominantly on the east coast of India

Fig. Annual rainfall (cm)

over India

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 Course: CE 401 (Water Resources Engineering)

Precipitation
• Rainfall Measurement and Analysis

Instructor:
Prof. M. J. Reddy
[email protected]

Rainfall Measurement
(depth to which rainfall water would stand on an area if all the rain were collected on it)

Raingauge
– Instrument to measure the rainfall

Types of rain-gauges
– Non-recording Gauges
– Recording Gauges

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 Non-recording Gauge
(Symon’s Gauge)
All units in mm

Nonrecording rain-gauges
• Cylindrical-vessel assembly kept in the
open to collect rain
• It gives the amount of rainfall only,
• It does not give any information about
the intensity or starting and ending time
of a rain event.

Symon’s rain-gauge

Recording Rain-gauges
• Recording rain-gauges provide continuous record of rainfall, helps to
find the intensity of rainfall, starting and ending time of a rain event.

• Recording rain-gauges
– Tipping-Bucket Type

– Weighing Bucket Gauge

– Natural Syphon (or Float Type)

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Tipping-Bucket Type Weighing Bucket Gauge
Natural Syphon

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 Recording Rain-gauges
 Tipping-Bucket Type
– The catch from the funnel falls
into one pair of small buckets.
– These buckets are so balanced
that when 0.25mm of rainfall
collects in one bucket, it tips and
brings the other one in position.
– The tipping actuates an electrically
driven pen to trace a record on a
clock-work driven chart

Recording Rain-gauges
 Weighing Bucket Gauge
− In this raingauge, rainwater from the funnel
empties into a bucket mounted on a
weighing scale.
− The weight of the bucket and its contents are
recorded on a clock-work driven chart.
− It gives a plot of accumulated rainfall against
elapsed time.

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 Recording Rain-gauges
 Natural Syphon (or Float Type) Gauge
− The rainfall collected by a funnel shaped
collector is led into a float chamber causing a
float to rise
− As the float rises, a pen attached to the float
through a lever system records the elevation
of the float on a rotating drum driven by a
clock-work mechanism.
− The syphon mechanism empties the float
chamber when the float has reached a pre-set
maximum level.

− This type of raingauge is adopted by the

Bureau of Indian Standards (IS:5235-1969)

Example
Chart of a recording type rain gauge station
Precipitation in mm

Find: 1. Hourly precipitation

2. Daily precipitation
3. Time when the siphon was operated
4. Period of no precipitation
5. Maximum intensity of precipitation

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 Solution

1. The hourly precipitation as read from the chart will be as follows:

Time 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Cumulative P (mm) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.2 4 4 4 4.9 6 7.4 8.5

Precipitation (mm) 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.7 1.8 0 0 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.1

Time 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cumulative P(mm) 10 10.5 11 12.2 13.5 15 16 16 16 16.5 17.1 17.5 18

Precipitation (mm) 1.5 0.5 0.5 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.0 0 0 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5

2. Total daily precipitation: 10.0 + 8.0 = 18.0 mm.

3. Time when siphon operated: 20 h, i.e. 8 p.m.
4. Time of no precipitation: 13 – 14
14 – 15
2–3
3–4
Total 4 h
5. Maximum intensity: 1.8 mm/h from 12 to 13 h

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 Radar Measurement of Rainfall

• The meteorological radar is the powerful instrument

for measuring the areal extent, location and
movement of rainstorm.

• The radar emits a regular succession of pulse of

electromagnetic radiation in a narrow beam so that
when the raindrops intercept a radar beam, its
intensity can be known by the amount of reflected
(scattered) energy.

Raingauge Network
• The catching area of a rain gauge is very small as compared to
the areal extent of a storm
– To get a representative picture of a storm over a catchment, the
number of rain gauges should be as large as possible.
– But, the economic considerations to a large extent and other
considerations such as topography, accessibility (to some extent)
restrict the number of gauges to be maintained in the catchment
• It is desired to have optimum density of raingauges to get
reasonably accurate information about storms in the area

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 Raingauge Network
• WMO Recommendations
– Flat regions (of Temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical zones)
• Ideal – 1 station for 600-900 km2
• Acceptable – 1 station for 900-3000km2
– Mountainous regions (of Temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical zones)
• Ideal – 1 station for 100-250 km2
• Acceptable – 1 station for 250-1000km2
– Arid and polar zones
• 1 station for 1500-10,000 km2 depending on the feasibility

• IS : 4987-1968 recommendations

– In Plains:
• 1 station per 520 km2

– Regions of avg. elevation 1000m:

• 1 station per 260-390 km2

– Hilly areas with heavy rainfall

• 1 station per 130 km2

Note: It was suggested that 10% of the raingauge stations should be equipped
with self-recording gauges to know the intensities of rainfall.

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 Adequacy of Rain gauge Stations
• Optimal No. of stations

Example
A catchment has six rain gauge stations. In a year, the annual rainfall recorded
by the gauges are as follows:
Station 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rainfall (cm) 82.6 102.9 180.3 110.3 98.8 136.7
For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate the optimum
number of stations in the catchment

Ans: m=6
Average Rainfall

Std.Dev

Coeff. of Var. Cv

Optimum number of rain gauges

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 Course: CE 401 (Water Resources Engineering)

Rainfall Analysis
– Filling Missing Rainfall data
– Testing the consistency
– Mean areal rainfall estimation
– Rainfall Frequency analysis

Instructor:
Prof. M J. Reddy
[email protected]

Preparation of Precipitation Data

Continuity and Consistency
 Estimation of Missing Data
 Arithmetic average method

 Normal ratio method

(used when the variation in rainfall is more than 10%)

where
Pi = ith station precipitation,
Ni = ith station normal precipitation
M = total number of stations
Normal Annual rainfall: average annual precipitation at any station (say 30-yrs data)

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 Example
The normal annual rainfall (cm) in a catchment at four stations is 80.97 (A),
67.59 (B), 76.28(C) and 92.01 (D). The last station (D) was not operated in a
particular year. Find the missing data for station D, if annual rainfall in other
three stations are 91.11 (A), 72.23 (B), and 79.89(C) respectively.

Ans: Rainfall at station D by normal ratio method:

=99.41 cm

Whereas rainfall of station D estimated by arithmetic average method =81.08 cm

Contd…
 Inverse distance method
 Involves computing of weights (Wi) of
the surrounding rain gauges
– The distances (Di) are computed by
establishing a set of axes running
through the missing data station A
Di2= (xi-x0)2+(yi-y0)2

– The weight of the ith station,

– Precipitation at missing station A

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 Example:
Determine the rainfall at station A using inverse method, if
rainfall at neighboring sites are
Station Rainfall Coordinates
i (cm) (Xi, Yi) 1/Di2
1 2.5 (1.2, 0.9) 0.444 0.122
2 3.4 (0.5, 1.1) 0.685 0.189
3 1.5 (0.8, 0.3) 1.370 0.377
4 2.2 (0.5, 1.2) 0.592 0.163
5 2.5 (1.1, 0.8) 0.541 0.149
Σ=3.632

Average rainfall by inverse method is 2.2 cm,

whereas Average rainfall by arithmetic mean method is 2.42 cm

Testing the Consistency of Rainfall Records

 Numerous factors could affect the consistency of the record at a

given station
 damage and replacement of a raingauge
 change in the gauge location or elevation
 growth of high vegetation or construction of a building
 change in measurement procedure, or
 human, mechanical, or electrical error in taking readings

 A method called Double Mass Curve is useful for adjusting

inconsistent data.

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 Double Mass Curve

MC

Ma

Example other
Year Station A station
1985 177 143
1986 144 132 Steps in Double Mass Curve Procedure:
1987 178 146
1. Arrange the data in chronologically
1988 162 147
1989 194 161
descending order (yearwise)
1990 168 155
2. Find cumulative of station A
1991 196 152
1992 144 117 3. Find cumulative of other stations
1993 160 128
1994 196 193 4. Plot the graph. Cum. precipitations of station
1995 141 156 A in Y axis and other station in X axis
1996 158 164
1997 145 155 5. Locate the points and mark the year on it
1998 132 143
1999 95 115 6. Join the points
2000 148 135
2001 142 163
7. Find the point where the line changes its
2002 140 135 slope.
2003 130 143
2004 137 130
8. Adjust the old records, so that they follow the
2005 130 146 current straight line trend.
2006 163 161

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 Precip. Precip. Cum. Prec. of Cum. Prec. Of
Year Station A other stat’n station A other stations
2006 163 161 163 161
2005 130 146 293 307
2004 137 130 430 437 Ma=(3380-1857)
2003 130 143 560 580 (3220- 939)

2002 140 135 700 715 Ma=1.1889

2001 142 163 842 878

2000 148 135 990 1013
1999 95 115 1085 1128
1998 132 143 1217 1271
1997 145 155 1362 1426 Mc=(1857-163)
1996 158 164 1520 1590 (1939-161)
Mc= 0.9527
1995 141 156 1661 1746
1994 196 193 1857 1939
1993 160 128 2017 2067 128.96
1992 144 117 2161 2184 116.06 Pcx =Px *Mc/Ma
1991 196 152 2357 2336 157.98 Pcx =Px (Mc/Ma ) = 160*(0.9527/1.1889)
= 160*0.8013
1990 168 155 2525 2491 135.41 =128.21
1989 194 161 2719 2652 156.36
1988 162 147 2881 2799 130.57
1987 178 146 3059 2945 143.47
1986 144 132 3203 3077 116.06
1985 177 143 3380 3220 142.66

Rainfall Data Presentation

 Rainfall mass curve
– Rainfall mass curve is a plot of accumulated rainfall against elapsed time,
plotted in chronological order.

 Hyetograph
– A hyetograph is a plot of intensity of rainfall against the time interval
– hyetographs derived from the mass curve and presented as a bar chart

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 Rainfall Data
Rainfall mass curve
Example:

Time Cum. Inc. Intensity

(min) Rainfall Rainfall (cm/h)
(cm) (cm)
0 0 - -
5 0.1 0.1 1.2
10 0.2 0.1 1.2
15 0.8 0.6 7.2
20 1.5 0.7 8.4 Hyetograph
25 1.8 0.3 3.6
30 2.0 0.2 2.4
35 2.5 0.5 6.0
40 2.7 0.2 2.4
45 2.9 0.2 2.4
50 3.1 0.2 2.4

Point Rainfall and Areal Precipitation

• Rain-gauge at a station gives point rainfall information
› Hourly
› Daily
› Weekly
› Monthly
› Seasonal
› Annual

• The mean areal precipitation over a catchment can be

estimated by collecting point rainfall information at various
locations in the catchment

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 Mean precipitation over an area
• The mean areal precipitation over a catchment can be estimated
by
– Arithmetical-mean method
– Thiessen polygon method
– Isohyetal method

13.97 mm
22.1 mm

137.2 mm
59.2 mm

48 mm

Arithmetical-Mean Method

= (13.97 + 22.1 + 59.2 + 48.0+ 137.2)/5

= 56.1 mm
Average rainfall = 56.1 mm
13.97 mm
22.1 mm

137.2 mm
59.2 mm

48 mm

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 Thiessen Polygon method
This involves determining the area of influence for each station rather
than assuming a straight-line variation.
13.97 mm
Station A 22.1 mm
Constructing Thiessen Polygons:
Station B
1. Plot stations on a map
2. Connect adjacent stations by
137.2 mm
straight lines Station C Station D
3. Bisect each connecting line
59.2 mm
perpendicularly
4. Perpendicular lines define a 48 mm
Station E
polygon around each station
5. The average rainfall for the Thiessen Polygons
catchment is estimated by

Pi = Rainfall at ith rain-gauge station

Ai = Thiessen polygon area for ith rain-gauge
A = total area of watershed or catchment

Example:

St. No P (mm) Polygon area Weighted Weighted mean

(Ai) area (Ai/A) = Pi (Ai /A)

1 13.97 15 0.128 1.788

2 22.1 33 0.281 9.273

3 59.2 28.8 0.245 14.5

4 137.2 24.3 0.207 28.4

5 48.0 16.4 0.139 6.672

Σ= 117.5 1.00 60.63

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 Isohyetal method
Accurate method of representing the spatial distribution of rainfall in a catchment.

Procedure:
 Locate all rainfall stations on a base map
and enter the rainfall amount.

 Draw isohyets (lines of equal rainfall) by

proportioning the distances bet’n adjacent
gauges according to differences in catch.

 Calculate the mean precipitation for the

area corresponding to each pair of adjacent
isohyets

 Calculate the fraction of catchment area or

under each pair of isohyets, multiply by the
mean precipitation for that area and sum to
get the catchment average precipitation.

Example:

Isohyetal method

Mean Rainfall = 43225/1230 = 35.14 cm

This is generally the most accurate method, but is also the most laborious method

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