Runoff occurs when rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation water flows over the land surface rather than infiltrating into the soil. There are two types of surface runoff: infiltration excess overland flow and saturation excess overland flow. Subsurface runoff, also called interflow, occurs below the surface more rapidly than base flow but more slowly than surface runoff. The relationship between water level and discharge is established through measurements and used to develop rating curves to convert continuous water level readings into discharge estimates.
Runoff occurs when rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation water flows over the land surface rather than infiltrating into the soil. There are two types of surface runoff: infiltration excess overland flow and saturation excess overland flow. Subsurface runoff, also called interflow, occurs below the surface more rapidly than base flow but more slowly than surface runoff. The relationship between water level and discharge is established through measurements and used to develop rating curves to convert continuous water level readings into discharge estimates.
Runoff occurs when rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation water flows over the land surface rather than infiltrating into the soil. There are two types of surface runoff: infiltration excess overland flow and saturation excess overland flow. Subsurface runoff, also called interflow, occurs below the surface more rapidly than base flow but more slowly than surface runoff. The relationship between water level and discharge is established through measurements and used to develop rating curves to convert continuous water level readings into discharge estimates.
Runoff occurs when rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation water flows over the land surface rather than infiltrating into the soil. There are two types of surface runoff: infiltration excess overland flow and saturation excess overland flow. Subsurface runoff, also called interflow, occurs below the surface more rapidly than base flow but more slowly than surface runoff. The relationship between water level and discharge is established through measurements and used to develop rating curves to convert continuous water level readings into discharge estimates.
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4.
3 Surface and Subsurface Runoff Phenomenon
Runoff is the portion of rainfall, snowmelt and/or irrigation water that runs over the soil surface toward the stream rather than infiltrating into the soil sometimes called surface runoff. Runoff is sometimes used to refer to both surface runoff (overland flow) and subsurface runoff (interflow) Surface Runoff is water from rain, snow melting or other sources that flows over the land surface, and is a major component of the water cycle. There are two types of surface runoff that occur during rainfall or snow melt: The Infiltration excess overland flow and the Saturation excess overland flow.
FABRIGAR, JADEMARK ANTHONY B.
Civil Engineering Student FABRIGAR, JADEMARK ANTHONY B. Civil Engineering Student Subsurface Runoff or the Interflow is the rapid flow toward the stream channel that occurs below the surface. It occurs more rapidly than base flow, but typically more slowly than surface runoff.
ENERGY-TRANSMISSION-STORAGE
Basic slope, Roughness, and Urbanization influences runoff
FABRIGAR, JADEMARK ANTHONY B.
Civil Engineering Student 4.3.1 Rainfall- runoff processes, mechanism cycle, water stage-discharge relationship, measurement and interruption. RAINFALL – RUNOFF PROCESS Runoff Generation Mechanism (a) Infiltration Excess Overland flow or the Horton Overland Flow by Robert Horton (1933) When i<f, all is absorbed. When i>f , (i-f) results in rainfall excess which is applicable in impervious surfaces or the urban areas, steep slopes with thin soil and hydrophobic or compacted soil with low infiltration. (b) Partial Area Infiltration Excess Overland flow by Betson (1964) Pointed out that the area contributing to infiltration excess runoff may only be a small portion of the watershed. This idea has become known as the partial area concept of infiltration excess overland flow. (c) Saturation Excess Overland flow by Hewlett and Hibbert (1967) Overland flow can occur due to surface water input on areas that are already saturated. This is referred to a saturation excess overland flow. Any precipitation occurring over a saturated syrface becomes overland flow. Occurs mainly at the bottom of Hill slopes and near stream banks. (d) Subsurface Storm flow Flow within the soil body may take place under unsaturated conditions, but faster subsurface flow is associated with localized soil saturation. Water stage-discharged relationship The relationship between the amount of water flowing in a river or stream and stage at any particular point is usually known as stage–discharge relationship. Stage–discharge relationships for flow in rivers and channels are established by concurrent measurements of stage (y) and discharge (Q) (through velocity measurements, dilution methods, or other techniques) and the results are fitted graphically or statistically to yield the development of rating curves. The dynamic relationship between stage and discharge, which is unique to a particular selected station along the river, can be determined via mathematical relationships Stream gages continuously measure stage, as stated in the "Measuring Stage"" section. This continuous record of stage is translated to river discharge by applying the stage-discharge relation (also called rating). Stage-discharge relations are developed for stream gages by physically measuring the flow of the river with a mechanical current meter or ADCP at a wide range of stages; for each measurement of discharge there is a corresponding measurement of stage. The USGS makes discharge measurements at
FABRIGAR, JADEMARK ANTHONY B.
Civil Engineering Student most stream gages every 6 to 8 weeks, ensuring that the range of stage and flows at the stream gage are measured regularly. Special effort is made to measure extremely high and low stages and flows because these measurements occur less frequently. The stage-discharge relation depends upon the shape, size, slope, and roughness of the channel at the streamgage and is different for every streamgage.
USGS Stage-Discharge Relation Example.
The continuous record of stage is converted to streamflow by applying a mathematical rating curve. A rating curve (fig. 3) is a graphic representation of the relation between stage and streamflow for a given river or stream. USGS computers use these site-specific rating curves to convert the water-level data into information about the flow of the river. The development of an accurate stage-discharge relation requires numerous discharge measurements at all ranges of stage and streamflow. In addition, these relations must be continually checked against on-going discharge measurements because stream channels are constantly changing. Changes in stream channels are often caused by erosion or deposition of streambed materials, seasonal vegetation growth, debris, or ice. New discharge measurements plotted on an existing stage-discharge relation graph would show this, and the rating could be adjusted to allow the correct discharge to be estimated for the measured stage. Converting stage information to streamflow information Most USGS streamgages transmit stage data by satellite to USGS computers where the stage data are used to estimate streamflow using the developed stage-discharge relation (rating). The stage information is routinely reviewed and checked to ensure that the calculated discharge is accurate. In addition, the USGS has quality-control processes in place to ensure the streamflow information being reported across the country has comparable quality and is obtained and analyzed using consistent methods. Most of the stage and streamflow information produced by the USGS is available online in near real time through the National Water Information System (NWIS) Web. In addition to real-time streamgage data, the NWIS Web site also provides access to daily discharges and annual maximum discharges for the period of record for all active and discontinued streamgages operated by the USGS. 4.3.2 Flood prediction: Graph analysis, unit hydrograph, applications, flood routing techniques channel routing, reservoir routing, equations and numerical solutions. Flood Prediction
FABRIGAR, JADEMARK ANTHONY B.
Civil Engineering Student Flood Prediction Process
Watershed Conditions: Rainfall: Snowmelt:
How will the water move How much and how once it reaches the intense will the rain How much and how ground surface? FABRIGAR, be? fast will itB. JADEMARK ANTHONY melt? Civil Engineering Student Unit Hydrograph: How will the runoff affect the flow overtime? Runoff Processes: How much of the rain and/or snowmelt will turn into runoff? Flood Frequency: How often and how big are floods over the long term?
River Ice: How
does river ice affect the movement of water through the stream channel? Flash flood processes: How do Stream Flow: How does the volume Stage-Discharge relationship: rainfall and land of water change as How will the change in flow use combine to produce a it moves thru the affect stream level at a given flashflood? Hydrograph: stream channel? location? River/Stream Forecast. Predicts discharge overtime. What is the flow of the river downstream or later in time?
4.4 Infiltration and Percolation Process and measurements
Infiltration and Percolation Infiltration and percolation are two related but different processes describing the movement of moisture through soil. Infiltration is defined as the downward entry of water into the soil or rock surface (SSSA, 1975) and percolation is the flow of water through soil and porous or fractured rock. In hydrologic modeling, these two processes are usually modeled separately. Infiltration rate is the rate at which a soil under specified conditions absorbs falling rain, melting snow, or surface water expressed in depth of water per unit time (ASCE, 1985). Percolation rate, although more difficult to measure directly, represents the rate at which soil moisture moves down through the soil or permeable rock. Infiltration rate usually demonstrates a rather rapid decline with time from the beginning of infiltration and reaches a steady state as the soil eventually becomes saturated. At this stage, the infiltration rate would be approximately equal to the percolation rate, which in general is much lower than the initial surface infiltration rate. Therefore, in practice the steady state infiltration rate can be considered as a good representation of the percolation rate when soil texture and characteristics are similar between upper layers of soil where the infiltration rate is measured and lower layers where percolation occurs. If the underlain soil layers are different from upper soil layers, the steady state infiltration rate may vary significantly from the percolation rate. The percolation rate in a karst terrain usually has high spatial variability both horizontally and vertically; therefore, the steady state infiltration rate is often unable to accurately represent the rate of percolation in such terrain. Estimation of the Percolation Rate The infiltration rate can be estimated from field tests. The Double Ring Infiltrometer test is the most commonly used method. Other field testing methods approved by responsible Federal and State agencies
FABRIGAR, JADEMARK ANTHONY B.
Civil Engineering Student or Water Management Districts are also acceptable. Laboratory determinations are usually not sufficient because even an undisturbed soil core may provide highly variable rates. Losses for NFIP Studies Lysimeters, a commonly used field method, may be used to determine percolation rates as they provide direct and accurate measurement. Other field methods approved by responsible Federal and State agencies or Water Management Districts where the site is located are also acceptable. To reflect uncertainties associated with the soil, water, measurement methods, and circumstances of infiltration and percolation, values as measured by the above methods should be multiplied by an appropriate factor of safety to determine the design infiltration and percolation rates. A safety factor for the project site/region established by Federal and State agencies or Water Management District is generally acceptable; otherwise, a safety factor should be determined by a Professional Geotechnical Engineer, Certified Professional Soil Scientist, or Certified Hydrologist with groundwater experience to account for the above factors. Copies of the field test report, the calculations used to obtain the designed infiltration and/or percolation rate, and safety factor must be submitted to FEMA. All copies must be certified by a Professional Geotechnical Engineer, Certified Professional Soil Scientist, or Certified Hydrologist with relevant experience who performed or directly supervised the field tests and calculations. Impact of Percolation While infiltration is important in estimating flood peaks and volumes for all watersheds, percolation has significant impact on watersheds with very sandy soil or karst terrains. Simulate Infiltration and Percolation Losses in Hydrologic Modeling Infiltration and percolation are components of hydrologic cycle and are affected by other components. For example, for areas with a high groundwater table, the total amount of infiltration and percolation would be rather low even though the soil matrix is capable of higher infiltration and percolation rates. A hydrologic model used for simulating infiltration and percolation losses must account for all the flows entering, moving within, and leaving the system, as well as storage changes within the system. Inflow may constitute infiltration resulting from rainfall and, if applicable, interflow. Outflow may constitute evaporation, transpiration, percolation and/or deep percolation, and groundwater outflow. The system may be modeled as multiple layers of soil extending from the ground surface to the permanent groundwater table. The model must perform mass balance calculations to assure that all water movements are accounted for and storage changes within the systems reflect the differences between inflow and outflow. It must also show any change in groundwater table elevation that occurred during the simulation process and its impact on percolation. It is not acceptable to simply model the percolation as the amount of water disappearing from the system. If a perched groundwater table. Losses for NFIP Studies exists at or near an impermeable layer, it must be reflected in the model setup or parameter determination. A good example of such a model is the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC- HMS program, which includes a soil moisture accounting (SMA) model. The SMA model divides the soil into several layers based on the soil moisture content and dominant hydrologic processes. For example, infiltration and evaporation processes are modeled in the upper unsaturated layer of soil, whereas percolation in the lower layer occurs under mostly saturated conditions. Layers can also be modeled as different nodes in a nodal system model. Because of inherent uncertainties and variability associated with the determination of various model input parameters, the determined model parameters must be refined by calibration with observed data. The calibration process and the source of observed data must be documented. Detailed guidance for calibrating model parameters is provided in the Technical Reference Manual of HEC-HMS. Percolation is a relatively slow process compared to surface runoff. An event- based model, typically simulating surface runoff hydrographs for a rainfall duration of 24 hours or shorter, is usually not sufficient to reflect the impact of percolation, especially changes of groundwater
FABRIGAR, JADEMARK ANTHONY B.
Civil Engineering Student level. To fully simulate the impacts of percolation, the simulation period should be determined by physical conditions such as the watershed size and soil characteristics. It must be at least 48 hours longer than the surface runoff hydrograph associated with the design rainfall event. Special Considerations Some special considerations that are relevant are discussed below, including: coastal areas, karst terrain, and lakes and ponds. Watersheds in Coastal Areas For watersheds located in areas where the groundwater table is likely to be influenced by coastal factors, the hydrologic model must consider the worst case scenario of the highest groundwater table that may occur as a result of the interaction between ground and coastal waters. Watersheds with Karst Terrain Karst terrain is characterized by a wide range of closed depressions, well developed underground drainages, and a paucity of surface streams. Water movement in karst terrain is especially unpredictable. Karst terrain can also have true underground streams with high rates of flow (USGS 1998). It is not unusual for surface streams to disappear into rock openings and reappear at the surface, often as a spring, at locations beyond the watershed boundary defined by surface topography. Large amounts of rainfall could become “lost” to such underground drainages. Modeling work that involves the simulation of infiltration and percolation losses in karst terrain must be performed by or under the direct supervision of a professional hydrogeologist. Relevant hydrologic and hydrogeologic reports and studies performed by Federal, State, or local agencies in the area should be reviewed and, if applicable, incorporated into the modeling framework. In addition to modeling all inflow and outflow from the system and performing mass balance calculations, the flow pathways, sources, and sinks must be clearly described and supported by adequate documentation/technical evidence. Model parameters must be refined by calibration with observed data. Step-by-step documentation of the calibration process and the source of observed data must be provided. Lakes and Ponds Percolation rates for natural lakes and man-made ponds that are not designed for specific percolation rates decrease significantly over time due to the build up of layers of organic muck caused by sediment deposition and other physical, chemical, and biological processes, such as the growth and decomposition of nuisance plants. Percolation rates at the bottom of such a lake or pond may be different from that of their floodplains. Therefore, each lake, pond, or depression area for which percolation loss is accounted during the Base Flood Elevation determination process must be carefully evaluated by a competent professional to ensure that the percolation rate used in the simulation will be representative of the longterm percolation rate.
