1.1 Cockpit Design Read 1

CHAPTER
The Cockpit
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann ‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬
The cockpit may be considered the most vital part of the airplane, fo r in it all
functions of the airplane and its power plant are coordinated and
directed by the pilot and his aides.
All control systems terminate in the cockpit; all operational and navi gational
instruments are located here; all decisions regarding the flight
of the airplane, with the very few exceptions when the airplane is about to
take off and land, are determined here. As the airplane
grows larger, the cockpit assumes even greater importance. At
present it is even more im portant than the captain's bridge of an ocean
liner.
Since the pilot and his aides, such as the co-pilot or the navigational
officer or some other member of the crew, spend their entire time on a
flight in the cockpit, it is absolutely necessary that every means for com
fort, for ease of operation of controls, for co-ordination of instruments, for
vision, and a host of other odds and ends which contribute to the
efficiency and well-being of the crew, be carefully planned and
arranged. Too often an airplane, otherwise satisfactory, cannot overcome the
enormous sales resistance caused by a poorly designed or arranged
cockpit. The pilot may find that he has not been given enough leg
room or enough headroom so that even on moderately short flights,
he is easily tired due to a cramped position. Or, he may find that his
vision forward, sideward, upward, and downward is very poor so that
when he takes off from an airport or wants to land, he must guess instead
of being able to see how or where he is tak ing off or landing.
Another difficulty may be that the instruments are not arranged prop erly: that he
cannot quickly see the instruments which he needs to guide him in the proper
operation of the engines and in the proper execution of his flight
maneuvers.
In some cases minor faults may be corrected to suit the flying personnel but, for
example, if there is insufficient headroom in the cockpit it may
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not be possible to make changes unless the airplane is completely rede signed.
Naturally, the thought arises: Why not standardize the cockpit in its
dimensions, appointments, and general arrangements? In other
words, design a satisfactory cockpit once and for all. Unfortunately it
is not possible to standardize cockpit design wholly until all the parts and
equip ment located in the cockpit have been standardized.
New instruments are designed daily that record or indicate additional data not
measured before. Or, new equipment is designed that will take care of
some additional functions, but which may not wholly replace other
equipment of almost but not quite similar functions. The additions to the
available list of instruments and equipment are necessary in order to
lighten the burdens of the operating personnel, but their placement may
well upset the planned installation of the standardized cockpit. Each new
cockpit, therefore, offers its own problems.
However, there is standardization to some degree and this helps enor
mously in reducing the many problems attendant in cockpit arrangement.
military services are attempting to standardize cockpit designs for certain
types of airplanes.
The description below* is presented to give some idea and understand ing of the
cockpit arrangements and procedures that a pilot or student must follow, for
example, in a jet trainer.
The side-by-side seating arrangement is favored for a trainer for two
reasons:
(1) Student confidence builder. With instructor alongside, student can be more casily
indoctrinated with jet techniques and procedures.
(2) Ease of instruction. Instructor can observe student at all times, be "ahead" of
him in all phases of flight training without having to resort to guesswork.
The general arrangement of instruments and controls are such that, with the
student sitting on left side, the instructor on the right, the navigation and fight
instruments are positioned on student's side, the engine instruments above throttle
pedestal. The radio controls are in front of the instructor, but are within reach of the
student.
Positioned on the left, on student's side, are navigational and flight instruments
including directional and altitude indicators, altimeter, turn and slip, rate of climb and
uirspeed indicators, course indicator (omni), and clock. Engine instruments, set over the
center quadrant, include tachometers, exhaust temperature indicators, fuel flow
indicators, oil pressure gages, loadmeters, accelerometer and fuel quantity indicator. In
front of the instructor, on the right but within reach of student, are radio controls, circuit
breaker and instrument panel, a.c. fuses, plus airspeed and turn and slip indicators and
altimeter.
Controls are easily accessible from either side of cockpit. Stick grips and throttle
quadrants are fighter type. Four throttles are provided, two for each quadrant. Throttle
movement mechanically actuates each engine fuel control by means of push pull rods and
torque tubes.
Lift-type idle detents are included on instructor's quadrant to prevent inadvertent
positioning of either set of throttles from idle to cut-off. There is no de-icing equipment,
* Aviation Week, April 1, 1957, pp. 48-55.
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but an engine ice-warning light, on instrument panel, will illuminate when ice forms over the ice-
detect probe in left engine air inlet duct.
Two automatic press-breathing, diluter-demand oxygen regulators for both
student and instructor are located on lower left and right side of instrument
panel.
The trainer incorporates a simple cockpit check. Airplane can be started on its own battery
or external starter. Six to 10 starts can be made on former. Standard starting procedure is:
Battery and inverter on, fuel pump on, open fuel shut-off valve for left engine, push up on
starter switch and hold at 5% rpm, push up on ignition switch and hold, bring throttle forward
to idle, release starter and ignition switches at 22% rpm Engine will idle at 35%. Same
procedure is used to start right engine.
Power steering is activated by button on stick, and slight rudder pressure steers
air plane neatly and quickly. Nose wheel will steer on free swivel to 50 deg. Large transparent
canopy allows excellent visibility during taxi and flight.
Before take-off there are two safety pins for the student to pull and one for the instruc tor.
One of the pins is for canopy jettison and one for student's ejection seat. The instructor's pin is
for his ejection seat. Before aircraft is entered, ground crew removes a fourth jettison pin
for canopy behind and beyond reach of pilots.
A "hot" mike, geared to the helmet, enables instructor and student to talk-without button
pushing—from time electrical power is turned on until engines are shut down.
SUGGESTED PROCEDURE IN DESIGN

Since the pilot is the most important item in the design of his headquar
ters, the cockpit is planned around him. To obtain a better
conception of his requirements, a celluloid figure with joints
is made to scale to which the cockpit installation is to be drawn.
This jointed figure can then be placed in various postures to see whether
the pilot's seat is far enough up from the floor, that the legs are not
outstretched too far for comfort, and that the control stick or wheel is not too far
ahead so that it is awkward to operate. Of course, slight adjustments are
obtainable in raising or low ering the seat, or in moving it forward or
rearward.
If there is insufficient headroom for the pilot to stand up in the cockpit, then
there should be at least enough room above his head so that he can lean
forward or back, or raise himself up slightly from the seat without fear of
bumping his head.
Once the pilot has been comfortably seated-and it is desirable that his legs make
an angle of not greater than 45 degrees with the floor to assure comfort in
flight-it is necessary to locate the seat so that he may have sufficient vision
in all possible directions, with special attention to for ward, upward, downward,
and sideward vision. When this has been done, the windshield may be located. It
should not be too far forward since the ceiling will come too far ahead of
the pilot and interfere with his line of vision. Likewise, the windshield
should not be curved in more than two directions because distortion of the
scene may result.
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Next, the instruments and equipment must be considered. Instru

mentation is discussed in detail in a subsequent
chapter, but reference to a few required features may well be
made here. All switches and controls which the pilot must operate
should be located as close to him as possible so that it will be
unnecessary for him to stretch. Stretching reduces the pilot's
ability to operate the airplane properly at any time and
especially in an emergency. On the other hand, those instruments
which do not have to be operated manually may be farther
away, but they must be grouped according to functions. The
more important functional group is located in front of him. Others are
slightly out of his prevailing line of direct vision.
When the arrangements for distances and clearances have been settled
above and below the pilot, as well as behind and ahead of
him, some atten tion should be given to "elbow" room. Here again,
he should be given as much room as possible. If there is a co-pilot, the
width should be doubled and an appreciable allowance made for the aisle
between the two. 1 allowances often determine the width of the fuselage
unless the airplane is very large. The result is that designers tend to
skimp on width allowances because the greater the width, the
greater the eventual effect upon the speed performance of the
airplane. However, a difference of 2 or 3 inches will be enormous as far
as the comfort of the pilot is concerned and will hardly affect the speed
characteristics of the airplane.
In new designs it is usually the custom to lay out the pilot's cockpit on
paper, as discussed before, with the aid of additional information given
hereafter, and then to construct a "mockup" which is a full-scale
represen tation of the actual installation in wood, metal, and cardboard
that is nailed, bolted, or screwed together. In the mockup, a man may sit in
the cockpit and test the arrangements before the airplane is
constructed. Changes are made until everything is as satisfactory as
accompanying conditions permit. The final solution is then drawn up and
incorporated into the final design.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS The following

items must be considered in the design and study of ar rangements
for the cockpit:
1. Windshield outline and construction. 2. Angles and field of
vision. 3. Instruments and their location. 4.
Power-plant controls and their location. 5. Pilot's and
co-pilot's seats. 6. Primary control systems. 7.
Brake systems. 8. Hydraulic controls for brakes,
flaps, tabs, etc.
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9. Automatic-pilot equipment. 10. Radio
equipment. 11. Lighting. 12. Heating
and ventilating. 13. De-icing
equipment and controls. 14.
Oxygen equipment. 15.
Accessibility; emergency exits.
The cockpit for an airplane should be constructed to give the maximum
possible comfort, adequate vision, and accessibility to all controls. In
a cabin plane, consideration must be given to headroom, ventilation, and
vision.
The cockpit and primary control units, excluding cables and control rods,
should be so located with respect to the propellers that the pilot or
controls are not in the region between the plane of rotation of any
propeller and the surface generated by a line passing through the
center of the pro peller hub and making an angle of 5 degrees forward or
aft of the plane of rotation of the propeller.
Unless the airplane carries less than five passengers, the pilot or pilots are
located in a compartment separated from the cabin. Entrance to the
cockpit from the cabin is permitted, but passage through the cockpit should
not be considered as an emergency exit for the passengers.
When the pilot is entirely separated from the passengers, suitable means for
communication between the pilot or pilots and the passengers should be
provided.
Oxygen supply or a supercharged cabin should be provided for the crew and the
passengers above 18,000 feet altitude, or when operations are for
more than 15 minutes above an altitude of 14,000 feet.
The arrangement of controls, provision for adequate vision, and seating
arrangements, as well as numerous other problems, are best
solved by con structing a mockup in which every item is
represented.
WINDOWS AND WINDSHIELDS The general requirements

for windows and windshields of the pilot's compartment cover the
following items:
1. Satisfactory forward vision under all conditions. 2. Suitable
protection under all conditions. 3. Windshields should
be easily opened in flight.
4. Windshields should be so arranged that the air stream and snow or rain are
deflected across the opening when the windshields are open.
5. The compartment should be so arranged that glare and reflection are
avoided.
6. Leakage into the compartment during rain or snow should be
avoided.
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IN
FIGURE X-1. Two windshield arrangements for military airplanes. The top windshield
simi lar to that of the Fairchild "Cornell” may be built in sections that slide rearward,
one section telescoping over the other. The bottom wind shield, similar to that of the
North American XF-JI, is an example of the bubble canopy, which has practically no
visual obstructions but may have some optical distortions.
FIGURE X-2. Windshield configurations for large trans port airplane. The top arrange
ment may offer less aerodynamic resistance while the lower may give the better
visibility.
For best vision, the windshield should be placed vertically although this
materially increases aerodynamic resistance. Hence, the rearward-
slop ing windshield which tends to keep the streamline shape of the
fuselage is the best.
It has been proposed that in order to obtain a streamlined fuselage for an
airplane designed for greatest aerodynamic efficiency, the cockpit
could be made to retract into the fuselage just after take-off. This
could be done only with great complication.
For unusually large airplanes, it is possible to locate the pilot's cockpit
in the nose of the fuselage where, due to the enormous size, flat
panes in serted in the surface hardly affect the smooth contour of the
streamlined
body.
Windshields should be so installed that they may be cleaned or opened easily
in flight. Unless the windshields are such that rain, snow, or ice will not
stick to the surface and impede vision, they should be arranged so that the
air stream and snow or rain are deflected across the opening.
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FIGURE X-3. Other possible solutions to the windshield prob lem. These
offer relatively little aerodynamic resistance, but do not offer the highest degree
of visibility to the pilots.
FIGURE X-4. Windshield treatments for high-speed trans port airplanes. A
special, so called retractable, windshield covers the main windshield in the lower
solution. For take off and landing, the outer wind shield is retracted.
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FIGURE X-5. This windshield arrangement provides better visibility for the pilot, but
offers greater aerodynamic resistance than any of the previous solutions
shown.
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FIGURE X-6. A typical nose-treatment for high-speed aircraft. Note the careful
streamlining of the windshield into the fuselage lines. The use of a periscope for
the landing operation has been proposed, with radar serving for the other
situations of visual observation. The nose section can be constructed in the form
of a jettisonable capsule, as indicated by the solid outlines.
FIGURE X-7. A pilot's canopy that hinges at the rear and is held up by a hydraulic
ally-operated center jack. When in place, further engagement is obtained by
means of the three lugs on each side, through which pins are passed. All
connections can be released in time for the ejection of the pilot with his seat.
Hot-air i intake
Cold-air! exhaust
L_L
=====
Air ducts Cab =========== radiator
FIGURE X-8. One way of obtaining ice-free windshields.
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AIRPLANE DESIGN
MANUAL
Windshields fronting on the sides of the cabin may be kept free of

ice by means of a rotary windshield wiper that operates at relatively
high speed. One of the airlines has devised a double windshield,
consisting of 14-inch safety-glass pane in front and a Ys-inch
transparent plastic rear pane with a 14-inch air space separating the
two. Air, heated to 170° F, from the cabin heating system, is forced
through between the panes at a rate of about 60 cubic feet per
minute.
The windshield arrangement should be such as to give minimum interior
reflections and glare which might interfere with the pilot's
vision, particu larly at night.
In a mockup, the windows may be represented by mirrors that show the
parts of the cockpit which may be reflected. By suitable
rearrangement of the windshield, these areas may be avoided or
provision made to reduce the reflection. Glare may be investigated
by means of an outside source of light that can be moved with
respect to the cockpit.
By means of Figure X-9, the thickness of the glass for the windshield may
be determined. The safe pressure or load that may be sustained by
the glass may be calculated approximately by means of the
formula
P = 21,000 t2/AS where P = unit pressure in pounds per

square inch (or square foot)
(assume P = 120V mas in lb/ft?), t = thickness
of glass in inches,
A = area in square inches (or
square feet),
f = safety factor, assumed equal to 10.
Characteristics of Glass
Coefficient of expansion of plate glass between -70° F to +100° F is
approximately 0.00000823 per degree centigrade or
0.00000457 per degree Fahrenheit.
Compression
Tension Modulus
of rup-
ture
36,000 lb per
in.
6,500 lb per in.2.
3,500 lb per in.
Modulus of elasticity 10 X 106
to
11 X 106 lb per in.2 Weight 3.29 lb per ft (94 inch
thickness)
All the windows in the windshield should be made to open quickly, and be
removable, if desired. The glass should not lie too flat. An angle be
tween 0 and 45 degrees between the vertical and plane of the glass
when the airplane is horizontal is recommended. If the glass lies too
flat, dis tortion of vision or undesirable reflections from the sky
above may result.
The thickness of the glass depends upon the type and size of
plane.
In general, nonshatterable glass, at least %6 inch thick should be used.
Anything thinner is subject to accidental breakage or
warping.
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Curves give values for square plate uniformly loaded. Factor of safety=10.
For other mate
rials multiply by a constant. For rectangular shapes, mul tiply
by factor given
below:
Ratio of short Multiply to long side ing factor
1.005
1.02
1.07
dooddoo
2.60
5.00
0.1
Safe load on plate glass in pounds per square inch
for per square foot)
Thickness in inches
Oolon
col
60
0 10 20 30 40 50
Area in square inches for in square
feet) FIGURE X-9. Variation of glass
thickness with size and load.
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Plexiglas is a thermoplastic which may be formed by heat and pressure.

The softening point, about 175° F, is so high that the material does not
lose its rigidity under sun temperatures, yet it is low enough so that the
material may be worked readily without using excessively high
tempera tures.
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AIRPLANE DESIGN
MANUAL
VISION AND VISIBILITY The cockpit in jet-

propelled aircraft can usually be placed well forward in the
fuselage, thus affording pilots a type of visibility during
landing approach that is not possible with propeller-driven aircraft.
Downward visibility of 17° or more over the nose can be obtained,
whereas the other type of airplane permits as little as 3° and seldom
more than 50
Downward visibility is limited by the type of equipment installed ahead of the
pilot.
The pilot at high altitudes, in addition to his other problems, is faced with an
inversion of the normal brightness direction. The sky and the clouds
at or near the earth's surface are normally brighter than the ter rain.
Thus, at high altitude the pilot is covered with a black sky, while the haze
and clouds in the atmosphere below him are extremely bright. Human
beings are designed with eyes recessed under the frontal region of the
skull and with eyebrows superimposed. This is to protect the eyes
from brightness from above; but there is no protection from brightness
coming from below-a distinct handicap for the pilot.
Unobstructed forward vision for the pilot under all conditions is most
desirable. For easy landing, it should be possible to see the wheels at the
moment of contact. It is customary to allow an angle of not less than 5
degrees subtended by the eye below the horizontal to permit adequate
vision forward.
FIGURE X-10. The closer the obstruction to the eye, the greater the angle
subtended for impeding vision.
The twin-engine designs can usually provide for excellent vision forward and
sideways owing to the absence of such obstructions as the engine
cylinders.
A wing with sweepback usually does not permit as good a view of the landing
gear as a wing that does not incorporate a sweepback.
Obstructions such as posts to support the windshield do not offer as much of a
“blind spot” when located relatively far from the pilot's eyes.
Preliminary studies should be made to determine the most desirable
location of such supports as far as vision is concerned.
A larger field of vision is available to the pilot if the windshield or windows are
relatively close to the pilot's face. The type of windshield that slopes
rearward from top to bottom (Figure X-5) does not afford
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FIGURE X-11. Windshield arrange ment for a small cabin, high-wing monoplane,
similar to that used by the Waco “Aristocraft."
FIGURE X-12. Windshield arrangement for a two-seater low-wing monoplane (top) simi lar
to that of the Aeronca “Chum," and for a small flying boat, (bottom) similar to that of
the Republic "Sea Bee.” much vision upward or sideways since the pilot is
required to seat himself
farther back than if the windshield sloped the other way. Canopies
The cleaner aerodynamic lines required at transonic and supersonic speeds,
as well as the difficulty of providing large transparent areas of high-heat-resistant
material may lead to the elimination of canopies. One airplane now being built
incorporates a periscope.
SEATING The pilot should be comfortably seated. His seat should be

adjustable vertically, as well as fore and aft, and angularly. The back of the
seat should not be too high.
The seat should be provided with arms, so designed that the inside arm can be
swung out of the way when getting in or out of the seat.
When two seats in a side-by-side arrangement are provided in the pilot's
compartments, it is desirable to have equal access to the controls and in
struments; where this is not possible, the left-hand seat should be favored. This
is known as the first pilot's seat, and the right-hand one is termed the second pilot's
seat.
When a wheel control is used, the height of the wheel should be such
that
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it will clear the pilot's legs with the seat in its highest position so
that the range of seat adjustment will not be limited.
The average dimensions for a cockpit seating a normal man are presented in
Figure X-13. Since man does not come in a standard size, it is not
-
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40"
|_46" to 50"
ller
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FIGURE X-13. Average cockpit dimensions needed to provide adequate room for
the pilot.
possible to standardize the dimensions of the cockpit. The Aero Medical

Laboratory of the Army Air Forces examined 52 subjects as representative
of some 3000 air cadets and found that they ranged in size from 5 feet 3
inches tall, weighing a minimum of 125 pounds (nude), to 6 feet 3 inches
tall and weighing 205 pounds (nude). For these men, a range of distance from the
centerline of the seat to the rudder pedal bar was 35.5 to 41.5 inches, or a total
variation of 6 inches. This adjustment should be made at the rudder pedal
(preferably in increments of 1 inch) rather than in changing the fore and aft
position of the seat, although a slight adjustment of the seat and a greater
adjustment of the pedal is also a likely solution.
Further, it was found that the seat to eye height, with the pilot inclined 13.5
degrees back, had a range varying from 26.9 inches to 34.0 inches.
There is always a desire on the part of the designer to be conservative on
allowance for dimensions of the cockpit, especially for small
airplanes, since he wishes to obtain as small over-all dimensions as
possible. Yet, greater freedom would be desirable, from the point of view of
the pilot, and it would certainly increase his efficiency. The Aero Medical
Labora
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tory arrived at the following desirable clearances in the

cockpit for the pilot who was clothed with full operational
equipment: above the head, 2.5 inches; across the shoulders, 24
to 26 inches; across the elbows, 26 to
5.2
-16"
24
FIGURE X-14. Average dimensions of a inan 6 feet tall.
taong
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134" 374
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28 inches; across each knee, 6 to 8 inches; and above knees and thighs, 26
inches. For the occupant of the private airplane with an operational
ceil ing below 10,000 feet and with provision of a reasonable
heating system, necessary clothing is not so heavy nor thick
so that the dimensions speci fied in the listing may be reduced in
some cases.
Before cockpit design has progressed to the mockup stage, it is
desir able to construct a two-dimensional reduced scale model of
the supposed pilot. For this purpose, the dimensions of a man
who is 6 feet tall are presented in ligure X-14 as a practical
compromise between the 5-foot 3-inch pilot and the 6-foot 3-inch pilot.
EXITS
If the cockpit is not accessible from the cabin, a separate door should be
provided for the cockpit. It is generally desirable to have an
emergency exit as well. If the windshield is large enough when
opened, it may serve as an emergency exit; otherwise, one
should be provided
When the airplane is not equipped to carry passengers, the pilot's com
partment may be either open or equipped with a hatch of such
size that it can be used for an emergency exit for the crew with
parachutes.
An opening for an emergency exit should be at least 17 X 24 inches when
rectangular in shape, or 24 inches in diameter if circular. Such
openings are generally not large enough, however, for a man
equipped with a parachute, and are usually intended for emergency
exit on the ground.
PROTECTION FOR THE PILOT Without a shoulder

harness to hold the pilot in his seat, severe or fatal injury is probable in
a landing accident as a result of his head striking the instrument
panel. The danger can be avoided by making the space in front of the
occupant free of obstacles for a distance approximately equal to the
length of the torso from the hips to the top of the head, plus seat-belt
elongation. This would necessitate a 31 to 45 inch space clear of any
solid or unyielding protuberances which might injure not only
the head but also other parts of the body.
The pilot's head would be critically injured in a crash against a flat, rigid
surface at an average impact energy of about 600 in./lb. If low density,
energy-absorbing materials are used to pad the crash surfaces, the
head can take impacts five times greater.
In order to lessen or prevent injury, surfaces against which the pilot might hit
his head in a crash should have the following characteristics:
1. They should be flat or have large radii for
curvature;
2. They should be rigid enough to help support the head but should deflect
under contact;
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3. They should be smooth, with no sharp edges to cause local high

pressure intensity;
1. The contact surface should be as large as possible for distributing
contact pressures;
5. Provision should be made for absorbing a relatively large amount of impact
or kinetic energy.
EJECTION EQUIPMENT At low speeds, the
customary method for a pilot to leave an airplane under
emergency conditions is to jump over the side. This method is
reasonably safe for aircraft speeds up to Mach 0.5. Beyond this limit,
various escape methods have been proposed and possible solutions
arc still being investigated.
It has been suggested that between speeds of Mach 0.5 and 1.5, an escape
chute located in the bottom of the fuselage may be suitable. Ejec tion of
the pilot, complete with seat and head and face protection gear, is
another alternative.
From about Mach 1.0 up, a capsule holding the pilot's cockpit would be
detached from the rest of the aircraft structure by pneumatic or
rocket means.
Such problems as aerodynamic heating, stability in descent, and dy
namic loads encountered make the design of suitable ejection
equipment and methods as challenging as the design of the entire
aircraft.
Some appreciation of the difficulties encountered may be gained
when it is considered that from altitudes of 30,000 and above,
tumbling and spinning are serious hazards. Experiments with human
subjects have shown that a spin of 160 rpm for 12 seconds will produce
unconsciousness, and that visual, mental, and physical
disorientation will take place at 90 rpm, or even less. Rotation at 200
rpm for two minutes has proved fatal for animal subjects. Therefore,
means will have to be provided to make any self-contained system
free from tumbling and spinning char acteristics.
It is believed that a streamlined capsule containing all of the cockpit
equipment would have greater mass and better streamlining
than a body in an ejection seat. Thus, it could reduce
deceleration to within human tolerance and give protection
from tumbling, wind blast, extreme temper atures, and lack of
oxygen. At altitudes outside the normal atmosphere, the capsule
would also protect the pilot from such conditions as dynamic heating and
sudden decelerations, which make re-entry into the normal atmosphere
quite dangerous. Furthermore, such a capsule would provide
an artificial environment capable of supporting the pilot for considerable
periods.
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PARACHUTES It is not customary to provide the crew with parachutes

when passen gers are carried. When the airplane does not carry passengers,
pilots should be equipped with parachutes. Figure X-15 shows seating pro
visions to be made for different type parachutes.
of carry passengers, pilots
to
15"
FIGURE X-15. Allowances to be made in seating with various type parachutes.
Composite sketch shows lap and seat type parachutes.
SI-
CONTROLS All controls should be readily accessible. The distance from a

control wheel in its rearmost position to the back of
FIGURE X-16. Suggested configurations for the pilot's control wheel.
Digitized by Google
THE COCKPIT
189
the pilot should be at least 12 inches. The height of the wheel should
clear the pilot's legs with the seat in its highest position.
The maximum movement of the controls should correspond to the
maximum movement of the con
trol surfaces.
In a small airplane, seating 2 to 5 passengers, for example, it
is sometimes customary to
place a passenger alongside the
pilot. In
such a case, the control column or
FIGURE X-17. Control levers are being
stick should not be located between
equipped with handles suggesting the mech- the pilot and passenger
unless the anism each handle operates. (left) Landing "throw-over" type of wheel
con gear retraction. (right) Flap lever.
trol is incorporated. The controls
should be so arranged or constructed that neither the pas
sengers, crew, nor cargo will interfere with the operation of such controls
during the course of flight of the airplane. Further, all controls must
be so located and designed that the pilot or co-pilot will not
bump them when moving in or out of his seat, or in and around the
cockpit. Latest designs of control handles simulate the mechanism
which the handle operates. This makes for faster action by the pilot
and minimizes error in selecting the proper control.
INSTRUMENT BOARD There is no agreement as to the

best arrangement of the instrument board. It is customary to place the
automatic pilot in the top center of the instrument board, with the flight
instruments and power-plant instru ments in front of the pilot. The
controls and switches should be readily accessible, and in case of
pilot and co-pilot arrangements, the engine con trols should be located
between the two.
In a twin-engine airplane there are some 16 controls for the power plant
alone, about 11 flight-control instruments in addition to the flying controls,
landing-gear retraction, lights, heating and ventilating control, radio, and
brakes, as well as flaps and tab controls, for which provision must be
made on the instrument board or in the cockpit.
The instrument board should have sufficient room behind it to provide
easy access even to the largest instrument. It may be made of any
mate rial, although aluminum alloy is commonly used.
In order to take additional factors into account, further reference
should be made to Chapters XI, XVI, and XX, entitled Instruments and Equip
ment, The Power Plant, and Control Systems, respectively.
Digitized by
Google
Original from
UNIVERSITY OF
MICHIGAN
190
SSSSS
---
FIGURE I-18. Side and plan views of controls and instrument
board for prone position
of pilot, which permits smaller
cross section of fuselage for high-speed airplanes.
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CHAPTER

* Aviation Week, April 1, 1957, pp. 48-55.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE IN DESIGN

Next, the instruments and equipment must be considered. Instru

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS The following

WINDOWS AND WINDSHIELDS The general requirements

FIGURE X-8. One way of obtaining ice-free windshields.

Windshields fronting on the sides of the cabin may be kept free of

P = 21,000 t2/AS where P = unit pressure in pounds per

Plexiglas is a thermoplastic which may be formed by heat and pressure.

VISION AND VISIBILITY The cockpit in jet-

SEATING The pilot should be comfortably seated. His seat should be

possible to standardize the dimensions of the cockpit. The Aero Medical

tory arrived at the following desirable clearances in the

FIGURE X-14. Average dimensions of a inan 6 feet tall.

PROTECTION FOR THE PILOT Without a shoulder

3. They should be smooth, with no sharp edges to cause local high

PARACHUTES It is not customary to provide the crew with parachutes

CONTROLS All controls should be readily accessible. The distance from a

FIGURE X-16. Suggested configurations for the pilot's control wheel.

INSTRUMENT BOARD There is no agreement as to the

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